1

T.E. Computer
Database Management Systems

Unit-I
By
Prof. Dr. K.P. Adhiya
SSBT’s COET, Bambhori-Jalgaon

Prof. Dr. K.P.Adhiya

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Acknowledgment
1. Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, “Database System
Concepts”, 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill Hill Education.
2. Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, “Database System
Concepts”, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill Hill Education.
3. Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe “Fundamentals of Database Systems”,
5th Edition, Pearson.
4. Express Learning, “Database Management Systems”, ITL Education Solutions
Limited.
5. Archana Verma, “Database Management Systems”, GenNext Publication.
6. Dr. Rajiv Chopra, “Database Management Systems (DBMS) – A Practical
Approach”, 5th Edition, S. Chand Technical
7. Tanmay Kasbe, “Database Management System Concepts – A Practical
Approach”, First Edition, Educreation Publishing.
8. Mahesh Mali, “Database Management Systems”, Edition 2019, TechKnowledge
Publications.
9. Rajendra Prasad Mahapatra, Govind Verma, “Database Management System”,
Khanna Publishing.
10. Malay K. Pakhira, “Database Management System”, Eastern Economy Edition,
PHI.
11. Sarika Gupta, Gaurav Gupta, “Database Management System”, Khanna Book
Publishing Edition.
12. Riktesh Srivastava, Rajita Srivastava, “Relational Database Management
System”, New Age International Publishers.
13. Peter Rob, Carlos Coronel, “Database System Concepts’, Cenage Learning, India
Edition
14. Bipin C. Desai, “An Introduction to Database Systems”, Galgotia Publications.
15. G.K. Gupta, “Database Management Systems”, McGraw Hill Education.
16. Shio Kumar Singh, “Database Systems – Concepts, Design and Applications”, 2 nd
Edition, PEARSON.
17. S.D.Joshi, “Database Management System”, Tech-Max Publication.
18. R. Ramkrishnan , J. Gehrke, "Database Management Systems", 3rd Edition,
McGraw-Hill
19. C. J. Date, “Introduction to Database Management Systems”, 8th Edition, Pearson
20. Atul Kahate, “Introduction to Database Management System”, 3rd Edition,
Pearson.
21. Bharat Lohiya, “Database Systems”, Tenth Edition, Aditya Publication, Amravati.
22. Vijay Krishna Pallaw, “Database Management System”, 2nd, Asian Books Pvt.
Ltd.
23. Database Management Systems, Database Management Systems.
24. Mrs. Jyoti G. Mante (Khurpade), Mrs. Smita M. Dandge, “Database Mangement
System”, Nirali Prakashan.
25. Step by Step Database Systems (DBMS), Shiv Krupa Publications, Akola

Prof. Dr. K.P.Adhiya

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26. Mrs. Sheetal Gujar –Takale, Mr. Sahil K. Shah, “Database Management System”,
Nirali Prakashan.
27. Mrs. Jyoti G. Mante (Khurpade), U.S. Shirshetti, M.V. Salvi, K.S. Sakure,
“Relational Database Management System”, Nirali Prakashan.
28. Seema Kedar, Rakesh Shirsath, “Database Management Systems”, Technical
Publications.
29. Pankaj B. Brahmankar, “Database Management Systems”, Tec h-Max
Publications, Pune.
30. Imran Saeed, Tasleem Mustafa, Tariq Mahmood, Ahsan Raza Sattar, “A
Fundamental Study of Database Management Systems”, 3 rd Edition, IT Series
Publication.
31. Database Management Systems Lecture Notes, Malla Reddy College of
Engineering and Technology, Secunderabad.
32. Dr. Satinder Bal Gupta, Aditya Mittal, “Introduction to Database Management
System, University Science Press.
33. E-Notes BCS 41/ BCA 41 on “Database Management System”, Thiruvalluvar
University.
34. Bighnaraj Naik, Digital Notes on “Relational Database Management System”,
VSSUT, Burla.
35. Viren Sir, Relational database Management System”, Adarsh Institute of
Technolgoyt (Poly), VITA.
36. Sitansu S. Mitra, “Principles of Relational Database Systems”, Prentice Hall.
37. Neeraj Sharma, Liviu Perniu, Raul F. Chong, Abhishek Iyer, Chaitali Nandan,
Adi-Cristina Mitea, Mallarswami Nonvinkere, Mirela Danubianu, “Database
Fundamentals”, First Edition, DB2 On Campus Book Series.
38. Database Management System, Vidyavahini First Grade College, Tumkur.
39. Bhavna Sangamnerkar, Revised by: Shiv Kishor Sharma, “Database Management
System”, Think Tanks Biyani Group of Colleges.
40. Tibor Radvanyi, “Database Management Systems”.
41. Ramon A. Mata- Toledo, Pauline K. Cushman, “Fundamentals of Relational
Databases”, Schaum’s Outlies.

Web Resources
1. https://beginnersbook.com/2015/04/dbms-tutorial/
2. https://tutorialspoint.com/dbms/
3. https://www.improgrammer.net/top-10-databases-should-learn-2015/
4. https://www.softwaretestinghelp.com/database-management-software/
5. www.BtechTutorial.com

Prof. Dr. K.P.Adhiya

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Unit-I
 Data and Information
 Data are raw facts (or figures) from which the required information is
produced. The word raw means that, the facts have not yet been
processed to get the exact meaning.
 Data can be something simple and useless unless until it is organized.
 Data is an individual unit that contains raw material which does not
carry any specific meaning.
 Data is plural of datum.
 Data may consist of numbers, symbols, characters, documents,
images, video segments etc.
 Information can be defined as the organized and classified data to
provide meaningful values.
 Information is nothing but redefined data. We can say - when we
arrange data in a proper format then it can be called as information.
 According to Burch and Grudnitski – “Information is data that have
been put into a meaningful and useful context and communicated to
recipient who uses it to make decisions”.
 E.g. – if we say 70, 75, 80, 85 are the numbers then it may become
data. But if we say 70, 75, 80, 85 are the marks of four different
subjects awarded to the student XYZ, then it can be called as
information.
 Data and information are closely related and are often used
interchangeably.

 Overview of DBMS
 Database can be defined as a organized collection of related data.
 Database is nothing but a set of data having some relation between
them.
 Examples of database – College database which stores information
about students, teachers, subjects, laboratories, classes etc. Other

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examples can be a library management system, railway reservation

system, airline reservation system, banking software etc.
 A Database Management System (DBMS), is a collection software
or programs that enables the users to store, modify and extract/retrieve
information from a database.
 The main objective or a primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way
to store, retrieve and manipulate the database information that is both
convenient and efficient.
Consider a university that keeps the data of students, teachers, courses,
books etc. To manage this data we need to store this data somewhere
where we can add new data, delete unused data, update outdated data,
retrieve data, and to perform these operations on data we need a
Database management system that allows us to store the data in such a
way so that all these operations can be performed on the data
efficiently. Database systems are much better than traditional file
processing systems.
 The DBMS has become an integral part of many organizations as it is
used to handle huge amount of data.
 Some examples of DBMS –
o Oracle RDBMS: - Oracle database is the most widely used
object-relational database management software. The latest
version of this tool is 12c where c means cloud computing. It
supports multiple Windows, UNIX, and Linux versions.
o MySQL: - Enterprises can commence out utilizing the free
community server and later upgrade to the commercial version.
o Microsoft SQL Server: - MS SQL Server is a relational database
management system built for the basic function of storing
retrieving data as required by other applications.
o Microsoft Access (MS Access):- It is a Database Management
System from Microsoft that combines the relational Microsoft
Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and
software-development tools.
o MongoDB:- It is a cross-platform, document-oriented database
that provides, high performance, high availability, and easy
scalability.

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o DB2:- It is a database product from IBM. DB2 is designed to

store, analyze and retrieve the data efficiently.
o PostgreSQL:- It is an advanced database. It can be used across
Linux and Windows operating systems. It is an object-relational
database. The data remains secure. Data retrieval is faster. Data
sharing through dashboards is faster. It’s an open-source tool.
o Hadoop HDFS: - It provides large data storage and uses many
machines for storing data; therefore, the data is easy to access.
Data loss is prevented by storing data redundantly. Data
authentication is also available. Parallel processing of data is
possible. It’s a commercial tool.
 Major roles of a DBMS can be summarized as:
o Defines data structures for data storage – e.g. data type for age
can be integer.
o Provides suitable mechanism for data access and data
manipulation (means addition of new data, modification of data,
deletion of data etc).
o Maintains system integrity.
o Provides safety and security measures for data.
o Provides mechanism for data sharing among the different users.
 DBMS Components:-
The DBMS environment consists of following main components:
o Hardware – e.g. Processor, Main memory, Secondary storage
o Software – e.g. DBMS software, Application programs, OS
o Database – From the end user’s point of view, data is the most
important component in DBMS environment.
o Users – e.g. DBA (Database Administrator), Database
Designers, End Users (e.g. Naïve users, sophisticated users,
Specialized users).
o Procedures – It refers to the instructions and rules that help to
design the database and to use the database.

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 Database-System Applications (i.e.

Applications of Database):-
Databases are widely used. Here are some representative applications:
 Enterprise Information
o Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.
o Accounting: For payments, receipts, account balances, assets
and other accounting information.
o Human resources: For information about employees, salaries,
payroll taxes, and benefits, and for generation of paychecks.
o Manufacturing: For management of the supply chain and for
tracking production of items in factories, inventories of items in
warehouses and stores, and orders for items.
o Online retailers: For sales data noted above plus online order
tracking, generation of recommendation lists, and maintenance
of online product evaluations.
 Banking and Finance
o Banking: For customer information, accounts, loans, and
banking transactions.
o Credit card transactions: For purchases on credit cards and
generation of monthly statements.
o Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and
purchases of financial instruments such as stocks and bonds;
also for storing real-time market data to enable online trading
by customers and automated trading by the firm.
 Universities: For student information, course registrations, and grades
(in addition to standard enterprise information such as human
resources and accounting).
 Railways: For reservations and schedule information.
 Airlines: For reservations and schedule information. Airlines were
among the first to use databases in a geographically distributed
manner.

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 Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating

monthly bills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and
storing information about the communication networks.
 E-Commerce Applications: - e.g. E-commerce websites for online
shopping such as - Amazon, Walmart, Flipkart, Snapdeal, Alibaba etc.
For instance, when you access an online bookstore and browse a book
or music collection, you are accessing data stored in a database. When
you enter an order online, your order is stored in a database. When
you access a bank web site and retrieve your bank balance and
transaction information, the information is retrieved from the bank’s
database system.

 Purpose of Database Systems

 Consider example of any University organization in older days
(typical in 1960s) – It has to keep information about all instructors,
students, departments, and course offerings etc. One way to keep the
information on a computer is to store it in operating system files. To
allow users to manipulate the information, the system has a number
of application programs that manipulate the files, including
programs to:
o Add new students, instructors, and courses
o Register students for courses and generate class rosters
o Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages
(GPA), and generate transcripts
System programmers wrote various application programs to meet
the needs of university.
 It is necessary to add new application programs as the need arises.
 Thus, the system acquires more files and more application programs.
 This typical file-processing system is supported by a conventional
operating system. The system stores permanent records in various
files, and it needs different application programs to extract records
from, and add records to, the appropriate files. Before database
management systems (DBMSs) were introduced, organizations
usually stored information in such systems.

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 Keeping organizational information in a file-processing system has a

number of major disadvantages:
o Data Redundancy and Inconsistency: - In file processing
system, same data may be duplicated in number of files. This is
data redundancy. E.g. there are two files “Students-of-CSE”
and “Library”. Now the file “Students-of-CSE” contains Roll
No, Name, Address and Mobile No of CSE students. The file
“Library” contains Roll No & Name of the students along with
the book information issued to him. Now here data of one
student appears in two files. This is called as Data
Redundancy. This redundancy leads to higher storage and
access cost.
o Difficulty in accessing Data: - In conventional file-processing
environments, handling new queries is difficult, since it
requires change in the existing application programs or requires
a new application program. The point is that conventional file-
processing environments do not allow needed data to be
retrieved in a convenient and efficient manner.
o Data Isolation: - Sometimes, all related data records may not be
stored in a single file, rather they are scattered in different files
using different formats. It then becomes difficult for application
programmer to write a single unified code to access the data
from all related files. This problem is called data isolation.
o Integrity Problems: - In any application, there are certain data
integrity rules that need to be maintained. These rules could be
in the form of certain conditions or constraints (e.g. In
university example, the account balance of any department may
never fall below zero). Developers enforce these constraints in
the system by adding appropriate code in the various
application programs. However, when new constraints are
added, it is difficult to change the programs to enforce them.
o Atomicity Problems: - An operation on data may consist of
different steps. The collection of all steps to complete the
process is called as transaction. The atomicity means that
either one transaction should take place as a whole or it should

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not take place at all. It is difficult to ensure atomicity in a

conventional file-processing system.
o Concurrent-access Anomalies: - In order to improve the overall
performance of the system and to obtain a faster response time,
many systems allow multiple users to update the data
simultaneously.
Concurrent access means multiple hit at a time and anomalies
means error.
If at the same time more than one user access the same
information and also if one user updates any information then,
other user could also see the updated information.
It is difficult to remove concurrent-access anomalies in a
conventional file-processing system.
o Security Problems: - File processing system does not provide
adequate security to the data. In some situations, it is required
to provide different types of access to the data for different
users. E.g in a University example, the accountant person
should be allowed to see only financial information and not
academic records. But such type of security is difficult to
achieve in the conventional file-processing system.
o The file-processing system lacks the insulation between
program and data. This is because the file structure is embedded
in the application program itself; thus, it is difficult to change
the structure of a file as it requires changing all the application
programs accessing it.

All these difficulties prompted the development of database

systems. It is the DBMS that solves the problems with file-
processing systems.

 Advantages of DBMS
The advantages of Database system over file-processing systems are:
 Controls redundancy and inconsistency.
 Maintains data integrity

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 Removes atomicity problem

 Removes concurrent access anomalies
 Provides secured access to the database
 Backup and recovery: - The DBMS provides a backup and
recovery subsystem, which is responsible for recovery from
hardware and software failures.
 Data sharing: - The data stored in the database can be shared
among multiple users or application programs.
 Insulation between program and data: - It means program-data
independence. It allows changing the structure of the database
without making any changes in the application programs that
use the database.
 Supports multiple views of data: - A database can be accessed
by many users and each of them may have a different view of
the data. A database system provides a facility to define
different views of the data for different users.

 Disadvantages of DBMS
 DBMS implementation cost is high compared to the file system
 Complexity: Database systems are complex to understand
 Performance: Database systems are generic, making them
suitable for various applications. However this feature affects
their performance for some applications.
 More chances of failure
 In some applications, a DBMS may run less efficiently than
file-processing system

 Three Level Architecture of DBMS

 Also Refer the topic “Database Architecture”, page no 24.
 Most databases are based on this model i.e. Three level
architecture of DBMS.

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 This architecture has three levels:

o External level
o Conceptual level
o Internal level
 The three level architecture is as shown in the following figure-

 External Level: - It is the highest level of abstraction that deals

with the user’s view of the database and, thus, also known as
the view level. It permits users to access data in a way that is
customized according to their needs. The system may provide
many views for the same database.
 Conceptual Level:- This level of abstraction deals with the
logical structure of the entire database and, thus, is also known
as the logical level. It describes what data are stored in the
database and the relationship among the data. Database
constraints and security are also implemented in this level of
architecture.
 Internal Level:- It is the lowest level of data abstraction that
deals with the physical representation of the database on
computer and, thus, is also known as physical level. It

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describes how the data are physically stored and organized on

the storage medium.

 View of Data
 A major purpose of a database system is to provide users with an
abstract view of the data. i.e. the system hides certain details of
how the data are stored and maintained.
 In the three level architecture of DBMS, the top level is “view
level”. The view level provides the “view of data” to the users and
hides the irrelevant details such as data relationship, database
schema, constraints, security etc from the user.
 To understand the view of data, we must have a basic knowledge
of data abstraction and instance & schema
 Data Abstraction: - To ease the user interaction with database,
the developers hide internal complex details from end users. This
process of hiding complex/irrelevant details from user is called data
abstraction.

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There are three levels of data abstraction -

o Physical Level: - This level describes how the data are
actually stored. It describes complex low-level data
structures.
o Logical Level: - It describes what data are stored in the
database, and relationship among those data. The user of the
logical level does not need to be aware of complex physical-
level structures. This is referred as “physical data
independence”.
o View Level: - This highest level of abstraction describes
only part of the entire database. Many users of the database
system do not need all the information; instead they need to
access only part of the database. The system may provide
many views for the same database.
o For example:-
We are storing customer information in a customer table.
At physical level these records can be described as blocks of
storage locations (e.g. words or bytes). These details are
often hidden from the programmers.

At the logical level these records can be described as fields

and attributes along with their data types, their relationship
among each other can be logically implemented. The
programmers generally work at this level.
e.g. CREATE TABLE Instructor
( ID char (5),
Name char (20),
Dept_name char (20),
Salary numeric (8, 2));

At view level, several views of the database are defined, and

a database user sees some or all of these views. The views
also provide a security mechanism to prevent users from
accessing certain parts of the database. E.g. the clerk in the
examination section of university can see only student
details; he cannot access information about salaries of
instructors.

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 Instances and Schemas: -

o Databases change over time as information is inserted and
deleted.
o The overall design of the database is called the database
schema. It is also known as intension of database.
o The description of the database is known as the database
schema. It mainly tells us what are going to be the names of
tables (Relations), what are going to be the columns or
attributes in that table.
o Schemas are changed infrequently, if at all.
o The collection of information stored in the database at a
particular moment is called an instance of the database ( or
database state or database snapshot).
o E.g. Consider the College database example. Assume there are
two tables (i.e. relations) – EMPLOYEE and COURSE.
So the database schema for college can be-
EMPLOYEE
EMP_ID NAME ADDRESS SALARY

COURSE
COURSE_CODE COURSE_NAME MARKS BRANCH SEMESTER

o Example of database instance:

EMPLOYEE
EMP_ID NAME ADDRESS SALARY
100 Suresh Shiv Colony 90,000/-
101 Ramesh Petrol Pump 80,000/-
102 Vijay Pimprala 70,000/-

COURSE
COURSE_CODE COURSE_NAME MARKS BRANCH SEMESTER
COMP-100 DBMS 60 Computer Fifth
COMP-101 COA 60 Computer Fourth
ETC-100 AE 60 ETC Third

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o Database systems have several schemas, partitioned according

to the levels of abstraction. The physical schema describes the
database design at the physical level, while the logical schema
describes the database design at the logical level. A database
may also have several schemas at the view level, sometimes
called subschemas that describe different views of the
database.
 Data Independence
o The concept of data independence can be understood with the
help of “Three level architecture of DBMS”
o It is defined as if we change the schema at a lower level, then
the upper level schema does not get affected.

o There are two types of data independence :

1. Physical Data Independence
2. Logical Data Independence
o Those two types of data independence are reflected in the
following figure-

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o Physical Data Independence – It is a capacity to change the

internal schema (at physical level) without any changes to
conceptual schema (at conceptual level). This means if we
change our way of file organization, then there will be no
change in the conceptual schema (i.e. no change in the table
names and attributes with their data types).
o Logical Data Independence – It says that, if we change the
conceptual schema, then the external schema (at external level)
remains the same. E.g. in a given conceptual schema, if we
merge the existing tables into a single table, then it will not
affect the report or external view. The report will show the
answers as they were showing before merging the tables.
To achieve the logical data independence is more difficult than
achieving the physical data independence.

 Data Models
o The model helps the user to understand the complexities of real
world environment.
o Data models are collection of conceptual tools for describing
data, data relationships, data semantics, and consistency
constraints.

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o A data model provides a way to describe the design of a

database at the physical, logical, and view levels.
o It consists of – set of rules for developing the database, types of
operations that can be performed on data, set of integrity rules.
o The data models can be classified into following different
categories:-
a) Relational Model - The relational model uses a collection
of tables to represent both data and the relationships among
those data. Each table has multiple columns, and each
column has a unique name. Tables are also known as
relations. The relational model is an example of a record-
based model. Each row is called as record (also called as
tuple). The columns of the table correspond to the
attributes (or fields). The relational data model is the most
widely used data model.

e.g . EMPLOYEE is a Table (also called as Relation)

EMP_ID NAME ADDRESS SALARY

100 Suresh Shiv Colony 90,000/-
101 Ramesh Petrol Pump 80,000/-
102 Vijay Pimprala 70,000/-

b) Entity-Relationship Model - The entity-relationship (E-R)

data model uses a collection of basic objects, called entities, and
relationships among these objects. An entity is a “thing” or
“object” in the real world that is distinguishable from other objects.
In the following example, Student and College are the two entities.

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c) Object-Based Data Model - Object-oriented programming

(especially in Java, C++, or C#) has become the dominant
software-development methodology. This led to the development
of an object-oriented data model that can be seen as extending the
E-R model with notions of encapsulation, methods (functions),
and object identity. The object-relational data model combines
features of the object-oriented data model and relational data
model.
d) Semistructured Data Model - The semistructured data model
permits the specification of data where individual data items of the
same type may have different sets of attributes. This is in contrast
to the data models mentioned earlier, where every data item of a
particular type must have the same set of attributes. The Extensible
Markup Language (XML) is widely used to represent
semistructured data.
e) Network Model – Data in the network model are represented
by collection of records, and relationship among data is
represented by links, which can be viewed as pointers. The records
in the database are organized as collection graphs.
f) Hierarchical Model – The records are organized in a tree
structure format. This model consists of hierarchy of parent and
child, rather than arbitrary graphs.
These both Network and Hierarchical models complicated the task
of modeling data. So, they are little used now.

 Database Languages
o There are four types of database languages, in general.

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o Data Definition Language (DDL):-

 DDL is used to define database structure.
 It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc.
in the database.
 Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of
the database.
 The DDL, just like any other programming language, gets as
input some instructions (statements) and generates some
output. The output of the DDL is placed in Data
Dictionary, which contains Metadata – that is data about
data.
 Here are some tasks that come under DDL:
o Create: It is used to create objects in the database.
o Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
o Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
o Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
o Rename: It is used to rename an object.
o Comment: It is used to comment on the data
dictionary.
o Data Manipulation Language (DML):-
 DML is used for accessing and manipulating the database. It
handles user’s requests.
 Here are some tasks that come under DML:
o Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.
o Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.

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o Update: It is used to update existing data within a

table.
o Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.
o Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or
update operations.
o Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a
Java subprogram.
o Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.
o Lock Table: It controls concurrency.
o Data Control Language (DCL):-
 DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve
the stored or saved data.
 The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback
parameters.
 Here are some tasks that come under DCL:
 Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a
database.
 Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.
 There are the following operations which have the
authorization of Revoke:
CONNECT, INSERT, USAGE, EXECUTE, DELETE,
UPDATE and SELECT.
o Transaction Control Language (TCL):-

 TCL stands for Transaction Control Language.

 TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement.

 Here are some tasks that come under TCL:

 Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the
database.
 Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original
since the last Commit.

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 Data Storage and Querying

 A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of
the responsibilities of the overall system.
 The functional components of a database system can be broadly
divided into the storage manager and the query processor components.
 The storage manager is important because databases typically require
a large amount of storage space. Corporate databases range in size
from hundreds of gigabytes to, for the largest databases, terabytes of
data.
 Since the main memory of computers cannot store this much
information, the information is stored on disks.
 Data are moved between disk storage and main memory as needed.
Since the movement of data to and from disk is slow relative to the
speed of the central processing unit, it is imperative that the database
system structure the data so as to minimize the need to move data
between disk and main memory.
 The query processor is important because it helps the database system
to simplify and facilitate access to data. The query processor allows
database users to obtain good performance while being able to work at
the view level and not be burdened with understanding the physical-
level details of the implementation of the system.
 Storage manager
 It is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating data in the
database.
 The raw data are stored on the disk using the file system provided
by OS.
 The storage manager components include:
a) Authorization and integrity manager, which tests for the
satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority of
users to access data.
b) Transaction manager, which ensures that the database remains
in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures, and that
concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.

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c) File manager, which manages the allocation of space on disk

storage and the data structures used to represent information
stored on disk.
d) Buffer manager, which is responsible for fetching data from
disk storage into main memory, and deciding what data to
cache in main memory. The buffer manager is a critical part of
the database system, since it enables the database to handle data
sizes that are much larger than the size of main memory.
 The storage manager implements several data structures as part of
the physical system implementation:
a) Data files, which store the database itself.
b) Data dictionary, which stores metadata about the structure of
the database, in particular the schema of the database.
c) Indices, which can provide fast access to data items. Like
the index in this textbook, a database index provides
pointers to those data items that hold a particular value. For
example, we could use an index to find the instructor record
with a particular ID, or all instructor records with a
particular name. Hashing is an alternative to indexing that is
faster in some but not all cases.
 The Query P rocessor
The query processor components include:-
 DDL interpreter, which interprets DDL statements and records
the definitions in the data dictionary.
 DML compiler, which translates DML statements in a query
language into an evaluation plan consisting of low-level
instructions that the query evaluation engine understands.
A query can usually be translated into any of a number of
alternative evaluation plans that all give the same result. The
DML compiler also performs query optimization; that is, it
picks the lowest cost evaluation plan from among the
alternatives.
 Query evaluation engine, which executes low-level instructions
generated by the DML compiler.

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 Transaction Management
 A database transaction is a sequence of actions that are treated as a
single unit of work. These actions should either complete entirely or
take no effect at all. Transaction management is an important part of
RDBMS-oriented enterprise application to ensure data integrity and
consistency. The concept of transactions can be described with the
following four key properties described as ACID −
 Atomicity − A transaction should be treated as a single unit of
operation, which means either the entire sequence of operations is
successful or unsuccessful.
 Consistency − This represents the consistency of the referential
integrity of the database, unique primary keys in tables, etc.
 Isolation − There may be many transaction processing with the
same data set at the same time. Each transaction should be
isolated from others to prevent data corruption.
 Durability − Once a transaction has completed, the results of this
transaction have to be made permanent and cannot be erased from
the database due to system failure.

 Ensuring the atomicity and durability properties is the responsibility

of the database system itself – specifically, of the Recovery
Manager.
 It is the responsibility the Concurrency-control Manager to control
the interaction among the concurrent transactions, to ensure the
consistency of the database.
 The Transaction Manager consists of the concurrency-control
manager and the recovery manager.

 Database Architecture
 Also Refer topic “Three Level Architecture of DBMS”, page no 11.
 The architecture of a database system is greatly influenced by the
underlying computer system on which the database system runs.

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 Database systems can be centralized, or client-server, where one

server machine executes work on behalf of multiple client machines.
 Database systems can also be designed to exploit parallel computer
architectures. Distributed databases span multiple geographically
separated machines.
 Database applications are usually partitioned into two or three parts.
In two-tier architecture, the application resides at the client machine,
where it invokes database system functionality at the server machine
through query language statements. Application program interface
standards like ODBC and JDBC are used for interaction between the
client and the server.

 In the three-tier architecture, the client machine acts as merely a front

end and does not contain any direct database calls. Instead, the client
end communicates with an application server, usually through a forms
interface. The application server in turn communicates with a database

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system to access data. The business logic of the application, which

says what actions to carry out under what conditions, is embedded in
the application server, instead of being distributed across multiple
clients. Three-tier applications are more appropriate for large
applications, and for applications that run on the World Wide Web.
 Following figure provides a single picture of the various components
of a database system and the connections among them.

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 A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of

the responsibilities of the overall system. The functional components
of a database system can be broadly divided into the storage
manager and the query processor components.
 The storage manager is important because databases typically require a
large amount of storage space.
 The query processor is important because it helps the database system
simplify and facilitate access to data.
 It is the job of the database system to translate updates and queries
written in a nonprocedural language, at the logical level, into an
efficient sequence of operations at the physical level.
 Query Processor
The query processor components include:-
* DDL interpreter, which interprets DDL statements and records the
definitions in the data dictionary.
* DML compiler, which translates DML statements in a query
language into an evaluation plan consisting of low-level instructions
that the query evaluation engine understands.
A query can usually be translated into any of a number of alternative
evaluation plans that all give the same result. The DML compiler also
performs query optimization, that is, it picks the lowest cost
evaluation plan from among the alternatives.
* Query evaluation engine, which executes low-level instructions
generated by the DML compiler.
 Storage Manager
A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
between the low level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system. The storage manager is
responsible for the interaction with the file manager. The raw data are
stored on the disk using the file system, which is usually provided by
a conventional operating system. The storage manager translates the
various DML statements into low-level file-system commands. Thus,
the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and
updating data in the database.

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The storage manager components include:

 Authorization and integrity manager, which tests for the
satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority
of users to access data.
 Transaction manager, which ensures that the database
remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system
failures, and that concurrent transaction executions proceed
without conflicting.
 File manager, which manages the allocation of space on
disk storage and the data structures used to represent
information stored on disk.
 Buffer manager, which is responsible for fetching data
from disk storage into main memory, and deciding what data
to cache in main memory. The buffer manager is a critical
part of the database system, since it enables the database to
handle data sizes that are much larger than the size of main
memory.

 Database Users and Administrators

People who work with a database can be categorized as database users
or database administrators.
 Database Users and User Interfaces
There are four different types of database-system users, differentiated
by the way they expect to interact with the system. Different types of
user interfaces have been designed for the different types of users.
 Naive users - They are unsophisticated users who interact with
the system by invoking one of the application programs that
have been written previously. For example, a clerk in the
university who needs to add a new instructor department A
invokes a program called new hire. This program asks the
clerk for the name of the new instructor, her new ID, the name
of the department (that is, A), and the salary. The typical user
interface for naive users is a forms interface, where the user

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can fill in appropriate fields of the form. Naive users may also
simply read reports generated from the database.
 Application programmers:- They are computer professionals
who write application programs. Application programmers can
choose from many tools to develop user interfaces. Rapid
application development (RAD) tools are tools that enable an
application programmer to construct forms and reports with
minimal programming effort.
 Sophisticated users: - They interact with the system without
writing programs. Instead, they form their requests either using
a database query language or by using tools such as data
analysis software. Analysts who submit queries to explore data
in the database fall in this category.
 Specialized users: - They are sophisticated users who write
specialized database applications that do not fit into the
traditional data-processing framework. Among these
applications are computer-aided design systems,
knowledgebase and expert systems, systems that store data with
complex data types (for example, graphics data and audio data),
and environment-modeling systems.
 Database Administrator (DBA)
One of the main reasons for using DBMSs is to have central
control of both the data and the programs that access those data. A
person who has such central control over the system is called a
Database Administrator (DBA). The functions of a DBA include:
 Schema definition. The DBA creates the original database
schema by executing a set of data definition statements in the DDL.
 Choosing a DBMS – The DBA chooses particular database
management system.
 Storage structure and access-method definition.
 Schema and physical-organization modification - The DBA
carries out changes to the schema and physical organization to
reflect the changing needs of the organization, or to alter the
physical organization to improve performance.

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 Granting of authorization for data access - By granting

different types of authorization, the database administrator can
regulate which parts of the database various users can access.
The authorization information is kept in a special system
structure that the database system consults whenever someone
attempts to access the data in the system.
 Routine maintenance - Examples of the database
administrator’s routine maintenance activities are:
o Periodically backing up the database, either onto tapes
or onto remote servers, to prevent loss of data in case
of disasters such as flooding.
o Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for
normal operations, and upgrading disk space as
required.
o Monitoring jobs running on the database and ensuring
that performance is not degraded by very expensive
tasks submitted by some users.
 Developing and maintaining data dictionary
 Writing and maintaining documentation
 Developing and enforcing data standard – Data in the database
must be inserted according to the standard required by the
organization. DBA ensures that the entered data is according to
the standard.
 Developing operating procedures – The DBA should establish
procedures for different procedures.
 Training the users
 Defining backup and recovery procedures.
 Monitoring performance
 Tuning and reorganizing – If the performance of the database is
disturbed then the DBA should tune it. He should take proper and
correct decision e.g. he may add or change the indexes.

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Unit-I
(Database Design and E-R Model)
 Overview of the Design Process
 In a broad sense, the term database development describes the process
of database design and implementation.
 The primary objective in database design is to create complete,
normalized, non-redundant (to the extent possible), and conceptual,
logical, and physical database models.
 The implementation phase includes creating the database storage
structure, loading data into the database, and providing the data
management.
 The task of creating a database application is a complex one,
involving design of the database schema, design of the programs (that
access and update the data), and design of a security scheme to control
access to data.
 Design Phase:-
 For a small application, it may be possible for a database designer,
to design almost complete database design.
 But for a real-world application it will not be possible, because
generally no one person understands the complete data needs of an
application.
 The database designer must interact with users to understand the
needs of his application, represent them in a high-level fashion that
can be understood by the users, and then translate the requirements
into lower levels of the design.
 The initial phase of database design is to characterize fully the data
needs of the prospective database users. The database designer
needs to interact extensively with users to carry out this task. The
outcome of this phase is a specification of user requirements.

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 Next, the designer chooses a data model and, translates these

requirements into a conceptual schema of the database. The
schema developed at this conceptual-design phase provides a
detailed overview of the enterprise. The entity-relationship model
is typically used to represent the conceptual design. Typically, the
conceptual-design phase results in the creation of an entity-
relationship diagram that provides a graphic representation of the
schema.
 The designer reviews the schema to confirm that all data
requirements are satisfied. The collected information is analyzed
for ensuring -
o Correctness – The information should represent the real
world correctly.
o Consistency – The definition of an entity must cover all
possible values that it may take. All the constraints of entity
must be represented.
o Completeness – The defined entity should be complete. i.e.
no attributes should be missing.
 A fully developed conceptual schema also indicates the functional
requirements of the enterprise. In a specification of functional
requirements, users describe the kinds of operations (or
transactions) that will be performed on the data. Example
operations include - modifying or updating data, searching for the
data, retrieving some specific data, and deleting data.
 The process of moving from an abstract data model to the
implementation of the database proceeds in two final design
phases.
o In the logical-design phase, the designer maps the high-
level conceptual schema onto the implementation data
model of the database system. The implementation data
model is typically the relational data model,
o Finally, the designer uses the resulting system-specific
database schema in the subsequent physical-design phase,
in which the physical features of the database are specified.

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These features include the form of file organization and

choice of index structures.
 Design Alternatives:-
 The various entities are related to each other in a variety of ways.
All of which need to be captured in the good database design. In a
University database example - a student takes some course, while
an instructor teaches a course; so teaches and takes are examples of
relationships between entities.
 In designing a database schema, we must ensure that we avoid two
major pitfalls:
1. Redundancy: A bad design may repeat information. That is
the same information is duplicated in two or more files.
Redundancy can also occur in a relational schema. The main
problem with such redundancy is that copies of a piece of
information can become inconsistent.
2. Incompleteness: A bad design may make certain aspects of
the enterprise difficult or impossible to model. We may
complete the design by storing null values for the missing
values, at many places. Such a work-around is not only
unattractive, but may be prevented by primary-key
constraints.

 Entity-Relationship Model (i.e. E-R

Model)
 The E-R model was first defined by Peter Chen.
 The E-R model is used to describe the conceptual schema or the way a
user will see the entire view of the database.
 Later on, the E-R model will be transformed into tables using the
Normalization techniques.
 Diagrams created using this E-R modeling techniques are called E-R
diagrams or ERDs.
 There are three basic elements in E-R model – Entity sets,
Relationship sets and Attributes.

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 Entity Sets
 In many literatures, just entity word is used instead of entity set.
 An entity is a “thing” or “object” in the real world that is
distinguishable from all other objects.
 An entity can be a person, place, thing or event also.
 E.g. Professor, Department, Student, City, Book, Bank Loan, Bank
Account, Purchase, Flight Reservation etc. all can be the examples
of entity.
 It is represented as – (Rectangle)

 Each entity has a set of attributes which are characteristics or

properties, which describe that entity. E.g. if the name of entity is
STUDENT then, this entity may be described by the attributes
such as - Student_ID, Name, Address and Mobile No.
 The values for some set of properties may uniquely identify an
entity. E.g. the value of Student_ID (e.g. COMP-2018-19) may
uniquely identify the student in a college.
 An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share the
same properties, or attributes. E.g the entity set STUDENT might
represent the set of all students in the college.
 Attributes are descriptive properties possessed by each member of
an entity set.
 The attribute can be represented as – (Oval shape)

Attribute

 Strong entity and Weak entity – an entity which has its own key
attribute is called as strong entity or regular entity. While an
entity which depends on other entity for its existence and
doesn't have any key attribute of its own is a weak entity.

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 The database includes a collection of entity sets. Each entity set

contains any number of entities of the same type. E.g. following
figure shows part of University database that contain two entity
sets: Instructor and Student.

100 GKP 1000 Sunil

101 KPA 1001 Bunty
102 MEP 1002 Babloo
103 ATB 1003 Ramesh
Instructor 1004 Kamal
1005 Mohan
Student
For the Instructor – Two attributes can be ID and Name
For the Student – Two attributes can be S-ID and S-Name

(Note – Some SQL may not support the name of attribute as S-ID, so
use S_ID).

ID Name S-ID S-Name

Instructor Student

 Relationship Sets
 A relation is an association is an association among two or
more entities.
 A relationship is any association, linkage, or connection
between the entities of interest.

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 The relationship may be between different entities or between

an entity and itself.
 In the following figure, Advices is a relationship which exists
between two entities Instructor and Student.

IDI ID Name S-ID S-Name

Instructor Advices Student

 The entities that participate in a relationship are called as

participants. The relationship is represented by diamond shape.
 A relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type.
 A relationship set is a mathematical relation among n  2
:entities, each taken from entity sets
(e1, e2, … en) | e1  E1, e2  E2, …, en  En}
where (e1, e2, …, en) is a relationship.
 In the following figure, the individual instructor KPA, having
an ID 101, and the student Babloo from the entity set Student
with S-ID 1002 participate in a relationship instance of
Advices. This means that the instructor KPA is advising student
Babloo.

100 GKP 1000 Sunil

101 KPA 1001 Bunty

102 MEP 1002 Babloo

103 ATB 1003 Ramesh

1004 Kamal

1005 Mohan

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 The function that an entity plays in a relationship is called that

entity’s role. Since entity sets participating in a relationship set
are generally distinct, roles are implicit and are not usually
specified. However, they are useful when the meaning of a
relationship needs clarification. Such is the case when the entity
sets of a relationship set are not distinct; that is, the same entity
set participates in a relationship set more than once, in different
roles. In this type of relationship set, sometimes called a
recursive relationship set, explicit role names are necessary to
specify how an entity participates in a relationship instance.
 A relationship may also have attributes called descriptive
attributes. Consider a relationship set advisor (i.e. who
advices/guides) with entity sets instructor and student. We
could associate the attribute date with that relationship to
specify the date when an instructor became the advisor of a
student. The advisor relationship among the entities
corresponding to instructor Katz and student Shankar has the
value “10 June 2007” for attribute date, which means that Katz
became Shankar’s advisor on 10 June 2007.


 Degree of relationship: - The number of entity sets participating

in a relationship determines the degree of the Relationship. The
relationship between two entity sets is known as Binary
Relationship. The Ternary relationship involves association
between three entity sets. i.e. The n-ary relationship has a
degree of n.

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 Attributes
 Each entity has a set of attributes which are characteristics or
properties, which describe that entity.
 Each attribute can accept a value from a set of permitted values
which is called the Domain or the Value set. E.g. ID attribute
of Instructor entity can be a set of positive integers (e.g. 100,
101, etc).
 Types of attributes :- There are different type of attributes-
o Simple and Composite attribute- Simple attribute
means which cannot be divided into subparts (i.e. atomic
attribute). E.g. Salary, instructor ID can’t be divided into
subparts. The composite attribute can be divided into
subparts. E.g. an attribute Name can be structured as
composite attribute consisting of first-name, middle-
name and last-name.

first-name
ID Name
middle-name

Instructor last-name

As an example – The address can be defined as the

composite attribute with the attributes street, city, state,
and zip code. A composite attribute may appear as a
hierarchy. In the composite attribute address, its
component attribute street can be further divided into
street_number, street_name and apartment_number.
Following figure depicts these examples of composite
attribute.

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o Single-valued and Multi-valued attributes: - The

attributes that can have only one value for a given entity
are called single-valued attributes. E.g. S-ID attribute is a
single-valued attribute, as one student can have only one
ID. The attribute having many values for a particular
entity is called is called multi-valued attributes. E.g. if we
add another attribute phone-number to an entity
Instructor, then the instructor may have zero, one, two or
several phone numbers. This type of attribute is called as
multi-valued attribute.

ID Name

Phone-number

Instructor Multi-valued attribute

To denote that an attribute is multi-valued, we enclose it

in braces, for example {phone-number}.

o Stored and Derived attributes :- The simple attributes

stored in database are called as stored attributes (.i.e that
cannot be derived from other attributes).
The value for derived type of attribute can be derived
from the values of other related attributes. E.g. Date-of-
birth is a stored attribute and the Age is derived attribute.

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The symbol for derived attribute is –

In the following figure, Date-of-birth is stored attribute

and Age is derived attribute.

Date-of-birth

Instructor

 An attribute takes a NULL value when en entity does not have a

value for it. NULL is a special attribute, the value of which is
unknown, unassigned, not applicable or missing. E.g. in the
case of Instructor entity, some instructor may not have middle-
name, then NULL can be assigned.

 Constraints
The constraints on the relationship are of two types – Mapping
cardinalities and Participation constraint.
 Mapping Cardinalities ( or Cardinality Ratios)
 Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set (i.e.
number of instances from one entity) which can be associated
with the number of entities of other entity set via relationship
set. There are four types of mapping cardinalities (i.e. mapping
constraints) –
1. One-to-one
2. One-to-many
3. Many-to-one
4. Many-to-many

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 Let, R -> Binary relationship set

A and B -> Two entity sets
 One-to-one :- An entity in A is associated with at most one
entity in B, and an entity in B is associated with at most one
entity in A. It is represented by 1:1 relationship.
 One-to-many: - An entity in A is associated with any number
(zero or more) of entities in B. An entity in B, however, can be
associated with at most one entity in A. It is represented by
1: M relationship.
Figure – 1 (a) Figure – 1(b)

 Many-to-one: - It is reverse of one-to-many relationship. An

entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B. An entity
in B, however, can be associated with any number (zero or
more) of entities in A. It is represented by M: 1 relationship.
 Many-to-many: - An entity in A is associated with any number
(zero or more) of entities in B and an entity in B is associated
with any number (zero or more) of entities in A. It is
represented by M: N relationship.

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Figure – 2(a) Figure – 2(b)

 E-R diagram notations for above constraints –

1 1 1 M

M 1 M N

 Participation Constraints
 If every entity in entity set E participates in at least one
relationship of a relationship set R, then the participation is said to
be total. On the other hand, if only some of the entities in entity set
participate in the relationship, then the participation is said to be
partial. In figure 1(a), the participation of B in the relationship set
is total, while the participation of A in the relationship set is
partial. In figure 1(b), the participation of both A and B in the
relationship set are total.

1 Heads 1
Professor Department

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 43

 In above figure – there is a partial participation between the

entity Professor and Heads relationship, while there exists total
participation between the entity Department and Heads
relationship. The total participation constraint is shown by double
lines between the relationship and entity, while partial
participation constraint is shown by single line.

 Keys
 There must have a way to specify how entities within a given
entity set (in other words – different instances of an entity) are
distinguished.
 This distinguishing can be expressed in terms of their attributes.
 Therefore, the values of the attribute values of an entity must be
such that they can uniquely identify the entity. In other words, no
two entities in an entity set are allowed to have exactly the same
value for all attributes.
 The notion of a key for a relation schema (explained in Unit-III –
Introduction to relational model) applies directly to entity sets.
 Normally there are following types of keys –
 Primary key
 Super key
 Candidate key
 Foreign key
 The primary key of an entity set allows us to distinguish among
the various entities of the set. In terms of relational model, a
primary key is a key in a relational database that is unique for each
record. E.g. S-ID attribute can be a primary key (indicated by
underline) for Student entity.

S-ID

 A Superkey is a set of one or more attributes that, taken

collectively, allow us to indentify a record (tuple) in the table

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(relation). E.g. the combination of S-ID and S-Name is a superkey

for the table student.
 Generally all the attributes of a superkey are not required to
identify each record uniquely in a table. Instead, only a subset of
attributes of the superkey is sufficient to uniquely identify each
record. Such a minimal set of attributes is a candidate key.
 There can be a number of candidate keys. So one of the candidate
key is chosen as a primary key by the database designer.
 A relation, e.g. r1 may include among its attributes, the primary
key of other relation, say r2. This attribute is called as foreign key
from r1, referencing r2.

 Entity-Relationship Diagrams
 E-R diagram generally can express the overall logical structure of a
database graphically.
 E-R diagrams are simple and clear.
 Generally, two types of models are used for E-R modeling – Chen
Model and other is Crow’s Foot Model. Here mostly we are dealing
with Chen Model, which is originated by Dr. Peter Chen.

 Basic Structure
 An E-R diagram consists of following major components –

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It links attribute to entity set OR

entity set to relationship set

It represents total participation of entity

Figure: - E-R diagram Symbols

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 Sample E-R diagram - 1

 Sample E-R diagram – 2

Date

o Here we have Date attribute attached to the relationship

“performed by”, to specify the date on which the test is
performed by the patient.
o Here, “Checks” and “Test-log” are other relationships.
o Patient, Test and Doctors Entity sets

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o Each entity is having attributes, represented by oval

symbols. E.g. Patient can have Patient-ID, Name,
Address and Mobile as various attributes.

 Sample E-R diagram – 3

In above E-R diagram:-

o customer and loan – Entity sets
o borrower –relationship set between customer and loan
o customer_id, customer_name, customer_street and
customer_city are attributes associated with customer
o the attributes associated with loan are loan_number and
amount
o The key attribute (i.e. primary key) is represented by
underline. E.g. customer_id is underlined, because it is
primary key for customer.
o The relationship set borrower may be many-to-many, one-
to-many, many-to-one, or one-to-one.

 Sample E-R diagram -4, with composite, multivalued and derived

attributes.
o The following figure shows how composite attributes can be
represented in the E-R notation.
o Here, a composite attribute name, with component attributes
first_name, middle_initial, and last_name replaces the
simple attribute customer_name of customer.
o A composite attribute address, whose component attributes
are street, city, state, and zip_code replaces the attributes

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customer-street and customer-city of customer. The attribute

street is itself a composite attribute whose component
attributes are street_number, street_name, and apartment_
number.
o Figure also illustrates a multivalued attribute phone-number,
depicted by a double ellipse, and a derived attribute age,
depicted by a dashed ellipse.

 Sample E-R diagram -5 :-

o The following figure shows Relationship set with
attributes.
o If a relationship set has also some attributes associated with
it, then we link these attributes to that relationship set. For
example, in this figure, we have the access_date as an
attribute. It is attached to the relationship set depositor to
specify the most recent date on which a customer accessed
that account.

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 49

 Mapping Cardinality
 Refer the topic - Mapping Cardinalities ( or Cardinality Ratios),
from page number 40, and Sample E-R diagram-2, page
number 46.
 One-to-one relationship: - One employee is assigned only one
chair and also one chair accommodates only one employee at a
time.

Employee
1 Assigned 1
Chair
with

 One-to-many relationship: - The University has many

Professors, but the Professor works in only one university.

University 1 Has M Professor

 Many-to-one relationship: - Many teachers can work for one

department, but one department can have many teachers.

Teacher M Works 1 Department

for

 Many-to-many relationship: - One actor (hero) plays a role in

many cinemas (movies) and one cinema can have many actors.

Actors M Plays a N Cinemas

role

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 Roles
 Sample E-R diagram :- With Roles
o Entity sets of a relationship need not be distinct
o The labels “manager” and “worker” are called roles; they
specify how employee entities interact via the works_for
relationship set.
o Roles are indicated in E-R diagrams by labeling the lines
that connect diamonds to rectangles.
o Role labels are optional, and are used to clarify semantics of
the relationship.

 Nonbinary Relationship Sets

 Sample E-R diagram :- with Nonbinary relationship sets
o Nonbinary relationship sets can be specified easily in an
E-R diagram.
o The following figure consists of the three entity sets
employee, job, and branch, related through the
relationship set works_on.
o Here relationship works_on is a ternary relationship.

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 Weak Entity Sets

 An entity set that does not have a sufficient attributes to form a
primary key is termed as weak entity set. An entity set that has
a primary key is termed as a strong entity set.
 The entity set on which weak entity set depends is called
identifying or owner entity set. A weak entity is represented
by double-line square.
 Every weak entity must be associated with strong entity. That is
the weak entity set is said to be existence dependent on the
strong entity set (i.e. on identifying entity set).
 The weak entity is also called as a dependent entity as it
depends on another entity for its identification. The strong
entity is called an independent entity.
 The relationship between the weak entity and strong entity set
is called as an Identifying Relationship.
 A weak entity does not have its own identifying attribute that
can uniquely identify each instance. It has a partial identifying
attribute, which is known as the partial key (or
discriminator).
 Consider the following example of E-R diagram. It is E-R
diagram for online book database in which the entity EDITION
is a weak entity with Edition_no as its partial key. The partial
key is represented by dashed underline. This partial key
depends on the strong entity BOOK. It has a total participation

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in the identifying relationship HAS, which specifies that an

edition cannot exist without a book.

ISBN Title_of_book Edition_no

1 M
BOOK HAS EDITION
EDITION
S

Price Year Type

 Steps for designing E-R Diagrams

In general, following are the steps to design E-R diagrams –
 To indentify the various entities – looking for nouns.
 To identify the relationships
 To identify the attributes
 To indentify the key attributes (i.e. a primary key)
 To identify the attributes (if any) for the relationships.
 To draw the E-R diagram.
 At end, review the E-R diagrams to see if anything has been missed,
considering the user’s requirement.

 Extended E-R Features

The extended features are – Specialization, Generalization, Higher
and Lower level entity sets, Attribute Inheritance and Aggregation.
 Specialization: - It is the process of defining a set of
subclasses of an entity type; this entity type is called the superclass of
the specialization. The set of subclasses that forms a specialization is

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 53

defined on the basis of some distinguishing characteristic of the

entities in the superclass.
o For example, the set of subclasses
{SECRETARY, ENGINEER, TECHNICIAN} is a
specialization of the superclass EMPLOYEE that distinguishes
among employee entities based on the job type of each
employee entity. We may have several specializations of the
same entity type based on different distinguishing
characteristics. For example, another specialization of
the EMPLOYEE entity type may yield the set of subclasses
{SALARIED_EMPLOYEE, HOURLY_EMPLOYEE}; this
specialization distinguishes among employees based
on the method of pay.

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 54

o Specialization is defined as the process of identifying subsets of

an entity (super-class or super-type) that share some
distinguishable characteristics.
o Specialization is top down approach of superclass/subclass
relationship.
o It is the process of taking subsets of a higher-level entity set to
form lower-level entity sets and is actually Specialization.

E-ID E-Name E-Address

Employee

Permanent Temporary Hour-Basis

Basic&DA Fixed-salary Rate-per-hour

 Generalization: -
o The opposite of Specialization is Generalization. That is to
make a superclass from a number of subclass is known as the
process of Generalization.
o For example, consider the entity
types CAR and TRUCK shown in figure (a). Because they have
several common attributes, they can be generalized into the
entity type VEHICLE, as shown in figure (b).

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 55

Both CAR and TRUCK are now subclasses of the generalized

superclass VEHICLE.
o The generalization process can be viewed as being functionally
the inverse of the specialization process. Hence, in figure, we
can view {CAR, TRUCK} as a specialization of VEHICLE,
rather than viewing VEHICLE as a generalization
of CAR and TRUCK.
o Generalization is the Bottom up approach.
o In the figure, d means disjoint.
o Instead of d in a circle connector, other symbol can also be
used.

 Attribute Inheritance: -
o A crucial property of the higher- and lower-level entities
created by specialization and generalization is attribute

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inheritance. The attributes of the higher-level entity sets are

said to be inherited by the lower-level entity sets.
o For example – Permanent, Temporary and Hour-Basis are the
entities. These entities inherit the attributes from Employee
entity. So, Permanent is described by E-ID, E-Name, E-Address
and additionally Basic&DA attribute. Similarly, Temporary is
described by E-ID, E-Name, E-Address and additionally Fixed-
salary attribute.
o A lower-level entity set (or subclass) also inherits participation
in the relationship sets in which its higher-level entity (or
superclass) participates.
o Attribute inheritance applies through all tiers of lower-level
entity sets.
o Whether a given portion of an E-R model was arrived at by
specialization or generalization, the outcome is basically the
same:-
 A higher-level entity set with attributes and
relationships that apply to all of its lower-level
entity sets
 Lower-level entity sets with distinctive features
that apply only within a particular lower-level
entity set

 Constraints on Generalizations: -
The constraints that can be placed on generalization and specialization
are as follows:-
o Condition-defined:- In condition-defined, the membership of
entities is determined by placing a condition on the value of
some attribute of the superclass. The subclasses formed on the
basis of the specified condition are called condition-defined (or
predicate-defined) subclasses.
For example – if the EMPLOYEE entity has an attribute
Job-type, as shown in the following figure, then we can specify
the condition of membership in the PERMANENT subclass by

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 57

the condition (Job-type = ‘Permanent’), which we call the

defining predicate of the subclass. This condition is a
constraint specifying that exactly those entities of
EMPLOYEE set whose attribute value for Job-type is
‘Permanent’ belong to this subclass.
Since all the lowest-level entities are evaluated on the
basis of the same attribute (in this case, on Job-type), it is
known as attribute-defined.

E-ID E-Name E-Address

Job-type
EMPLOYEE

Job-type
d

PERMANENT TEMPORARY HOUR-BASIS

Basic&DA Fixed-salary Rate-per-hour

o User-defined: - Here, user-defined lower-level entity sets are

not constrained by a membership condition; rather, the database
user assigns entities to a given entity set. So the subclasses that
are formed are known as user-defined subclass.

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CELEBRITY Name

Home-state

PLAYER LEADER

Sport Party

For example, in above figure – a celebrity can be a Player or

Leader. Thus, the assignment of the entities of CELEBRITY
entity set, to a given subclass is specified by the database users
when they apply the operation to add an entity to the subclass.
A second type of constraint relates to whether or not
entities may belong to more than one lower-level entity set
within a single generalization.
o Disjoint constraint: - This constraint requires that an entity
belongs to no more than one lower-level entity set. For
example, in the case of EMPLOYEE entity set, an entity can be
either a Permanent or Temporary or Hour-basis, but cannot
belong to two or three subclasses. It is represented by d written
in a circle.
o Overlapping constraint: - In overlapping generalization, the
same entity may belong to more than one lower-level entity set
within a single generalization. For example, a celebrity can be a
player as well as political leader (e.g. Kirti Azad, Gautam
Gambhir).
o Completeness constraint: - This constraint on a generalization
or specialization, determines whether an entity in the higher-
level entity set must belong to at least one of the lower-level

Prof. Dr. K.P.Adhiya

 59

entity sets or not. The completeness constraint can be total or

partial.
 Total generalization or specialization: - Each
higher-level entity must belong to lower-level
entity set.
 Partial generalization or specialization: - Some
higher-level entities may not belong to any lower-
level entity set.

 Aggregation: -
 One limitation of the E-R model is that it cannot express
relationships among relationships.
 Consider the ternary relationship works-on, between an employee,
branch, and job.

 Now, suppose we want to have manager who will manage tasks

(jobs) performed by an employee at a branch; that is, we want to
manage for (employee, branch, job) combinations.
 So, there is an entity set manager, for managing the task.
 One alternative for representing this relationship is to create a
quaternary relationship manages between employee, branch, job, and
manager. Using the basic E-R modeling constructs, the E-R diagram
will be as follow -

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 60

 There is redundant information in the resultant figure, since every

employee, branch, job combination in manages is also in works-on.
 The best way to model such situation is to use aggregation.
Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationships are treated
as higher level entities. Thus, for given example, we regard the
relationship set works-on (relating the entity sets employee, branch,
and job) as a higher-level entity set called works-on. Such an entity
set is treated in the same manner as is any other entity set. We can
then create a binary relationship manages between works-on and
manager to represent who manages what tasks.

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Prof. Dr. K.P.Adhiya

 62

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 63

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Web Resources
1. https://beginnersbook.com/2015/04/dbms-tutorial/
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4. https://www.softwaretestinghelp.com/database-management-software/
5. www.BtechTutorial.com

Prof. Dr. K.P.Adhiya