STRUCTURE OF FUNGI

By
Dr. V.SUGANTHI
Department of Microbiology
Sri Sankara Arts and Science College
CONTENT
❑ Introduction of fungi
❑ General characteristics of fungi
❖ Occurance
❖ Thallus organisation
❖ Different forms of mycellium
❖ Cell structure
❖ Nutrition
❖ Heterothallism and Homothallism
❖ Reproduction
❑ Classification of fungi
❖ Classification based on taxonomy hierarchy
❖ Classification based on spore Production
❖ Classification of medically important fungi
❖ Classification based on route of acquisition
❖ Classification based on virulence
WHAT IS FUNGI ????
❖ Fungi is the plural of word fungus which is derived from the
latin word fungour.

❖ Fungi are achlorophyllas, heterotrophic

eukaryotic thallophytes.

❖ According to Alexopoulos (1962), the fungi include

nucleated spore bearing achlorophyllas organisms that
generally reproduce sexually and whose filamentous
branched somatic struture are typically surrounded by cell
wall containing cellulose or chitin or both.

❖ According to Bessey (1968), fungi are chlorophyll less non

vascular plants whose reproductive or vegetative structure do
not permit them to be assigned to position among
recognized group of higher plants.

❖ The branch of botany that deals with the fungi is called

mycology and the scientist who is concern with the fungi is
called a mycologist.

❖ P. A. Micheli known as father of mycology whereas E. J.

Butler refer to as father of Indian mycology.

❖ Fungi are non-green in color with the capacity to live in all

kinds of environments.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
❖ Some of the most important characters of fungi are as follows: 1. Occurrence 2. Thallus
organization 3. Different forms of mycelium 4. Cell structure 5. Nutrition 6. Heterothallism and
Homothallism 7. Reproduction.

❑ OCCURRENCE:
❖ Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water soil and on
plants and animals.

❖ They prefer to grow in warm and humid places. Hence, we

keep food in the refrigerator to prevent bacterial and
fungal infestation.

❑ THALLUS ORGANIZATION:
❖ Except some unicellular forms (e.g. yeasts, Synchytrium),
the fungal body is a thallus called mycelium.

❖ The mycelium is an interwoven mass of thread-like

hyphae (Sing, hypha). Hyphae may be septate (with cross
wall) and aseptate (without cross wall). Some fungi are
dimorphic that found as both unicellular and mycelial
forms e.g. Candida albicans.

❖ The thallus may be two types: Unicellular and filamentous.

▪ Unicellular thallus: In some of the lower fungi, thallus is more or less a spherical, single celled
structure. At the time of reproduction it becomes a reproductive unit. Such fungi are called
holocarpic. In the unicellular holocarpic forms, the mycelium is absent e.g. Synchytrium. Some
holocarpic fungi (e.g., yeast) producing bud cells in succession and these remain attached to one
another in a chain. Such a chain of bud cells is referred to as pseudomycelium.

▪ Filamentous thallus: In most true fungi, the thallus is filamentous composed of Hyphae.
Loosely aggregated hyphae are collectively forms a network known as mycelium. Each hypha may
vary in shapes and sizes. Branching of hyphae is dichotomous. On the basis of presence or absence
of septa the hyphae of mycelical fungi are of two types:

✓Nonseptate or aseptate hyphae: Mycelium contains numerous nuclei,lying in a common mass

of cytoplasm, without cross wall in the hyphae, E.g., oomycetes and zygomycetes. Such a condition
is known as coenocytic. However, septa may be laid down at the time of formation of reproductive
organs to delimit them from the rest of the vegetative hyphae, therefore called Pseudosepta. E.g.,
Allomyces.

✓Septate Hyphae: Hyphae are septate and hyphal segments may contain one, two or more nuclei.
E.g., Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina, and Deuteromycotina. There are two types of septa:

• Primary septa: Primary septa are formed in association with mitotic or meiotic nuclear division,
and they separate the daughter nuclei. These types of septa are found in Ascomycotina,
Basidiomycotina and their asexual states.

• Adventitious septa: Adventitious septa are formed in the absence of mitosis or meiosis and occur
especially in association with change in the local concentration of cytoplasm. These are found in
lower groups of fungi as mastigomycotina and zygomycotina.
❑ DIFFERENT FORMS OF MYCELLIUM
❖ Different forms of mycelium refer to as the various shapes
and the functions of mycelium which modified according
to the circumstances. These includes the following forms:

a. Plectenchyma (fungal tissue): In a fungal mycelium,

hyphae organized loosely or compactly woven to form a
tissue called plectenchyma. It is two types:

✓ Prosenchyma or Prosoplectenchyma: In these fungal Prosenchyma and Pseudoparenchyma

tissue hyphae are loosely interwoven lying more or less
parallel to each other.

✓ Pseudoparenchyma or paraplectenchyma: In these

fungal tissue hyphae are compactly interwoven looking
like a parenchyma in cross-section.

b. Sclerotia (Gr. Skleros=haid): These are hard dormant

bodies consist of compact hyphae protected by external Sclerotia
thickened hyphae. Each Sclerotium germinates into a
mycelium, on return of favourable condition, e.g.,
Penicillium.

c. Rhizomorphs: They are root-like compactly interwoven

hyphae with distinct growing tip. They help in absorption
and perennation (to tide over the unfavourable periods),
e.g., Armillaria mellea. Rhizomorphs
d. Rhizoids: A rhizoid is a short, root like filamentous
branch of the thallus, generally formed in tufts at the base
of the thallus. These also function as anchoring and
absorbing, e.g., Rhizophydium, Rhizopus.

e. Appressoria (Sing. appressorium): It is a terminal

simple or lobed swollen mucilaginous structure of Rhizoids
infecting hyphae which adheres to the surface of the host
or other substratum and helps in the penetration of the
infection hyphae. These are formed by some parasitic
fungi such as powdery mildews and rust

f. Haustoria (Sing. haustorium): A haustorium is an organ

that is developed from a hypha usually performing the Appressoria
function of absorption. They are characteristic of obligate
parasites. They vary in shape and may be knob like or
button shaped, elongated, finger-like or branched. They
secrete some specific enzymes which hydrolyse the
protein and carbohydrates of the host plant.

g. Hyphal traps (Snares): The predacious fungi develop Hostorium

sticky hyphae or network of hyphal loops known as
hyphal traps or Snares. They help in capturing
nematodes.

h. Stromata: These are compact somatic structures much

like mattresses. Fructifications are generally formed on or
in them. Hyphal traps
❑ CELL STRUCTURE Cell Wall Taxonomic Group Representative
Category Genera
❖ Fungi are the eukaryotic organisms. Cellulose- Acrasiomycetes Polysphondylium,
Glycogen Dictyostelium
❖ The cell wall determines the characteristic Cellulose- Oomycetes Phytophthora,
shape of a cell. It protects the cell from β-Glucan Pythium
osmotic lysis and also acts as a binding site for Cellulose– Hyphochytridiom Rhizidiomyces
some enzymes. Chitin ycetes
Chitin– Zygomycets Mucor, Phycomyces
❖ The chemical composition of the cell wall is Chitosan
not the same in all fungi. Chitin is Chitin-β- Chytridiomycetes Allomyces
characteristically present in the cell walls of Glucan Ascomycetes Neurospora
most fungi. The chitin in fungal cell wall is not Deuteromycetes Aspergilllus
strictly identical with animal chitin, and the Basidiomycetes Fomes, Polyporus
formula (C22H54N4O21)n has been suggested for Mannan-β- Ascomycetes Saccharomyces,
the fungal chitin: It is a polymer of N- Glucan Candida
acetylglucosamine.

❖ The cytoplasm at hyphal tip contains Golgi

vesicles called chitosomes which filled with
cell wall materials.

❖ Nucleus and mitochondria are found to

connect with ER. Nucleus divides by
intracellular mitosis called karyochoresis
where nuclear envelop remain intact during
nuclear division and internal spindle develop.
Reserve food is glycogen and oil.
❑ NUTRITION
❖ The fungi lack chlorophyll. Therefore, they cannot
synthesiz their own food. Depending on from where
and how they get nutrition, fungi are of following
types:

a. Saprotrophs: They obtain food from dead and

decaying organic matter. They secrete digesting
Saprotrophs
enzymes to outside which digest the substratum and
then absorb nutrients, e.g., Mucor, Agarious,
Rhizopus etc.

b. Parasitic: They obtain food from living organisms.

They may be facultative or obligate. Facultative
parasites grow on a variety of tissues e.g., Ustilago.
The obiigate- parasites growonly upon suitable host,
e.g., downy mildews. The parasitic fungi that grow
Parasitic fungi on ladybug
on surface of host cells and absorb food through
haustoria are called ectoparasites or ectophytic
parasites (e.g., Mucor, Erisphae). When parasitic
fungi grow inside the host tissue are called
endoparasites or endophytic parasites (e.g.,
Pythium, Puccinia).

c. Predacious: Some soil fungi develop ring-like noses

to trap annelids, nematodes etc. e.g., Arthrobotrys,
Zoophagus, Dactylella etc. Predacious fungi trap nematode
d. Symbiotic: They live in mutualistic relationship with another organism by which both are
benefited. The two common examples are lichens and mycorrhiza.

❖ Lichens are symbiotic associations between fungi and algae. The fungal partner is a member of
ascomycetes or basidiomycetes that provides water and nutrients, while the algal partner is a
green alga or cyanobacteria that prepares food by photosynthesis.

e. Mycorrhizas: or mycorrhizae are the mutualistic symbiotic associations between soil fungi and
the roots of most plant species. According to the carbohydrate theory (Bjorkman, 1949), the
plants that grow in soils deficient in P and N, and high intensity light develop mycorrhizas.

❖ The two most common types of mycorrhizas are the ectomycorrhizas (ECM) and the
endomycorrhizas (also known as arbuscular mycorrhiza). The two groups are differentiated by
the fact that the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not penetrate the cell wall of the plant’s root
cells, while the hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi penetrate the cell wall.

A B C D

(A) Lichen with (B) internal structure Plant showing (C) with and (D) without mycorrhizae
❑ HETEROTHALLISM AND HOMOTHALLISM

❖ A. F. Blakeslee (1904) discovered mating types or

genetically distinct strains in Mucor.

❖ He called fungi with different mating types are called

heterothallic and fungi without mating types are
called homothallic.

❖ Nowadays we call some fungi and algae homothallic if

both male and female gametes produce in the same
individual can fertilize each other and heterothallic if
the gametes can only be fertilized by gametes from
another individual of the same species.
Heterothallism introduces variations in the species.

❑ REPRODUCTION

❖ In fungi reproduction may take place by three

methods; vegetative, asexual and sexual.

❖ During asexual and sexual reproduction processes

spores are the essential structures. The spores formed
after meiosis are called meiospores (e.g., ascospores,
basidiospores and sporangiospores) and those
resulting from mitosis, called mitospores (e.g.,
mitospores, zoospores, aplanospores, conidia,
uredospores).
❖ The diploid body produced as a result of sexual fusion
is known as zygote which in lower fungi is termed as
resting spore, oospore or zygospore.

❖ In higher fungi, the zygote is represented by a diploid

nucleus produced in a cell (ascus or basidium). This
diploid nucleus after undergoing meiosis results in
the formation of haploid nuclei serving as centres for
haploid sexual spores called ascospores and
basidiospores.
Fragmentation
➢ Vegetative reproduction: In this type of
reproduction, a part of mycelium separate and forms
a new individual. The various methods of vegetative
reproduction are:

a. Fragmentation: The hyphae break into small

fragments. Each piece upon getting suitable
conditions, germinates to form a new mycelium.

b. Fission: This method involves the splitting of cells

into two daughter cells by the formation of a
constriction followed by a cell wall formation.

c. Budding: A small bud formed from the parent cell

which gradually increases in size and receives a part
of nucleus. A cell wall is formed which separates the
daughter cell from the parent cell.
d. Sclerotia: These are perennating bodies formed by
the compact masses of interwoven hyphae. Sclerotia
under suitable conditions germinate to form new
individuals e.g. Claviceps, Sclerotinia.
Sclerotia
e. Rhizomorphs: These are root-like elongated
mycelial strands. They remain dormant under
unfavourable conditions and under favourable
conditions develop into a new mycelium.

➢ Asexual reproduction: It commonly take place

through spores, either motile or non-motile and Rhizomorph
form in a specialized part of mycelium. The various
types of spores are:

a. Zoospores: These are commonly found in lower

fungi e.g., Saprolegnia, Pythium etc. They are naked
spores, which after swarming, encyst, secrete a cell
wall and germinate by germ tube into a thallus. They Zoospores
are equipped with one or two f lagella

b. Sporangiospore: The sporangiospores or

aplanospores are nonmotile and lack flagella and are
formed inside the sporangium e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus.
These spores may by uninucleate or multinucleate
and possess two-layered cell wall. Sporangiospores
c. Conidia: They are produced externally on branched
or unbranched hyphal tips termed as conidiophores.
The conidia may be formed singly or in chains. The
conidial chains may be basipetal or acropetal in
succession. Conidia may be uninucleate or
multinucleate. The latter type is more common in
the members of the form class Deuteromycetes.

d. Oidia: They are produced by fragmentation of Conidia

hyphae from apex to base. Each cell thus formed
rounds off and separates as a spore which under
favourable circumstances germinates and forms the
Oidia
mycelium.

e. Chlamydospores: They are formed by rounding off

and enlargement of terminal or intercalary cells of a
hypha. These can be single or formed in chains. They Chlamydospores
do not separate from the hyphae but remain viable
and germinate under favourable conditions.

f. Ascospores: An ascospore are produced inside an

ascus during the optimal condition. This kind of
spore is specific to fungi classified as ascomycetes.

g. Uredospores: A thin-walled, red, summer spore of

a rust fungus, produced usually on the leaves or
stems of grasses. Ascospores
h. Basidiospores: These spore produced by
Basidiomycete fungi. They typically each contain
one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis,
and they are produced by specialized fungal cells
called basidia.

➢ Sexual reproduction: It involves the formation and

fusion of gametes. Sexual reproduction found in all
groups of fungi except deuteromycetes or fungi
imperfecti. Sexual reproduction has three distinct
phases i.e. plasmogamy (protoplasmic fusion),
karyogamy (fusion of nuclei) and meiosis (reduction
division of zygote). The various methods of sexual
reproduction in fungi are as follows:

a. Planogametic copulation: This is simplest type of

sexual reproduction. In this process fusion of two
gametes of opposite sex or strains takes place where
one or both of the fusing gametes are motile
(flagellated). It results in the formation of a diploid
zygote. This process is usually of these types:

✓ Isogamy: In this process fusing gametes are

morphologically similar and motile but
physiologically dissimilar. These gametes are
produced by different parents, e.g. Synchytrium.
✓ Heterogamy: When the fusing gametes are
morphologically as well as physiologically
different, the process is known as
heterogamy. Heterogamous reproduction is
of two types: anisogamy and oogamy.
Anisogamy consists of the fusion of two
motile gametes where the male gamete is
small and more active than the female
gamete, e.g., Allomyces. In oogamy the
motile male gamete (antherozooid) fuses
with the large, non-motile female gamete
(egg or ovum) e.g., Synchytrium etc.

b. Gametangial contact: In this process two

gametangia of opposite sex come in contact
with one another. The male gametangium
(antheridium) transfer male nucleus or
gamete into the female gametangium
(oogonium) either through a pore at the
point of contact or through a fertilization
tube, e.g., Phytophthora, Albugo, Pythium
etc.

c. Gametangial copulation: In involves the

fusion of entire contents of two gametangia
to form a common cell called zygote or
zygospore, e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus.
d. Spermatization: Some fungi produce many minute, spore-like, single-celled structures called
spermatia (nonmotile gametes). These structures are transferred through agencies like water,
wind and insects to either special receptive hyphae or trichogyne of ascogonium. The contents
migrate into receptive structure. Thus dikaryotic condition is established, e.g. Puccinia.

e. Somatogamy: This takes place in fungi where formation of gametes is absent. In such fungi,
anastomoses takes place between hyphae and their somatic cells fuse to produce dikaryotic cells,
e.g, Agaricus, Peniophora etc.

Sexual reproduction in fungi: (A) Gametangia contact, (B-C-D) Planogametic copulation,

(E-F-G) Spermatization, (H) Gmaetangia copulation, (I) Somatogamy
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
❖ The classification of fungi is designed mainly for practical application but it also bears some
relation to phylogenetic considerations.

❖ The division of mycota, or fungi and moulds, includes the true slime moulds (Myxomycetes), the
lower fungi (Phycomycetes), and the higher fungi (Eumycetes).

❖ The fungi can be classified according to the various parameters including;

o Classification based on taxonomy hierarchy

o Classification based on spore Production
o Classification of medically important fungi
o Classification based on route of acquisition
o Classification based on virulence

o Classification based on taxonomy hierarchy:

❖ Alexopolous and Mims proposed fungal classification in 1979. They place the fungi including the
slime molds in the kingdom mycetae of the super kingdom Eukaryota which, in addition, includes
four other kingdoms. They divide the kingdom mycetae into three divisions namely:
❑ Gymnomycota
❑ Mastigomycota
❑ Amastigomycota
❖ The division is subdivided into subdivision, classes, sub-classes, and orders.
❑ Division I: Gymnomycota: It includes phagotrophic organism devoid of cell walls. This
division comprises two subdivisions; Acrasiogymnomycotina and Plasmodiogynomycotina.
1. Subdivision : Acrasiogymnomycotina: It includes a single class Acrasiomycetes.
Class 1. Acrasiomycetes : Lacks flagellated cells except for one species. The class comprises:
Sub class 1. Acrasiomycetidae
Sub class 2. Dictyosteliomycetidae
2. Subdivision: Plasmodiogymnomycotina: It is divided into two classes:
Class 1. Protosteliomycetes
Class 2. Mycomycetes: It includes the true slime mold and comprises three sub class namely:
Sub class 1. Ceratiomyxomycomycetidae, 1 Order : Ceratiomyxales
Sub class 2. Mycogasteomycetidae, 4 Orders: Liceales, Echinosteleales, Trichlales, Physarales
Sub class 3. Stemonitomycetidae, 1 Order: Stemonitales
❑ Division II: Mastigomycota: Includes fungi with absorptive nutrition, unicellular or
filamentous, mycelium coenocytic. It comprises two sub divisions:
1. Sub division: Haplomastigomycotina: Includes fungi with uni-or, bi-flagellate zoospores.
Class 1. Chytridiomycetes– Fungi producing zoospores furnished with a single whiplash
flagellum inserted at the posterior end.
Class 2. Hyphochytridiomycetes- Motile cells with a single tinsel flagellum inserted at the
anterior end.
Class 3. Plasmodiophoromycetes- Parasitic fungi producing biflagellate motile cells with
both the flagella of whiplash type inserted at the anterior end.
2. Sub division: Diplomastigomycotima: Sexual reproduction ooagamous, zoospores
biflagellate.
Class 1. Oomycetes, 4 Orders: Lagenidiales, Saprolegnailes, Leptomitales, Peronosporales
❑ Division III: Amastigomycota: Fungi with absorptive nutrition, motile cells lacking,
mycelium aseptate or septate. This includes four sub divisions:
1. Sub division: Zygomycotina
Class 1. Zygomycetes – it includes six orders.,
Class 2. Trichomycetes – it comprises five orders.
2. Sub division: Ascomycotina: Fungi usually with a septate mycelium producing haploid
ascospores in sac like cells called asci.
Class 1. Ascomycetes: Divided into five sub classes:
Sub class 1. Hemiascomycetidae- comprising three orders.
Sub class 2. Plectomycetidae- Five orders
Sub class 3. Hymenoascomycetidae – Ten orders
Sub class 4. Laboulbeniomycetidae – Two orders
Sub class 5. Lowloascomycetidae – five orders
3. Sub division 3: Basidiomycotina: Septate mycelium, produces basidiospores, exogenously on
various types of basidia.
Class 1. Basidiomycetes: it is split into 3 sub clases:
Sub class 1. Holobasidiomycetidae
Sub class 2. Phragmobasidiomycetidae
Sub class 3. Teliomycetidae
4. Sub division: Deuteromycotina: It includes imperfect fungi in which sexual stage is
unknown. It comprises a single class.
Class 1. Deuteromycetes
Sub class 1. Blastomycetidae
Sub class 2. Coelomycetidae
Sub class 3.Hyphomycetidae
❖ Martin (1965) proposed a classification according to the spore formation in fungi. The outline of
classification is given;

Division mycota: These include non green, nucleated thallophytes which are saprophytes or parasite in nutrition.
Subdivision Myxomycotine: Thallus is achlorophyllus, multinucleated mass of protoplasm called plasmodium, e.g., slime molds.
Subdivision Eumycotina: All the fungi except the slime molds are included in this subdivision.
Lower fungi: They have simple thallus which are unicellularand others filamentous (mycelium), usually septa is not present.
Class Chytridiomycetes: Motile cells have a single flagellum of whiplash type inserted at the posterior end.
Class Hyphochytridiomycetes: Motile cell spossesses a single flagellum of tinsel type inserted at the anterior end.
Class Plasmodiophoromycetes: Motile cells are biflagellated (whiplash type), but one is longer than the other one.
Class Oomyceters: Motile cells are biflagellated, nearly equal length, one of these points forwards and the other trails behind.
Class Zygomycetes: Motile cells are absent. Asexual reproduction take place by sporangiospores.
Class Trichomycetes: Motile cells are lacking. Asexual reproduction take place by conidia.
Higher fungi: The somatic phase consists mostly of a mycelium which is usually septate.
Class Ascomycetes: The characteristic spores called ascospores are produced endogenous within sac like structure called asci.
Class Basidiomycetes: Characteristic spores called basidospores are produced exogenous on club shaped structure called basidia.
Class Deuteromycetes: Sexual stage is unknown. The somatic phase consist a septate mycelium which multiply by conidia.
❖ A more natural system of classification of fungi was proposed by Ainsworth (1973) which has
been accepted by many mycologist today like Webster (1980), Bilgrami (1985 and Dube (1987).
o Classification based on spore production:

❖ On the basis of the organisation of the vegetative thallus, the morphology of reproductive
structures, the way of spores production and particular life cycle involved the kingdom mycota is
classified into following divisions.

❑ Phycomycetes

• It includes the simplest type of fungi. It is also called as Algae-Fungi because most of the
characteristics of them are similar to algae like Vaucheria.
• They have simple thallus which is unicellular or coenocytic or aseptate filaments.
• They reproduce asexually by the formation of zoospores or non-motile spores.
• Sexual reproduction is isogamous or heterogamous which takes place by gametangial contact.
• The diploid phase is represented by zygote.
• Phycomycetes has been classified into subclasses: oomycetes and zygomycetes.

❑Oomycetes

• It range from a primitive unicellular thallus to a profusely branched filamentous mycelium.

• Many members of them are terrestrial and obligate parasites.
• Asexually they reproduce by biflagellate zoospores.
• Oogamous reproduction that involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form oospore.
• Oospore undergoes meioses to produce haploid biflagellate zoospores.
• Example; Phytophthora infestans (causes potato blight).
❑ Zygomycetes

• The group is named zygomycetes because a diploid resting spore called the zygospore is formed
during the life cycle.
• They are mostly saprophytic, some others are parasites on plants and animals.
• The vegetative body is mycelium which is well developed, profusely branched and coenocytic.
• The absence of motile sexual or asexual cells.
• The asexual reproduction takes place by sporangiospores, aplanospores or by conidia.
• Sexual reproduction occurs by conjugation of gametangia resulting in the formation of
zygospore.
• Examples; Rhizopus, Mucor etc.

❑ Ascomycetes

• The species of ascomycetes are called the sac fungi because they produce sexual pores within the
sac-like vascus.
• Ascomycetes are mostly terrestrial occurring as saprophytes or parasites.
• They have well-developed, branched, septate mycelium except yeast. Yeast is a unicellular fungus.
• Asexually they reproduce by non-motile spores, conidia, oidia or chlamydospores.
• Sexual reproduction takes place by the fusion of gametangia of opposite mating types.
• There is absence of motile cells.
• Examples, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Penicillium, Aspergillus etc.
❑ Basidiomycetes

• The members of basidiomycetes are saprophytic or parasitic. The group is named basidiomycetes
as they produce the basidiospores at the club-shaped basidium during sexual reproduction.
• Mycelium is highly developed, profusely branched and septate.
• The mycelia are differentiated into two mating types; (+ve) and (-ve).
• There are two kinds of mycelium; primary mycelium and secondary mycelium.
• Asexual reproduction takes place by fragmentation, budding, oidia, conidia or chlamydospore.
• The dikaryotic cell is formed during sexual reproduction.
• The absence of motile cell throughout the life cycle.
• These are the most advanced fungi as their fructifications are often large and prominent.
• Examples; Mushrooms, Puccinia, Ustilago etc.

❑ Deuteromycetes (The Imperfect Fungi)

• Deuteromycetes compromises more than 17000 species of the diverse habits and habitats. It is
considered as an artificial class of fungi.
• The fungi are saprophytes as well as parasites.Parasitic fungi cause serious diseases to plants,
animals including human beings.
• Some of them are unicellular while others are multicellular.
• They reproduce asexually by conidia along with some other types of spores.
• The sexual reproduction is entirely absent.
• The asexual stage or imperfect stage in Deuteromycetes is well defined. But the sexual or perfect
stage is absent in life cycle, therefore, they are called ‘Fungi Imperfecti’.
• Example; Alternaria, Fusarium, Helminthosporium etc.
o Classification based on medically important fungi
❖ Mycoses are classified as superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, or systemic (deep) infections
depending on the type and degree of tissue involvement and the host response to the pathogen.
a. Superficial mycoses (or tineas): Occur in the tropics and are restricted to the outer surface of
the hair and skin, e.g., Piedraia hortae.
b. Cutaneous mycoses: There are three genera of fungi (Microsporum, Trichophyton and
Epidermophyton) that commonly cause disease in the non-living tissues of skin, hair, or
nails/claws of people and animals, by growing in a zone just above where the protein keratin is
deposited.
c. Subcutaneous mycoses: They are normally saprotrophic inhabitants of soil, particularly in
tropical and subtropical areas of Africa, India and South America.
d. Systemic mycoses are infections that affect the whole body. We divide these into mycoses due
to primary (usually dimorphic) virulent pathogens, and those due to opportunistic pathogens.

o Classification based on route of acquisition

a. Infecting fungi may be either exogenous or endogenous.
b. When classified according to the route of acquisition, a fungal infection may be designated as
exogenous or endogenous in origin.
c. If classified as exogenous, an infecting organism may be transmitted by airborne, cutaneous, or
percutaneous routes.
d. An endogenously-acquired fungal infection may be acquired from colonization or reactivation of
a fungus from latent infection.
o Classification based on virulence

❖ Primary pathogens can establish infections in normal hosts.

❖ Opportunistic pathogens cause disease in individuals with compromised host defense

mechanisms.

• Deep mycoses are caused by primary pathogenic and opportunistic fungal pathogens.

• The primary pathogenic fungi are able to establish infection in a normal host; whereas,
opportunistic pathogens require a compromised host in order to establish infection (e.g., cancer,
organ transplantation, surgery, and AIDS).

• The primary deep pathogens usually gain access to the host via the respiratory tract.
Opportunistic fungi causing deep mycosis invade via the respiratory tract, alimentary tract, or
intravascular devices.

• The primary systemic fungal pathogens include Coccidioides immitis, Histoplasma capsulatum,
Blastomyces dermatitidis, and Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.

• The opportunistic fungal pathogens include Cryptococcus neoformans,

Candida, Aspergillusspp., Penicillium marneffei, the Zygomycetes, Trichosporon beigelii,
and Fusarium spp.
TERMINOLOGY
❑ Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM): (A mycorrhiza) where fungi from the Glomeromycota penetrate
the roots of a (usually herbaceous) plant and provide the plant with water and nutrients while
the plant supplies sugars to the fungus
❑ Ascocarp: Fruitbody of an ascomycete fungus
❑ Ascomycetes: A - Class of fungi that produce their spores in sac-like cells called asci
❑ Ascospores: Sexual spores produced in the asci of ascomycetes fungi
❑ Ascus: (Pl., asci) the spore-producing cell of an ascomycetes fruitbody
❑ Basidiocarp: Fruitbody of a basidiomycete fungus
❑ Basidiomycetes: A - Class of fungi that produce their spores on basidia
❑ Basidiocarp: Fruitbody of a basidiomycete fungus
❑ Basidiospores: Sexual spores produced on the basidia of basidiomycetes fungi
❑ Basidium: (Pl., basidia) spore-producing cell of a basidiomycete fungus
❑ Cellulose: Component of plant cell walls and of wood composed of glucose units
❑ Chlamydospores: Asexual spores formed by the breaking up of fungal hyphae
❑ Clamp Connection: Swollen area formed around septum in a hypha during cell division
❑ Coprophilous: Growing on dung
❑ Cuticle: The surface layer of the cap or stem of a fruitbody
❑ Deuteromycetes: Obsolete term for a group fungi not known to reproduce sexually
❑ Dichotomous: Forking/divided into pairs – as in logical decision-making trees
❑ Dikaryon: A pair of closely associated, sexually compatible nuclei
❑ Ectomycorrhiza (EM) : (A mycorrhiza) where the fungus forms sheathes around plant rootlets
(often of a tree), growing between but not penetrating the cells of the plant root, and providing
the plant with water and nutrients while the plant supplies sugars to the fungus
❑ Endomycorrhiza: Mycorrhiza in which fungal hyphae penetrate cell walls of host plant
❑ Endophyte: Fungus living within a plant without causing visible symptoms of harm
TERMINOLOGY
❑ Hypha: (Pl., hyphae) filamentous thread of fungal mycelium
❑ Inferior: (Describing a ring) located near the base of the stem
❑ Lichen: Organism comprising a fungus and an alga or a cyanobacterium
❑ Mucilaginous: (Often describing a mushroom cap) covered with slime
❑ Mycelium: Body of a fungus, most of which is underground or hidden within wood
❑ Mycobiont: The fungal component of a lichen or of a mycorrhizal partnership
❑ Mycology: The study of fungi
❑ Mycorrhiza: Structure by which a fungus and a plant exchange nutrients mutually
❑ Myxomycetes: A large and commonly encountered group within the slime moulds
❑ Organelle: A differentiated (separate) structure within a cell
❑ Parasitism: Process whereby an organism feeds at the expense of another (host)
❑ Photosynthesis: Process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water to sugars
❑ Rhizomorph: A root-like mycelial strand comprising bunched parallel hyphae
❑ Saprophyte: An organism that obtains its nutrients from dead organic material
❑ Septate: (Describing hyphae) partitioned by cross walls known as septa
❑ Septum: (Pl., septa) a cross wall separating cells of a hyphal thread
❑ Slime Moulds: A group of fungus-like organisms that use spores to reproduce
❑ Spore: Reproductive structure of a fungus, usually a single cell
❑ Sporophore: Fungal fruitbody
❑ Superior: (Describing a ring) located near the top of the stem
❑ Taxonomy: The - Classification of organisms based on their natural relationships
❑ Thallus: (Pl., thalli) the body of a fungus or a lichen
❑ Uredinales: Rust fungi (an order within the Basidiomycota)
❑ Zygomycota: A - Class of simple fungi whose hyphae generally lack cross walls