Cellular Organization

Membrane structure and function Part-1

By
Dr. Ravina
Syllabus
Strategy For Students Reference Book

• Understand the Syllabus • Create a Study Plan • Molecular Cell Biology- Lodish
• Core/Basic Concepts • Short Notes • Molecular Biology of the cell-
• Topic-wise In-depth Study • Practice Previous Year Papers Bruce-Alberts
• Practice Previous Year • Regular Mock Tests • Cell and Molecular Biology-
Questions • Daily Revision Gerald Karp
• Consistent and Updated • Stay Consistent • Vander’s Human Physiology
information • Stay Updated
• Seek Guidance
 Cellular Organization
Membrane structure and function Part-1
Content
Cell
• Basic Properties of Cell
• Cell Theory
• Prokaryotic Cell
• Eukaryotic Cell
Structure of Plasma Membrane
• Models for Plasma Membrane Structure
• Freeze fracture Technique
• Micelle, bilayer and liposome
Basic Characters of Cell
• Cells are the minimal self-reproducing units of life. • Proteins, amino acid polymers, catalyze cell reactions
• A cell has catalysts enclosed in a plasma and control membrane transport.
membrane. • Protein structure and function depend on DNA-specified
• Cells function as biochemical factories with free amino acid sequences.
energy. • DNA determines cell chemistry, a common feature in all
• Genetic information transmission is crucial for cell cells.
reproduction. • All cells share a common ancestor over 3.5 billion years
• Cells store genetic information in double-strand ago.
DNA (genome).
 Cell Size
• Kilometre (km)
• Meter (m)
• Centimetre (cm)
• Millimetre (mm)
• Micrometre (μm)
• Nanometre (nm)

1km = 1000 m
1m = 100 cm
1cm = 10 mm
1 mm = 1000 μm
1 μm = 1000 nm
Basic Classification of Organism
Organism

Non-cellular organism Cellular organism

Based on presence or absence of

Virus Viroid nucleus

Prokaryotic Organism (Monera) Eukaryotic organisms

Based on number of cells

On the basis of 16s ribosome
Multicellular

Mode of nutrition
Eubacteria Archaebacteria Unicellular
Autotroph Heterotroph
Utilize inorganic carbon Utilize organic carbon
Photosynthetic Non-Photosynthetic
Plants Mode of intake of nutrition

Protists Algae Absorption Ingestion

Slime molds, Protozoa
Euglena, diatoms Land plant Fungi Animal
Eukaryotic cells/organisms
• Eukaryotic cell – 70% water, and approx. 25 different elements.
• C, H, O, N, S, P – 98% of mass
• Water- solvent for every eukaryotic cell

Cytoplasm Cytosol ( cytoplasmic matrix)

Double
Living component Protoplasm membrane
Organelles
Mitochondria
Protoplast Nucleus
Single
membrane
Non- Living component Lysosome
Nucleoplasm Nucleolus

Ergastic No membrane
bodies Ribosome
Cell Theory
• Schleiden and Schwann's 1839 cell theory: all
living things are made of cells; the cell is life's
basic unit.
• Rudolf Virchow's 1855 addition: cells arise
from pre-existing cells through division.
• All cellular organism made of cell.
• Cell are structural and functional unit of life.
• Cells- genetic material DNA.
• All the cells perform metabolic activity.
• Similar chemical composition.
• All cells require energy for their sustenance,
maintenance and division.
Prokaryotic cell
• No membrane-bound nucleus; genetic material in
nucleoid.
• Cell wall outside membrane for support.
• Plasma membrane regulates substance passage.
• Cytoplasm houses structures, facilitates reactions.
• Ribosomes for protein synthesis, free or attached.
• Flagella for movement; pili for attachment, genetic
exchange.
• Some have a protective capsule for resistance.
• Lack membrane-bound organelles.
• Single circular DNA molecule, no distinct nucleus.
• Plasmids may carry additional genetic information.
• Reproduction through binary fission, asexual
process.
Eukaryotic cell
• Membrane-bound nucleus with DNA.
• Cell membrane regulates substance flow.
• Gel-like cytoplasm fills the cell.
• Ribosomes synthesize proteins, free or attached.
• Cytoskeleton supports and aids movement.
• Nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus.
• Endoplasmic reticulum has rough and smooth types.
• Golgi complex modifies and transports proteins.
• Mitochondria produce ATP through cellular respiration.
• Lysosomes digest cellular waste.
• Vacuoles store nutrients and provide support.
• Chromosomes in the nucleus contain genetic data.
• Centrioles (animal cells) assist in cell division and structure.
Eukaryotic cell
Characters Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Nucleus Absent Present
Origin ~3.5 billion year before ~1.5 billion year before
Size Small (1-2 μm) Large (5-100 μm)

[Surface/Volume] ratio High Low ( due to plasma membrane cannot perform all functions
hence organelles required)
DNA Usually a single circular Multiple molecules (=chromosomes), linear, associated with
molecule (=chromosome) protein.
Complexity Less High
Unit membrane bound Absent Present (nuclear envelope, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic
organelles reticulum,
Ribosome 70s 80s & 70s
Mitosis & meiosis Absent Present ; Mitotic (budding, binary fission, multiple fission)
Meiosis (sexual reproduction)
Sexual reproduction Absent Present (not all but most) Gamete formation, gamete fusion ,
meiosis
Binary fission Present Absent
Cytoskeleton Absent Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments
Motility Rotary motor (drives bacterial flagellum) Dynein (drives cilia and eukaryote flagellum); kinesin, myosin
Differences between bacteria,
animal and plant cell
Features held in common by the two types of cells
• Plasma membrane of similar construction.
• Genetic information encoded in DNA using identical genetic code.
• Similar mechanisms for transcription and translation of genetic information, including similar
ribosomes.
• Shared metabolic pathways (e.g., glycolysis and TCA cycle).
• Similar apparatus for conservation of chemical energy as ATP (located in the plasma membrane of
prokaryotes and the mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes).
• Similar mechanism of photosynthesis (between cyanobacteria and green plants).
• Similar mechanism for synthesizing and inserting membrane proteins.
• Proteasomes (protein digesting structures) of similar construction (between archaebacteria and
eukaryotes).
• Cytoskeletal filaments built of proteins similar to actin and tubulin.
Step by step cell study
Plasma Membrane
• Cell membranes are crucial for defining cell boundaries.
• Plasma membranes maintain differences between cytosol and surroundings.
• Eukaryotic cell membranes separate organelles from cytosol.
• Protein-driven ion gradients across membranes serve diverse cellular functions.
• Plasma membrane proteins act as environmental sensors.
• Receptors on the membrane transfer information.
• Biological membranes share a common thin lipid-protein film structure.
• Cell membranes are dynamic and fluid, with molecules in constant motion.
• The lipid bilayer acts as an impermeable barrier in membranes.
• Membrane proteins mediate molecule transport and catalyze reactions.
• Transmembrane proteins in the plasma membrane serve structural and receptor roles.
• Various membrane proteins enable cell function and interaction with the environment.
• Around 30% of animal genome-encoded proteins are estimated to be membrane proteins.
Plasma Membrane
Model for Plasma Membrane

Overton model-1895
• Edwin Overton (1895): Proposed a model for cell
membrane permeability.
• Plasma membrane made up of lipid.
• Lipid soluble compound crosses the plasma membrane.
• Does not explain how ions are transported.
• Observation Basis: Correlated substance absorption
with lipid solubility.
• Lipid Solubility: Suggested it determines cell membrane
permeability.
• Simple Model: Lipid-soluble substances pass through
membranes more easily.
• Limitation: Now considered simplistic, lacking the
complexity seen in modern models.
Gorter & Grendel model-1925
• Introduced the idea of a double-layered
(Bilayer) structure for cell membranes.
• Their experiments on red blood cells
suggested a lipid monolayer covering.
• Proposed that phospholipids arrange in a
double layer within the membrane.
• Suggested a hydrophilic exterior and
hydrophobic interior in the lipid bilayer.
• Explained the stability and impermeability of
cell membranes.
• Laid the foundation for understanding
membrane structure.
• Modern models include proteins and a
dynamic view of membrane function.
• Limitation- failed to explain ion transport.
Gorter & Grendel model-1925

RBC

Surface area (X)

No. of RBCs count (N)

Total surface area (N.X)

Disrupt plasma membrane

This shows lipid Now calculate

surface area (2X) Spread over water
bilayer surface area
Danielli & Davison model-1935 Trilaminar model / Sandwich model

• Suggested a protein-lipid-protein sandwich structure for

biological membranes.
• Proposed protein layers on both sides of the lipid bilayer.
• Developed based on early electron microscopy observations.
• Attempted to explain membrane structure and function.
• Later rejected with advancements in membrane research.
• Replaced by the fluid mosaic model.
• Contributed to the evolving understanding of membrane
structure.
• Limitation: failed to explain the function of plasma membrane
Robertson model-1960 (Unit membrane model)
• Introduced the concept of a three-layered structure for biological membranes.
• Unit membrane model stated proteins exist on both sides without lipid layer space, applying
to all cell membranes.
• Structure of Plasma membrane = 75 Angstrom (20A + 35A + 20A).
• Developed based on advancements in electron microscopy.
• Suggested an electron-dense central layer between two less-dense layers.
• Later surpassed by more accurate and dynamic membrane models.
• Contributed to the early understanding of membrane structure.
Polar end (20A)
inner protein layer

Bilayer lipid (35A)

Polar end (20A)

Outer protein layer
Singer & Nicolson model-1972
• Described proteins embedded in a
dynamic lipid bilayer.
• Emphasized lateral movement of
molecules within the membrane.
• Differentiated between integral and
peripheral membrane proteins.
• Developed with insights from advanced
techniques like freeze-fracture and
electron microscopy.
• Widely accepted, replacing earlier rigid
structural models.
• Provided insights into membrane
functions and interactions.
• Continues to shape the contemporary
view of membrane dynamics and
functions.
Freeze fracture Technique

Principle: Involves freezing a specimen and then fracturing it to reveal internal structures.
Freezing: Rapidly freezes the specimen, preserving its structures in a snapshot-like state.
Fracturing: The frozen specimen is fractured along lines of weakness, often through membranes.
Replica Formation: A replica is created by applying a thin layer of metal (usually platinum or gold)
onto the fractured surface.
Replica Observation: The metal-coated replica is observed under a microscope, revealing detailed
surface features.
Membrane Studies: Particularly useful for studying cell membranes and internal structures.
Advantages: Preserves cell structures in a near-native state, providing high-resolution images.
Freeze fracture Technique
Proposed Models for Plasma Membrane Structure
Micelle, bilayer and liposome
• Amphipathic lipids form structures in aqueous solutions.
• Three types of lipid aggregates can form: micelle, bilayer, and liposome.
Micelle
• Formed by single-tailed phospholipids and glycolipids.
• Small, spherical structure (usually nanometers in diameter).
• Hides hydrophobic fatty acid chains inside the sphere.
Bilayer
• Two lipid monolayers combine to form a two-dimensional sheet.
• Relatively unstable with hydrophobic regions at edges
Liposome
• Formed when a bilayer folds back on itself, creating a hollow vesicle.
• Liposomes are closed, self-sealing vesicles bound by a single bilayer.
• Solvent-filled vesicles that minimize contact between hydrophobic lipid
components and water.
Phospholipids Spontaneously Form Bilayers
• Phospholipids form bilayers spontaneously in water due to their amphiphilic nature.
• Hydrophilic molecules dissolve in water, forming favorable interactions.
• Hydrophobic molecules are insoluble, causing water to organize into cage-like structures.
• Cage structures increase free energy due to their ordered nature.
• Clustering of hydrophobic molecules minimizes the entropic free-energy cost.
• Phospholipids pack to expose hydrophilic heads and minimize exposure of hydrophobic tails.
• Phospholipids can form spherical micelles or double-layered bilayers.
• Bilayers have a self-sealing property to eliminate free edges.
• Prohibition of free edges leads to bilayers forming sealed compartments.
The spontaneous closure of a phospholipid bilayer to
form a sealed compartment. The closed structure is
stable because it avoids the exposure of the
hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails to water, which would
be energetically unfavorable.
PYQs Practice
Q1. The fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane given by Singer and Nicolson is applicable to (Dec
2007)
(a) Only prokaryotic membrane
(b) Only eukaryotic membrane
(c) Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic membranes
(d) Only to organelle membranes
Ans: c
Explanation: The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane, proposed by Singer and Nicolson, is
applicable to both prokaryotic and eukaryotic membranes. This model describes the plasma membrane
as a flexible structure made up of a mosaic of components, including phospholipids, proteins,
cholesterol, and carbohydrates, giving the membrane a fluid character. The model explains the dynamic
and diverse nature of the plasma membrane, which is a characteristic of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells. Therefore, the correct answer is c: "Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic membranes."
Q2. The main force responsible for membrane resealing of ruptured bio-membrane in aqueous
environment is (Dec 2008)
a. Hydrophobic forces between membrane lipids
b. Covalent forces between membrane lipids
c. Force between protein and lipids
d. Ionic interactions between membrane lipids
Answer: a
Explanation: The main force responsible for membrane resealing of ruptured biomembranes in an
aqueous environment is the hydrophobic forces between membrane lipids. When a membrane is
ruptured, the hydrophobic interactions between the lipid molecules play a key role in the resealing
process. These interactions drive the spontaneous reassembly of the lipid bilayer, allowing the
membrane to seal the rupture and restore its integrity. This process is driven by the tendency of the
hydrophobic lipid tails to minimize their exposure to the surrounding aqueous environment, leading to
the self-sealing of the membrane. Therefore, the correct answer is "Hydrophobic forces between
membrane lipids."
Q3. The membrane lipid molecules assemble spontaneously into bilayers when placed in water and form a
closed spherical structure known as (Dec 2011)
(a) Lysosome
(b) Peroxisome
(c) Liposome
(d) Endosome
Ans: c
Explanation: The membrane lipid molecules assemble spontaneously into bilayers when placed in water and
form a closed spherical structure known as a liposome. This process is due to the amphipathic nature of
lipid molecules, which have a hydrophilic (water-attracting) head and a hydrophobic (water-repelling) tail.
When these lipid molecules are in contact with water, they self-assemble into a bilayer with the hydrophobic
tails oriented toward the center and the hydrophilic heads facing the aqueous environment. This closed
spherical structure, the liposome, is a key tool in the study of cell membranes and has various applications
in drug delivery, cosmetics, and biotechnology. Therefore, the correct answer is c: "Liposome."
Q4. If one of the two fatty acyl chains is removed from the phosphoglyceride by hydrolysis in solution, such
phospholipids will form: (Dec 2018)
a. Liposomes
b. Micelles
c. Phospholipid bilayer
d. Symmetric phospholipid bilayer
Answer: b
When one of the two fatty acyl chains is removed from the phosphoglyceride by hydrolysis in solution, such
phospholipids will form micelles. Micelles are lipid molecules that arrange themselves in a spherical form in
aqueous solution. The formation of a micelle is a response to the amphipathic nature of fatty acids, meaning
that they contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. When phospholipids are placed in water, they form
into micelles, with their hydrophilic heads oriented toward the water. This is due to the chemical and physical
characteristics of phospholipids, where the hydrophobic tails face the inside, away from the water, and the
hydrophilic heads face outward and are attracted to the intracellular and extracellular fluid. Therefore, the
correct answer is "Micelles."
Q5. Which one of the following changes is energetically favorable and occurs spontaneously in an
aqueous solution? (June 2023)
a. Formation of a bilayer from phospholipid molecules
b. Dispersion of one oil droplet into many small ones
c. Tearing of the lipid bilayer
d. Conversion of a membrane vesicle to a flat bilayer
Ans: a
Explanation: An aqueous solution is a homogeneous mixture in which some substance (solute) is
dissolved in water (solvent).
Phospholipid molecules consist of hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads. In aqueous solutions, the
hydrophobic tails of fatty acids and phospholipids associate together and reduce contact with water.
Hydrophilic heads of phospholipid molecules in contact with water.
This reaction of phospholipid molecules in water causes the spontaneous formation of a two-layer
phospholipid membrane.
The other options mentioned (B, C, and D) represent processes that require energy and wouldn't occur
spontaneously in an aqueous solution.
Q. Which of the following events in a biological membrane can never be energetically favorable and
therefore will not occur spontaneously?
a. the rotation of phospholipids
b. the lateral movement of phospholipids
c. the flip-flop of phospholipids to the opposite leaflet
d. the rotation of membrane proteins
e. the lateral movement of membrane proteins
Answer: c
Explanation: The flip-flop movement of phospholipids refers to phospholipids moving from one leaflet of the
bilayer to another one. This means that the hydrophilic head needs to move through the hydrophobic
interior of the lipid bilayer. As it requires overcoming the hydrophobic barrier, it is energetically unfavorable
and requires the assistance of enzymes. All of this makes this process one that does not occur
spontaneously.
In contrast, rotations and lateral movements within the same leaflet, of both proteins and phospholipids are
energetically favorable. Therefore, they can occur spontaneously. These movements are more common
since they are essential for the fluidity of biological membranes and they allow dynamic interactions.
“Success is the sum of small efforts, repeated.” —R. Collier