RIFT VALLEY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY

ANIMAL PRODUCTION MODULE 3

2425/302

Keya Evusa Kennedy

Revised April 2017

COURSE OUTLINE
 Introduction to dairy industry
 Dairy cattle management
 Beef production
 Animal health III
 Sheep production
 Goat production
 Rabbit production
 Bee production
 None conventional livestock and wildlife
 Livestock products

a) Introduction to dairy industry

Milk is mainly obtained from cattle and buffaloes
Production of milk from cattle overwhelms that from other livestock
Dairy cattle breeds can be categorized into three:
i) Indigenous breeds BOS indicus e.g. Zebu
ii) Pure exotic breeds BOS Taurus e.g. Holstein Friesian
iii) Cross between BOS indicus and BOS Taurus i.e. grade cattle
Importance of keeping dairy cattle for national development
1. Source of income
2. Creation of employment
3. Complements beef industry
4. Source of food
5. High quality products are obtained from milk e.g. butter, cheese, ghee etc.

Characterization of high milk producing counties

1. High quality dairy stock
2. Have well organized processing and marketing of milk
3. Supplies production of milk
4. Use of modern production techniques e.. computerized systems
5. Have well developed disease control methods e.g. well-equipped laboratories and
trained personnel
6. Have well organized records

Why African’s lies behind in dairy production

1. Reliance on subsistence production which produces only 4% of the total dairy
production
2. Breeds kept are of low milk production potential
3. High incidences of diseases most of which are endemic
4. Harsh climatic conditions i.e. less amounts of rainfall, high temperatures
5. Location on the equator i.e. African location on the equator provides for high
temperatures which increases incidences of diseases and parasites
6. Lack of skills i.e. most farmers have very literal or no skills on selection or evaluation
for improvement of dairy production
Dairy industry in Kenya
 Dairy industry entails keeping of dairy cattle with the main objective of milk
production
 In Kenya, it was introduced by the white settlers from Europe
 They carried out cross breeding to upgrade the animals
 Kenya compared to its neighbouring countries has a well-developed dairy
industry
 In 1903, a veterinary lab was established in Kabete
 In 1925, KCC founded which had the responsibility of processing and marketing
dairy products e.g. cheese, butter etc.
 In 1946, these was established of central AI station at Kabete to help control
reproductive diseases and to improve genetic potential of dairy animals for dairy
production
 In 1958, Kenya dairy Board was established through an act of parliament to
regulate dairy marketing
 In 1963, the settlers who helped to leave the country sold their firms to the
government leads to establishment of ADC farms (Agricultural Development Co-
operation Farms).
 In 1966, livestock services were introduced which included clinical and regular
AI services
 In 1971, the quota system of dairy marketing of KCC was abolished since it
excluded most small scale farmers
 In 1980, delivery of efficient services by KCC became limited due to
mismanagement and government constrains
 In 1990s, KCC was unable to pay farmers for milk delivered
 In 1992, marketing of milk was liberalized which encouraged many players i.e.
firms to process and market milk.
 In order to avoid the collapse of KCC the government gave a loan through KCB
in order to reinstate the new KCC
How to improve Dairy industry in Kenya
1. Improve quality of livestock/animals through cross breeding, good selection records
and use of AI services
2. Provide adequate feeds of good quality plus supplementation
3. Proper control of diseases and parasites
4. Train people in dairy animals handling
5. Have proper marketing strategy
6. The government to establish policies that help dairy industry e.g. control of prices and
payment of taxes
7. Improve on land tenure system i.e. the system should be more secured to translate
into high quantities of the products
8. Provision of incentives to dairy farmers by subsidizing the price of inputs e.g.
veterinary drugs, feeds etc.

Advantages of a dairying
1. It provides staple or regular income throughout the year
2. Milk improves family dietary i.e. health status
3. Dairying feeds well in a diversified farming system where mixed cropping and animal
production is practices (Complementary enterprises)
4. Calves are efficient converters of forage into milk
5. Waste from cattle improves soil fertility

Disadvantages of dairying
1. High labour requirements
2. Requires high initial capital investment
3. Outbreaks of diseases and parasites
4. High cost of feeds incase fodder is not available on the farm
 Dairy cattle breeds
A breed is a group of animals, which have common origin, and specific identifiable traits
that have been characterized by a group of people
The level or amount of milk an animal produces depends on:-
1. Genetic potential of the animal
It determines the basis capacity of animal to convert nutrients to milk
2. Nutritional status
The source and type of feed given to the animal
3. Health status of the animal i.e.
The body condition of the animal
4. Environment i.e.
The surrounding in which the animal is raised since it can be a stress factor to the
animal

Factors to consider in choice of breed

1. Farmers own individual preference
2. Breed characteristics
3. Environmental factors e.g. ambient temperatures, acro-econological zones, temperature
etc.
4. Management standards
5. Availability of resources e.g. feeds, capitals etc.
6. Dairy production system the farmer wants to adapt i.e. commercial on subsistence

NB
It is important the right breed for the right management standards and environment

Indigenous cattle breeds (BOS indicus)

They are widely distributed in the tropics
There are about 30 indegenous breeds which include Sahiwal, red sindhi, Gir, white Fulani,
Ankole, Maasai, Turkana, Kalenjin etc.
In Kenya this cattle are about 12 million
Characteristics of indigenous breeds
1. Low genetic potential for milk production
2. They have high resistance to tropical diseases and parasites
3. They are highly adapted to local climatic condition that is characterized by high ambient
temperature and intense solar radiation
4. They can walk for long distance in search of forage and water
5. They still produce yields with relatively low standards of management (low quality
yields)
6. They are important genetic resource for improvement of dairy cattle in the tropics due to
their versatility
7. They can be improved/upgraded through cross breeding with the exotic breeds together
with improved management

Exotic Breeds (BOS Taurus

They can be pure exotic breeds or crosses between the same breeds
The important breeds include:-
 Holstein Friesian
 Aryshire
Increasing milk productivity

 Guernsey
 Jersey
 Brown Swiss DDIiIncreasing BF content
 Short horn
 Panish red DD
 simmental

Characteristics of Exotic breeds

1. They give high quantity of milk under good management
2. They are not well adapted to hot climatic areas
3. They require high quantity of feeds plus supplementary feeding
4. They have well defined dairy characteristics of body conformation
5. They are widely used for upgrading local cattle
6. Their productivity is improved using high quality semen or embryo transfer
7. There must be good feeding programme that has good fodder crops and feed conservation
8. They require high standard of disease and parasitic control

External features of a dairy cow

1. Wedge shaped i.e.
The body narrows on the anterior (head) side and broaden on the rear side
2. Prominent milk veins and long teats
3. They have a thin body which carries little flesh
4. They have large stomach which makes them heavy feeders
5. They have wide and well set hind quarters to create room for a large udder
6. They are docile with mind temperament for easy handling
7. They are regular breeders
8. They have a flat back that is not sunken
9. The pin borne and hook borne are protruding

Holstein Friesian
Origin – Netherlands
Distribution – worldwide
Colour – white and black
 It is the highest yielder of milk
 BF content is 3.5
 Calves are usually borne larger averaging weight of 40kg
 They are heavy grazers in good pasture i.e. can consume upto 17kg DM per day
 They are ideal for upgrading indigenous cattle for milk production

Aryshire
Origin – Scottland
Distribution – worldwide
Colour – Cherry red with white markings
 It is a medium to heavy weight with good milk
 Production under good management
 BF content of 3.8%
 Calves weight 30-35kg at birth
 The age at first calving is 1½years
 It is a hardy animal making it ideal in areas of medium Agricultural potential

Guernsey
Origin – France
Distribution – worldwide
Colour – Light brown to almost red and it may have white markings on the face, legs,
switch and frank
 It is a good milk producer under good management
 It is a hardy animal
 Milk has 4-5 BF content
 Calves at birth weigh 25-35kg at birth
 Age at first calving is 2½ years
 It has moderate food requirement compared with the Friesian
 Popularity of this breed is declining

Jersey
Origin – Jersey highland in UK
Distribution – worldwide and more so in tropics
Colour – brownish
 It is a light animal
 It is heat tolerant which accounts for its distribution in the tropics
 BF content is 5%
 Calves at birth weigh 20-25kgs
  Age at first service is 2 – 2½ years
 It has long food requirement compared with the other 3 breeds making it a breed of
choice for small scale farmers
 They have true dairy characteristics

Sahiwal
It is a dual purpose breeds
It is probably fair dairy breed of tropical origins
Origin – India
The Kenyan government has maintained a pedigree herd at Naivasha (history of ancestors)
Colour – It is cherry to dark red
 It is an average milk producer under good management
 Age at first calving is 3½ years
 They have thick teats hence difficult milkers
 The udder is large and pendulous

Production systems of dairy cattle

It refers to type of dairy cattle kept and how they are reared classification of any production
system involves a clear definition of resource inputs, production processes and product
output
There are three main resource inputs for agricultural production
i) Land
ii) Labour
iii) Capital
Dairy system therefore can be classified into:
i) According to the importance of one or two of this inputs
ii) According to the level of outputs
Factors that influence characterization of system
1) Type of animal kept
Exotic breed, cross breed, zebu
2) Level of commercialization
In highly commercialized systems pure exotic breeds are kept since they have good
returns
Subsistence level of production will attract indigenous or zebu breeds
3) Resource availability
Resource available in terms of capital, feeds, equipment etc.
4) Skills of the farmer i.e.
The knowledge the farmer has
5) Environment
It refers to agro-ecological zone in terms of disease equivalence, rainfall, solar radiation,
terrain
There are two main
i) Commercial system
ii) Subsistence system

 Subsistence system
- The objective of this system is to meet subsistence needs of a farmer and his/her
family (household use)
- There is very little surplus in the system
- It is common with nomadic pastoralists e.g. Turkana, Samburu and Maasai
- It is carried out in medium to small scale agricultural farms where crop
production is the main activity but farmers choose to keep one or two animals
- The system has low productivity of milk per animal
- Poor nutrition
- Disease prevalence
- Less attendants to the animal
- Little or no capital investment
 - No pasture improvement
- Erratic supply of milk due to seasonal fluctuation in feeds
- Most farmers who practice it keep on migrating in such of forage and water

Commercial system of dairy production

 The objective of this system is to carry out dairying as a profit making or a business
operation
 Income is generated from sale of milk, breeding stock (heifers, prime bull etc.) culled
stock, young stock (veal for beef culled stock and surplus fodder (hay and silage).
 This system is characterized with high quality dairy cows, usually pure breeds
 High capital investment in terms of pasture improvement, feeding, water troughs, good
milking facilities and equipment’s
 High output per animal
 Highly improved breeding and management standards that involves use of AI, embryo
transfer, computerized racial formulation
 Well organized feed supply system i.e. good quality pasture is grown, forage
conservation and supplementation of animals with minerals and grain based concentrates

Traits of economic importance in dairy cattle

1. Milk yield
2. Persistence of yields
3. Longevity
4. Dairy temperament
5. Milk ability
6. Fertility/reproductive efficiency
7. Adaptability
8. Conformation traits
1. Milk yield
It refers to the amount of milk per location of period
They also refer to quantity of milk BF% protein% and somatic cell count (indicator of
mastitis)
It is polygenic traits (quantitative trait) determine by many genes
It has heritability of 25-30%

2. Persistence of yield
 It is the uniformity of decline in milk production as lactation progresses
Milk yield (kgs)

A (Not persistent)
B (Persistent)

Time (months)

 It has heritability of 40-60%

3. Longivity
It is looked at in two ways
i) Total length of live of an animal in herd
ii) In terms of the length of productive life of an animal
 It is a measure of the animals ability to coup with a specific environment and
adapt to various changes
  The longer the productive lifespan the better for the produces (Farmer) in
economic terms
 Good dairy cattle should have productive life of at least five years
 Longevity is a trait that has gained economic importance and positively co-related
with several conformation traits

4. Dairy temperament
It is the ease in which the animal is handled. Animal should not be hostile but docile.
Hostile cows should be culled because they are dangerous to be handled

5. Milkability
It is the ability of a cow to produce milk under minimum stimulation
It is related to various udder characteristics and the temperament of the cow
It gives an indication of the amount and type of stimulation she requires before she lets
down milk
Zebus need a calf to be present before being milk
Exotic cows are easily stimulated
6. Fertility/reproductive efficiency
Fertility is a complex traits that differs between the sexes
In male animal fertility traits includes:-
 Age of first services
 No of services per conception
 No of services per calf born
In female animals it refers to age at first services
 No of service at conception
 Calving interval
 Days open (60-90)
 Ability to produce live calves every year

7. Adaptability
 It refers to ability of an animal to coup with various environmental conditions that it is
exposed to in its lifespan that is ability to coup with different temperature level of solar
radiation, diseases, feed qualities etc.
In tropics zebu’s tend to coup better with various environmental stresses than pure
exotic breeds

8. Conformation traits
These are traits that are intended with dairy e.g. feet and leg traits, body structure, body
depth udder characteristics

Management of dairy cattle

a) Reproductive management
Reproductive management plays a integral part in dairy
A good dairy cow must be able to:-
 Come on heat
 Conceive after insemination
 Carry pregnancy to full time
 Calf successfully
 Have lactation of at least 30 days

Ideally all the above should be within one calendar year 12 – 13 months
Good reproduction management involves the following;
 Selection and culling
 Service/insemination management
 Pregnancy diagnosis
 Gestation/pregnancy management
 Calving management
b) Selection and culling
These are tools of managing production in dairy cow both of them are essential for
maintaining an economic and productive herd

Selection
It is a tool that has been used by a man in animal improvement
It involves identifying and isolating superior animals than the average in population
hence selection differential(s) the larger the (s) the better
Current selection methodology is based on the developing a selection index and the index
can be based on;
 Individual performance
 Ancestral records
 Group performance
 Progeny performance

Culling
It involves removing unproductive calves from the herd to avoid wastage of resources
i) Poor conformation
 Lack of dairy characteristics
 Poor udder conformation
 Bad temperament
ii) Inability of the animal to conceive after service ever after veterinary assistance
iii) Long calving interval which is related to long open days (60-90days)
iv)Chronic instances of diseases e.g. mastitis
v) Poor milk production i.e. lower than the average of the herd
vi)Severe injury that affects animal performance e.g. blindness
vii) Abnormalities e.g.
 Teat deformities
 Poor milkability
viii) Age cull very old animals
ix) Death of a cow/animal i.e. when a cow dies it is considered culled as well
Service/insemination management
It involves presentation of a cow that is on oestrus (heat) for service either by the bull (natural) or
by artificial insemination (AI)

For service to result into conception the cow or heifer must be on heat and the service must be
done timely i.e. not too early nor too late.

Sexual maturity comes after puberty and the age of the heifer at first service depends on
physiological age (body size) rather than actual age (chronological age of the animal

Weight at first breeding is a function of the genetic constitution of an animal and management
especially in terms of nutrition

Cows
Normal oestrus resume after 30 – 45days after calving (pp) post purtum but uterine involution is
still taking place and can affect conception.

Oestrus cycle takes 18 – 24 days giving an average of 21 days. Serve the animal at any heat
between 60 – 90 days pp
Days open

s 60-90days Gestation period 2months

Successful service Dry period Calving

Gestation Period
305 days

Calving interval

NB:

Reducing calving interval means proper management of the service or open period

/
r ve n
ilk cu tio
m n c
io d u
ak ld t
a o e
Pe yie act pr urv
L ilk c
M
Pregnancy/Gestation
Open
period Dry period

Foetal growth

curve

0 60-90 305 365 days

Days Lactation Calving

Calving
NB:

Oestrus circle takes 18 – 24 days (21days) the heat will last for 2 – 3 days i.e.
 Coming on heat 0 – 8hours
 Standing on heat 11 – 18hours
 Going out of heat
It is important to serve the animal 7 – 18 hours from the beginning of standing on heat

General heat signs of a cow

i) Constant moowing or bellowing
ii) Mounting on others and allowing itself to be mounted by others
iii) Clear mucus discharge from the vulva
iv) Going off feed
v) Restlessness
vi) Sharp drop in milk production
vii) Reddening of the vulva (external genitalia)
viii) The cow seek the bull and run after other cows
Oestrus related problems
1. Silent heat – due t high temperature, poor nutrition etc.
2. Absence of heat – due to diseases, lactation stress, low nutrition, cow nursing the calve
3. Shorter than average heat period
4. Unavailability of service when need – due to logistical problems

Pregnancy (Gestation management)

 After service wait for 18 – 24 days and check for a return of oestrus
 Pregnancy diagnosis should be done to confirm pregnancy of the cow
 Help to detect early unproductive animals
 For customers to buy heifers that are confirm pregnant
 To confirm calved animals are indeed not pregnant
 Put the cow on good nutrition especially in the late gestation period (last trimester)
  Steaming up is carried out 6-8weeks before the expected calving date

Steaming up
It is the provision of good nutrients and more intensive care during the third trimester of
pregnancy. This prepares the animal for calving and milk production in the next lactation
Do not overfed the animal

Importance of steaming up
1. To ensure the animal gets adequate nutrients for foetal growth
2. To prepare the cow to give birth to a health calf
3. For the cow to restore body reserve
4. To ensure the cow gives high milk production after calving
5. To avoid high incidences of milk fever, ketosis

Calving process
Gestation period varies with
i) Breed
Exotic short, zebu longer
ii) Multiple/unitary foetus
Multiple shorter, unitary longer
iii) Sex of the calf
Male longer, female shorter

Signs of imminent/calving
 Restlessness
 The animal hide in dark place
 Large harder and secretion of milk
 Relaxation of muscles around the tail
Calving problems
 Difficult calving/dystocia
It can be too large foetus, over feeding, under feeding, heifers
 Retained after birth/placenta
Placenta should be expelled, remove within 72hours of calving
 Mal-presentation
This is incorrect position of the foetus. Correct presentation is when the fore legs and
head come in a diving posture

Measures of reproductive efficiency

Reproductive efficiency is a measure of the ability of a cow to produce a viable offsprings
It is a phenotypic characteristic that is objectively measure in different ways

i) Number of services per conception

It is the number of times a cow need to be served before conception is achieved
Ideally, it should be one service conception but an average of 1.3 – 1.5 services for
conception is acceptable
ii) Number of service required by calf born
Not all animals that conceived are able to carry a pregnancy to full term
Problems that occur in the pregnancy may lead to miscarriage or still birth
iii) Calving rate
Is the number of life calves produced per 100 cows exposed to the bull or AI
iv) Calving interval
It is the timely period between two consecutive calving
v) Length of service period
It is the time between the first breeding and conception
 COMPARE TWO FARMS A AND B
FARM A: 100 COWS IN HERD FARM A: 100 COWS IN HERD

No of service Concept- No of service Calf No of Conception No of service Calf

ion born service born
1st 2nd 3rd 4th N 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th N 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

61 20 8 5 6 60 18 5 4 34 16 14 14 10 12 30 15 14 13 9

No of service/conception = (61x1) + (20x2) + (8x3) + (5x4)

61+20+8+5

= 145
95

= 1.54

No. of service/calf born = No of service

No. of calves

= 145
6+18+5+4

= 145
87

= 1.66

No. of service/conception = (34x1) + (16x2) + (14x3) + (14x4) + (10x5)

34 + 16 + 14 + 14 + 10

= 214
88

= 2.4
No. of service/calf born = 214
30 + 15 + 14 + 13 + 9

= 214
81

= 2.64

Farm A is considered to have a better reproductive efficient than farm B

Feeding Dairy Cattle

Dairy cattle when consisted rations to meet their nutrients for both milk production and other
body functions
The three main factors that influence milk production in a dairy cow are:
 Genetic potential
 Feeding level
 Health
Good feeds must supply the following nutrients
 Energy
 Vitamins
 Proteins
 Water
 Minerals

An animal should be supplied with 3% DM of kg per body weight

If an animal weighs 900kg, it will consume 3/100 x 900kg of dry matter per day

= 27kg DM per day

Sources of nutrients to dairy cows
1. Roughage forages
They are bulky feeds high in good fibre
They can be natural pastures for grazing or established legs e.g. Rhodes grass, star grass,
kikuyu grass, fodder crop e.g. Napier grass, sorghum, Guatemala, fodder maize

2. Crop by-product
e.g. maize stover, this crop by products are cheap, readily available and help to maintain
optimum rumino activity and also ensure that milk of high BF content is produced
3. Concentrates
They have a high density of either a single nutrient or a combination of various nutrients
thus various type of concentrates are available e.g.
 Energy concentrates
 Protein concentrates e.g. fish meal
 Various mixture dairy meal of energy, proteins and minerals

NB:
A modern cow who is a high yielder cannot realize their potential on forage alone and
therefore concentrates must be added but only consider the cost benefit ratio
Include mineral supplements in the animal ration
Choose a complete mineral supplements with all minerals (micro and macro)
 Minerals are normally provided in form or blocks or salts for licking separately or
combined with other feeds
 Give the animal vitamins more so fat soluble vitamins (ADEK), B complex
vitamins are synthesized in the rumen
 Provide animal with clean drinking water which is a very important nutrient

Milk and milking

Milk is a white substance secreted in the mammary glands of the females of all mammals after
parturition, female produce milk as food for their young ones
  Human beings milked cows, goats, camels and buffalos mainly as food
 Milk is a process into products such as butter, cream cheese, ghee, yoghurt etc.
 The composition of milk varies from one animal to the other
 The normal variations are slight, depending on whether it is colostrum, mastitis milk,
milk from late lactation, unhygenically produced milk or taineted milk by certain feed
staffs
 Milk is a complete food since it contains proteins, carbohydrates (lactose), fats, minerals
and water.

Factors affecting milk composition

1. Age of the animal
As the animal grow as elder BF percent composition in milk become less and less
Young animals produce milk with high BF than older animals

2. Condition of the animal

It refers to the physiological condition of the animal e.g. emaciation, sickness and
pregnancy

3. Stage of lactation and pregnancy

BF content in milk tends to be higher at the middle phase of lactation period
Hormonal changes in a pregnant lactating cow are responsible for the lactation trends and
the milk composition

4. Completeness of milking
The last drawn milk from the udder carries 10% of the total fats percentage in the milk
Milk produced by an animal in the morning has lower fat content than that drawn in the
evening

5. Breed differences
Different breeds produce milk with different percentage composition
 Indigenous breeds have higher BF content than exotic breeds

6. Season of the year

Fat percent increase during cold season of the year

7. Type of food eaten by the animal

Volatile fatty acids are produced in the rumen of the animal and influence milk
composition
This acids include acetic, butyric and propionic
When animal feed on greens, they produce a lot of propionic and butyric acid and little
acidic acid
Roughages produces a lot of acidic acid
An animal eating a lot of roughages produce milk with high fats, proteins and lactose
than that fed on greens

8. Other factors like mastitis affect milk composition because lactose that is in milk is fed
on by the bacteria

Milk secretion and milk let down

 Mammary glands produce milk after the cow calves down
 Milk is a vital nourishment of calves during their early stages of growth
 The mammary glands is also called the udder
 It is compost of balloon shaped cell called alveoli
 Many alveoli form a lobule
 The alveoli drained their content into the lobule
 Several lobules forms a lobe which is drained by lactiferous duct
 Many lobes forms a quarter of the udder
 The quarters of udder are anatomically separated and through separate teats,
thus the number of teats equals to the number of quarters
 All four quarters forms the udder
 Each teat has a gland cistern which is guarded by the sphincter muscles
 The gland cistern has an opening called teat canal

 Milk secretion or cythesis is called lactogenesis

 Milk is synthesized from the food the cow eats
 Digested food is carried by blood to the udder where milk are synthesized
 Lactogenesis which is controlled by the hormones starts towards the end of gestation
period
 Low level of estrogen hormone towards end of pregnancy activate the pituitary glands to
produce prolactin hormone which act directly to the udder to initiate lactogenesis
 Lactation is the copious flow of milk from the udder and it starts just before or
immediately after birth.
 In the alveoli region, there is a heavy network of blood vessels carrying the nutrients that
milk will be synthesized from
 The milk that is secreted is stored in the hollow cavities of the alveoli region
  Some milk will drain into the gland and then thick cistern where it is stored and remove
during milking

Milk let down

 It is the flow of milk from the upper region of the udder (alveoli region) to the gland and
teat cisterns either by milking or suckling
 Milk let down is involved active participation from the cow and occur after the cow is
stimulated by either calf, pushing udder by warm water, feeding, familiar noises,
presence of milk man or whistling
 This stimulus send a message through the nervous system to the pituitary gland through
an hormone oxytocin into the blood stream
 Oxytocin causes contraction of the upper region of the udder which forces milk to drain
into the gland and teat cisterns from where it is easily removed
 Sometimes the cow can decide to hold back milk when there is strain due to new
surrounding change of milkman, strange people, change in routine, fear, pain, anxiety etc.
 This strain sends a message to the brain which informs the pituitary glands to secret
hormone adrenaline which causes relaxation of the muscles acting contrary to oxytocin
 Adrenalin also limits supply of blood to the udder so that very little oxytocin may reach
the muscle of the alveoli region

Clean milk production

Milk is food and must be produced and kept in a clean and healthy condition

Characteristics of clean and high quality milk

 Free from disease causing organisms
 Free from air dirt and dust
 It should be of high keeping quality
 Good flavour
 Its chemical composition should be within the expected standards
Essentials of clean milk production
1. Healthy milking herd
The cows should be free from milk borne diseases e.g. brucellosis, TB

2. Clean milking cows

The animal should be clean especially from the fungus, underlying and the whole udder
Clean using a towel and dry the udder
Clip long hair on the udder

3. Healthy and clean milk man

Milk man should not be suffering from contagious diseases, should be physically clean,
fingernails short and hair covered

4. Clean milking shade or polour

The milking shade should be kept clean, free from dust or odours

5. Clean milk utensils

The milking utensils should be seamless, smooth, should be washed with hot water or a
detergent and then rinsed with clean water after each milking

6. Milk filtration, cooling and storage

Filter milk are cooled it down to 5oC immediately after milking.
This slows down bacterial multiplication
It should be stored in cool dry and dust free rum or deliver to the consumer

7. Avoid flavours in milk

Bad flavours are caused by feedstuffs and oxidation. Silage, pineapple, fruit waste,
onions, Mexican marigold may cause bad flavours and should only be fed to cows after
milking
 Oxidation flavours in milk are due to oxidation of fats if milk is exposed to the sun for a
long time or if kept in containers that has iron or copper

Milking materials and equipment’s

1. Udder cloths/towels
Should be two-one for washing udder
Second for drying udder
2. Filtering pads
Used for straining milk
3. Milking jelly
It is smeared on teats after milking to prevent cracking
4. Warm water
For washing the udder before milking to remover dirt

5. Milking pails/buckets
To hold milk during milking
Free from traces of copper and iron

6. Strip cup
Used for detecting mastitis
The first strip of milk from each teat is put into it to detect if there are some clods or
flakes

7. Milk cans/churns
They hold milk during storage and transportation should be free of copper and iron on the
surface

8. Refrigerators/charcoal coolers
They hold milk at 4oC or lower

9. Milking stool
 Used by the miler while milking

10. Weighing scale

Used for weighing amount of milk produced by each animal

Milking procedure
 Milking materials and equipment’s should be availed before milking starts
 Put the cow in the milking polour, restrain it and give it food
 The udder is washed and dried it using towels check for presence of mastitis
 In hand milking the teat is grasped tightly at its base between the thumband fore finger
and the other three fingers are closed in tightly applying the pressure from the top to the
bottom forcing milk to drain from the teat to the bucket
 The base of the teat is held firmly to prevent back flow of milk into the gland
 Do not pull the teats with the fingers

Rules to be observed when milking

1. Milk quickly and evenly
The effect of oxytosine last for 5 to 7 minutes therefore quick and efficient milking is
required

2. Milk at regular intervals

Cows are usually milked at two times a day at 12 hour intervals
Those that are high yielding are milk at 3 times a day at 8 hours intervals

3. Avoid use of wet hands

Dry hands are hygienic

4. Complete milking
All the milk should be removed during milking
Incomplete removal of milk leads to drying off soon and the total milk per lactation is
reduced
 5. Carry out post milking practices
e.g. weighing and recording milk, straining, cooling and storing it, cleaning the utensils
and washing the parlors

Dry cow therapy

 During the dry off period some milk is left in the teat canal, which can act as a culture
media for bacterial infection and cause mastitis
 Mastitis control antibiotics are applied into the teat canal after drying of the cow
 They are sold in small tubes that contain enough dose for each teat

Calves management
Calves rearing
 Calves forms the replacement stock
 A calf is usually from birth age to four months when it is weaned
 The calf should be fed on colostrum within the first 6 hours of birth
 Colostrum is the thick yellow milk produced by a cow in the first four to 6 days after
calving
 The calf should continue taking milk

Importance of colostrum
1. It is highly digestible
2. It is highly nutritious and has vitamin for growth and disease resistance
3. It has antibodies that enable the calf to resist disease infection
4. It has laxative effect i.e. cleans the bowels of the calf
5. It is highly palatable
NB:
A calf should get colostrum from its own mother
However, if the mother die or is unable to produce colostrum the calf should get colostrum on
the foster mother or given artificial colostrum

How to prepare artificial colostrum

 Whip a fresh egg into 0.86ltrs of water at half litre of warm water
 Add 1 teaspoonful of cold liver oil
 Add 1 teaspoonful of castor oil
 Mix them thoroughly and colostrum is ready for use
 Feed the artificial colostrum 3 times a day for the first 4 days thereafter castor oil is
committed in the mixture when the calf starts to pass normal dung

Method of rearing calves

There are two methods:-
 Natural rearing
 Artificial rearing

1. Natural rearing
Calf is allowed to suckle the mother
It is not popular in modern dairy farming

Advantages
i) Calf takes milk at body temperature
ii) Milk is free from contamination
iii) Problems of scouring are minimized

Disadvantages
i) The calf may be under fed or over fed resulting in digestive disorders such as
scours
 ii) When cows are stimulated by the calf, in the absence of the calf the cow dries up
early
iii) It is difficult to keep accurate record of milking

2. Artificial/bucket method
 A calf is separated from the mother immediately it is born and kept in its pen
 It is then train to drink milk from a bucket

Procedure of training a calf

1. Put clean milk in a bucket
2. Place the index finger into the calf mouth, the calf start suckling
3. Lower the finger slowly into the milk in the bucket as the calf sucks
4. Slowly withdraw the finger while the calf is suckling
5. Repeat step 1 to 4 until the calf learn how to drink milk from the bucket

Advantages of bucket feeding

1. Easy to give accurate record of milk yield
2. Easy to regulate amount of milk taken by the calf
3. Cows can continue producing milk in the absence of the calf
4. Easy to maintain high standard of sanitation
5. It is more profitable to the farmer by selling more milk

Weaning of calves
There are two weaning programmes
 Early weaning
 Late weaning

a) Early weaning
  A calf is fed on whole milk equal to 1/10 of its body weight upto the eight
week thereafter milk is reduced gradually by 1kg until it is weaned
 It should also be fed on the weaning concentrates and forage

b) Late weaning
 Calf is fed on whole milk which is replaced by mixture of whole milk and
skim milk at the 3rd week onwards
 Calf is also given calf pellets starting from the third week
 Green fodder should also be produced in the third week

Calf housing
Calf should be housed to prevent them from adverse weather conditions e.g. wetness, high
temperatures, chilling.

Types of calf pens

 Raised permanent pens
 Permanent calf pens of concrete floors
 Mobile calf pens

Requirements
1. Cleanliness
Keep calf pens clean always
2. Dryness and warmth
Maintain the pen dry and warm by putting dry litter on the floor
3. Adequate space
For exercise, feeding and watering equipment’s
4. Proper lighting for synthesis of vitamin D
5. Proper drainage to avoid dampness and infection
6. Drought free – the pen should have solid walls to prevent cold winds from entering
7. Proper ventilation for fresh air circulation
 8. Single housingwithin the first 3 months of its life to prevent leaking and formation of air
bodies in the rumen

Routine management in calves

1. Parasite control
Drenching for internal parasites and spraying

2. Disease control
Through vaccination

3. Castration of males
At 3 months old so that they are dosile, fatten faster, control inbreeding, control breeding
as well as control breeding diseases

4. Identification
Ear tagging, ear notching, branding, tattooing, neck strap

5. Removal of extra teeth

6. Dehorning/disbudding
NUTRITIONAL DISEASES CAUSES SYMPTIMS AND TREATMENT
1. Milk fever/hypocalcemia/partutient paresis
2. Bloat
3. Ketosis/acetoanaemia
4. Mastitis
5. Displaced abomasum
6. Fat cow syndrome
7. Pneumonia
8. Reproductive diseases
 Brucelosis
 Leptospirosis
  Trichomonas

1. Milk fever
 It is a non-infectious metabolic disease
 For high yielding dairy cows it occurs in the first three days after
parturition/calving down in high yielding cows

Pre-disposing factors
i) Cows that are high yielders
ii) Cows in their third gestation
iii) Less calcium deposited in the skeletons during the dry phase
iv) Deficiency of vitamin D in the diet – vitamin D aid in absorption of calcium from
blood plasma to the bones

Cause
 Low phosphorous and calcium content in the blood (hypocalcaemic)
 Insufficient parathyroid hormone that is responsible for calcium and
magnesium metabolism

Symptoms
 The animal trembles (muscles tremors) and tetany
 The animal collapses and becomes unconscious (lies down)
 The animal appears dull with steering eyes
 Body processes stops e.g. urination, defecation, milk production, rumination
 Animal develops respiratory stress
 The animal become depressed
 The animal turns its head to flank with the muzzle touching the ground
 Loss of appetite
 Recumbence i.e. the animal lies down and is unable to walk or stand
 Protrusion of the tongue and gridding teeth
 Reduction and body temperature (36oC)
 Prevention/control
 Proper supplementation with calcium in the feed ration during dry phase
 Maintain calcium to phosphorous ration at 1:1 or 2:1
 Provide adequate vitamin A and D for proper calcium absorption
 Partial milking of cows

Treatment
 Administer intravenous injection of calcium borogluconal
2. Ketosis/Acetoanaemia
 It results from low level of blood glucose and accumulation of the ketone
bodies in milk, blood and body fluids of the animal
 It results from incomplete metabolism of fats
 The energy level of the animal after calving down is very high resulting into
incomplete metabolism of fat
 It occurs six weeks after calving

Symptoms
 Abrupt production in milk yield
 Loss of appetite
 Animal has reduce feed intake
 Loss in body weight of the animal
 Animal produces dry feaces

Control
 Provide balanced feed ration especially after calving
 Proper management prior to calving (don’t give too much feeds)

Treatment
 Intraveinous injection of dextrose (sugar) and it should be repeated after six
months
3. Bloat
 It occurs due to excessive accumulation of gas in the rumen and reticulum
 The rumen and reticulum overstrages and pushes up to the ribcage (breathing
problem)

Causes
 Blockage of oesophagus
 When animal consumes wet lushly pastures especially leguminous plants
 Excessive feeding on grains

Symptoms
 Swelling of the rumen
 Animal becomes very uncomfortable
 Distended left abdomen
 Bellowing

Prevention
 Graze the animals on relatively mature pastures or wilt the forage before feeding
 Administer anti-froth forming agents together with a meal
 Use of antibiotics (penicillin) to reduce the rate of fermentation in the rumen

Treatment
 Apply anti-bloat medicine i.e. anti-forming agents e.g. paraffin (oils and fats)
 Use sterilized knife and pierce into the rumen to get rid of excess gases
 Puncture into the rumen using trocar and canular to expel accumulated gases
 Administering of Epsom salt to clear the remaining rumen content
 Administering of methyl silicon as an injection

4. Mastitis
 It is the inflammation of the udder
  The somatic cell count goes up because the bacteria feeds on milk as they are
fermenting it
 The fermentation process starts

Causes
 Caused by bacteria of bacillus spp

Symptoms
 Swelling of the udder and more so the infected quarter
 Blood strained in milk
 Milk clots or flakes
 Animal is in pain
 Increased temperature of the udder region

Prevention/control
 Administer dry cow therapy during the dry phase/period
 Maintain hygiene in the animal holding structures
 Suspected animals should be milked last
 Affected quarter of the udder should be milked last and poured
 Milk man should observe hygiene and disinfect the milking cups appropriately

Treatment
 Administer antibiotics through interveinal injection e.g. gentamycin

5. Acidosis
 Caused by excessive ingestion of grain by animals that have not accustomed to
grain or hungry animals

Signs
  Occurs 6 – 12 hours after grain ingestion
 It is associated with indigestion and dehydration
 Animal goes off feed
 Irritability
 Dullness
 Distended or paralyses rumen
 Profuse diarrhea
 Sunken eyes
 Lack of co-ordination of the animal
 Animal collapses

Prevention
 Remove the offending cause do not feed the animal on whole grains
 Do not offer the choice grain to an accustomed hungry starving animal

Treatment
 Empty the rumen through surgery
 Provide manual oils and anti-acids
 Electrolytes and buffers are given to correct dehydration and acidosis
 Fluid treatments can also be given in order to supplement calcium and
borogluconate
PRODUCTION BEEF
Beef production is a branch of animal production that specialize in meat (Bovine) from
members of the boffine family cattle and bufallos.
Cattle is the main source of meat and it was first domesticated in Asia

Classification of Cattle
Kingdom – Animalia
Phylum – Chordate
Class – Mammalia
Order – Arhodactyla
Family – Bovidae
Genus – Bos
Species – Bos indicus
Bos Taurus

The objective or beef production is to manipulate the inputs (feeds) technologies,

management skills, policies (into desires output) offsprings growth by products.

Inputs Output
Feeds – pastures Offsprings
Concentrates Fattening stock

Technologies
Management skills
Policies

Role of Beef industry

 Source of food
Meat is available, animal protein in the human diet because proteins from plants
is not adequate

 Utilization of non-arable land

Beef animals are raised in ASAL areas otherwise these areas could have gone to
waste.
Beef animals are able to convert by-products of plants into variable meat

 Source of raw materials

Hides which are by-products are used in leather industry to manufacture shoes
etc. meat, blood are also materials
 Manure is also prepared from the dung

 It creates employment and income both of individual level and industry e.g.
Farmers or ranger or butches is self employed
Sell of live of animals

 Sell of meat
Supply of material inputs and industry to beef industry

 Foreign exchange earners

Export earns country foreign exchange

 Local income
Municipal council and county council get income from leavy taxes in abatars
(slaughter-house)
They pay taxes in abatars (slaughter-house)

 Traditional customs/social goles

Beef cattle serve as a means of expressing human relations e.g. bride price,
service as assurance for both partners.

 Cattle is a sign of prestige

Cattle is used for recreation and entertainment e.g. bull fighting

Problems associated with feed production

 Beef rearing is a significant enterprise in livestock production
 Beef can be reared as an independent enterprise or from culling of dairy production
 It is a media industry in most arid areas in Kenya
The following are specific problems associated with it;
 i) Diseases e.g. FMD (Rinder-pest)
ii) Insects and parasites e.g. tsetse fly
iii) Poor market and marketing structures
iv) Poor policy implementation
v) Poor infrastructure in most arid areas
vi) Lack of feeds and poor pastures in arid areas
vii) Breeds that takes too long to mature
viii) Lack of capital
ix) Lack of resources to maximize in land preparation
x) Land tenure system to maximize high % of land is fragmented
xi) Cattle rustling
Establishing a big herd
The following are factors;
1. Environment
It influences the ability of the animal to express its full genetic and productive potential

2. Breeds
Selected breeds must be readily available and adopted to that environment

3. Type of beef production systems

Certain beef breeds perform well under specific systems e.g. abendeen Angus does well
under stall feeding but poorly under extensive system
Market - Select a breed that will exploit a market requirement

Important traits in breeding beef cattle

 Fertility
It determines the number of offsprings in the herd for replacement

 Easy calving
Difficult in calving increase the cost of production e.g. veterinary charges
 Birth weight contribute to difficult in calving

 Mothering ability
It is the ability of the dam to take of young calves by protecting adequate amount
of milk
Contributes to survival of calves and high growth rate
 Feed conversion efficiency
Ability of the animals to convert feeds into body weight
Animals with high growth rates have high feed

 Longevity (lifespan)
It is length of times the animal is productive

 Carcass traits
It determines acceptability of the carcass by the consumers
It includes well developed muscles marbling activity to lean meat texture etc.

Characteristics of beef cattle

1) They have heavy rear and fore quarters
2) Large body frame which is square or blocky in appearance
3) Thick and evenly fleshed
4) The body is deep with short legs that are well spaced apart
5) High feed conversion deficiency
6) Rapid growth rate
7) Early maturing for service at 1½ - 2 years

Specific beef breeds

a) Indigenous breeds
1) Boran
Attributes/characteristics of the Boran
 It is an important beef breed and is registered in Kenya statute
  It is white in colour with a few black/grey/reddish coloration
 It is adapted to poor pasture grazing thus easy to maintain at low feeding cost
 It matures to 500kg in 3 years under pasture system
 It has a dressing percentage of 5-060 depending on how it is fed, so it produces
more meat
 It has well developed hind and fore quarters
 It has poor marbling property i.e. fat is poorly distributed in the flesh or muscles
 It has high enduarance to harsh conditions such as walking for long distance in
search for green pasture and water
 It is tolerant to high tropical heat during the day and low night temperatures
 It is resistant to tropical diseases such as ECF
 It has good mothering ability
 It is a fairly fertile animal in terms of conception rate
 Use for upgrading the zebu breeds and also cross breeding with exotic breeds e.g.
Hiford and charolas
 It has a large hump that stores fat which is easily metabolized for energy
 It has a hunging belly sheath and dewlab which help in heat regulation
 It has excellent fleshy qualities
 It has a long longevity period i.e. Boran cows leave long more than (15 years) and
has a low replacement rate of the breeding herd

2. Small East African Zebu

 Colour varies from white, black and mixtures of white to brown
 It is smaller than the Boran and weighs 350-360kg
 They have poor body conformation of beef breed
 Have slow growth rate
 Claves born are very light (less than 15kg)
 They have short and broad thoracic hump

b) Exotic breeds
3. Hereford
 Origin – England
Colour – Deep red with a white head
The tail switch is red white
 It is a hardy animal than other exotic breeds
 It can walk for long distance during dry season
 It has excellent foraging ability (desired in rangelands)
 It can withstand extreme heat and cold due to its thick skin
 It has high fertility rate
 Easy calving
 Docile and easy to handle
 Bulls are very active and can detect female on heat easily

4. Aberdeen Angus
Origin – Scotland
Colour – It is black with smooth coat of hair
 It is polled
 It has a compact body which is cylindrical with straight top line
 It is adapted to intensive feeding
 Produces high quality carcass with good marbling percent
 Early maturing i.e. attain 400kgs at the age of 13 months under good
management
 Has good mothering ability
 Easy calving
 It is recommended for cross breeding with Zebu
 It has a long productive life
5. Charolaise
Origin – France
Colour – White creamy
 It has a high growth rate
 High feed conversion efficiency
 Slightly hardy i.e. it performs well in good range
  Carcass has a high proportion of lean meet
 It has quit temperament and hence easy to hare
 It is used for cross breeding
 Bulls are quite heavy weighing an average of 1200kg and cows 100kg
 It has well developed hind quarters

6. Galloway
Origin – South East Scotland
Colour – Black with a brownish to reddish tint coat
 It has long hair that is curly
 It does well in mountainous areas
 It is an excellent grazer

c) Dual Purpose Breeds

7. Sahiwal
Origin – Pakistan
Colour – Reddish to brown
 It has long narrow body frame/stage
 It has a hump
 ‘it has good milk
 It is prone to mastitis

8. Simmental
Origin – Switzerland
Colour – Red with white patches
 It has medium sized horns
 It has a long and heavy animal
 It has broad and straight back
 It is well fleshed on all quarters
  Has rapid growth rate
 High fertility
 Good milk producer

9. Red Poll
Origin – England
Colour – Deep red with white nose
 It grows to about 500kgs
 It has good growth rate
 Easy in calving
 Has broad straight back
 It has medium to short legs

Beef calf rearing

The objective of rearing calves of beef animals are;
 Raise health calves
 Rear first growing calves
 Reduce mortality
 Ensure vigorous and well grown heifer
It is important to ensure after birth the calf suckle colostrum
 In ranges the calf is left to run with the dam until 8-9 months
 Dairy calves are weaned at 3 – 4 months but in beef 8 – 9 months (late weaning)
 Beef calves are fed on creep feed i.e. introduction of concentrates while still suckling in
order to supplement for the differences in poor pastures
 Give the calf at least 10% milkof its body weight
 The calves should be housed

Routine management practices

They include-
1. Identification by either branding, ear notching ear tagging
2. Regular weighing i.e. records of birth height, weight and weaning weight
3. Dehorning
Dehorn during the first month of life to avoid injury. It aims at eliminating injury among
calves or stockman, enables he animal to occupy less space and easy handling of the
animal
4. Castration
Is done within the first month, castrated males are dosile and put on weight faster
It can be open or closed castration method
5. Removal of extra teats
6. Drenching regularly to control internal parasites
7. Control of external parasites e.g. ticks, mites using appropriate accaricides
8. Vaccination of animals against diseases e.g. foot a mouth, rinder pest, anthrax, black-
quarter, lumpy skin disease

Growth and development

 Growth and development of young stock is very significant since it represents
accumulation od carc
 Growth and development in beef animal is affected by:

i) Hormones and growth promoters e.g. somatotrophin affects proteins

synthesis directly
Steroids and thyroxin – control metabolic rate
Growth promotes increase feed utilization

ii) Sex of the animal

Testerone in males promote protein synthesis which will in turn promote lean
meat, tissue deposition
Oestrogen which is produced in female promotes fat deposition

iii) Nutrition
 It is an environmental factor, which can be manipulated to attain maturity early
Good plane of nutrition promote early maturity resulting in less cost

iv) Stress
It is caused by the environmental factors e.g. poor management, bad weather etc.
When stress factors are removed there is increase in growth rate which follows a
normal growth curve

Compulsory growth phenomenon

 It is the ability of the animal to recovery partially or wholly from retardation growth
 It is a complex phenomenon which occurs due to reduced amount of quality feeds
 Under nourished animals have greater appetite and therefore when put on good
nutritional plane it leads to recovery and the animal attains slaughter weights faster
 There is more efficientfeed utilization and growth is faster than in non-stressed
animals
 This recovery can be affected by age, severity of growth retardation, duration of
retardation and time available for recovery

Heifer Breeding
 Heifers reach puberty at 8 – 12 months
 Age of breeding heifers varies with breeds
 Small breeds 16 – 24 months, larger breeds 18-24 months
 Early breeding means more calves are borne

Methods of mating
1. Artificial insemination
It is not common in beef production since
 Heat detection is not easy
 Animal are closely monitored
 Silent heat signs due to harsh environment
 On modern ranches farmers can synchronize setting of heat in animals using injectable
hormones e.g. progester and prostaglandin

2. Natural method
i) Hand mating
Bulls and cows are separated and the bull will only be allowed to be with the female,
when the female is on heat after which it is removed
ii) Pasture mating
Bulls and cows are together all the time, they help to detect heat and mate the cow
It is practiced in extensive system

Class of young stock

 Calves
A young stock from birth to 8 – 9 months

 Weaners
From 4-12 months to first calving

 Stockers/steers
2-3 years

 Feeders/fatteners
These are 3-4 years

Feeding beef animals

1. Creep feeding
Feeding of concentrates to young beef animals when they are still suckling the dam
(mother)

2. Stocker feeding
Young animals are feed and managed well so that they grow rather than fatten
 It is achieved by reducing the energy ration to fat ratio
Stockers are fed on highly nutritious roughages, protein, vitamins and minerals in
balanced ration
3. Feeder animals/fatteness
The animals have adequately grown and ready for fattening
They are placed on high-energy ration

Beef production system

Beef production can be placed into two main production systems
a) Traditional/extensive system
b) Commercial/intensive/improved modern system

a) Extensive/traditional system
 In this system cattle is used as source of food mainly in form of milk, meat and
blood
 They also play social roles in the society
 Nomads move with the animals in search of pastures and water
 Grazing land is communally owned but livestock is owned individually
 This system is based on marginal areas since it requires extensive land for
grazing
 The system has high production risk, low input and is prone to seasonal effects
e.g. high disease incidence since there is interaction with wildlife

b) Commercial
 Animals are confined in paddocks where they depend on natural grazing plus
addition of concentrates other roughages
 Management of the animal is high
 Commercial systems include:

i) Ranches
  In ranches there is improved pasture
 Mineral supplementation
 Provision of good water
 Less problems of overstocking
 Proper integration with wild life
 Requires high initial capital investment on fences, dumb gates, water
through, firebreaks, personnel etc.
 There is timed marketing of stock

ii) Dairy ranching

 It is a combination of dairy with beef production
 Animals kept are dual purpose breeds e.g. Sahiwall, Redpo
 Animals are kept which provide meat and milk and calves may be left to
suckle the dam on bucket feeding is carried out
 Milk increases the income to the farmer
 Supplementary feeding is done at low level to sustain milk production

iii) Feed lots

 It is practiced where human population is high (arable land)
 Animals are provided high energy ration to finish them off well
 The energy ration consist of 60-70 (TDMC) with three major consistent
1. Grain – wheat, burley, maize
2. Cakes – cotton cake, soya beans, sunflower cake(source of protein)
iv) Silage and hay
 Provide a bulk or roughage
 There is limited field grazing of animals or none at all
 Animals are kept for 3 to 4 months
 The feeds are usually introduced to animals gradually e.g. provide 1kg and
then start increasing by ½kg daily until the maximum weight is achieved
  The main objective of having high grain or serial percentage in the ration
is that grains tend to improve the flavours and tenderness of carcass due to
deposition of fats
 Usually animals gain weight very fast approximately 1kg per day

Factors that may influence the stocking rates in beef cattle production
1. Pasture productivity
Pasture grass varies in quality and quantity depending on geographical area species and
season
The higher the quality and quantity the higher the stocking rate

2. Water availability
The dry matter intake (all other factors content is influence by the water intake.
Therefore, availability of water will increase the stocking rate.

3. Level of supplementation
The higher the level of supplementation the higher the stocking rate

4. Type of beef animals in a given production unit area

Beefing animals need more nutrients during the breeding and lactation period, on the
other hand feeder cattle requires more nutrients throughout the season.
The higher the number of breeding and feeder stock the lower the stocking rate

5. Grazing management/method/system
Whether it is continuous, rotational etc. the rational grazing will have a higher stocking
rate than any other system

Objectives of marketing beef animals

 1. To satisfy demand for major consumers e.g. urban areas
2. To maintain the beef cattle numbers for the purpose of processing industry e.g. (KMC)
3. To increase returns to the producers for the investment made
4. To transform cattle into edible meat through slaughter
5. For destocking especially during dry season

SHEEP PRODUCTION
Sheep has been reared in all continents of the world mainly for the following purposes
1. Production of wool
Wool has high value, cross breeding has been done to upgrade local sheep with exotic
breeds for improved quality of wool

2. All sheep produce mutton

Some breeds in Asia and Africa produced milk at a very low level

3. Production of manure
In South India and Indonesia sheep is raised mainly for manure

Classification of sheep
Sheep is in the sub family of caprinae
And genues is Ovis aries
Sheep can also be classified basing on

1. Origin
Indigenous or exotic sheep
Indigenous sheep have no clear distinct in their classification since they are of varied
colours, presence or absence of horns and varying tails characteristics
Exotic sheep were introduced in East Africa by European settlers they include Merino,
Corriedale, Romny marsh, Hampshire down, Dorper.

2. Productivity
 It based on the main product from sheep
(i) Wool sheep e.g. merino
(ii) Mutton sheep e.g. Dorper, Hampshire down
(iii) Dual purpose e.g. corriedale, Romney Marsh

3. Characteristics of the tail

 There is no clear anatomically distinction between fatty ramped sheep and fat
tailed sheep
 Some sheep possess too large fat entities on the ram as an addition to the twisters
long tail
 Through cross breeding the mixing occurs frequently and classification basing on
tail characteristics becomes very difficult e.g.
 Fat tailed sheep – Maasai sheep, Kikuyu, Turkana sheep
 Fat rumped sheep – Somali, Black head Turkana Sheep

Breeds of sheep
1. Black headed Persian (Somali Sheep)
 It has thick coat with white hairs but the head and the neck are pure black
 The ears short and sharply pointed
 Have well developed dewlap
 Legs are slender and long
 The rudimentary tail is short (5cm long)
 Fat accumulates on the rump
 It ways 11kgs
 It is usually crossed with dorset to get dorper

Black head persian x Dorset

Dorper
2. Maasai sheep
 It is a fat tailed sheep
 It is mixed and wool breed
 It is long legged
 It has red or white coats
 Males may be horned or bold
 Very tolerant to internal parasites
 It has long pendulus years

3. Merino sheep
 It was imported from Australia and it is common in Molo
 It is light in weight
 Long legged with long thin bones
 Has high quality wool
 Has high quality wool
 Carcass is of low quality
 It can be very hardy in cool dry climates

4. Romney Marsh Sheep

Origin – England
 It is a fairly heavy sheep breed
 Does well in wet areas thus resistant to foot rot
 It has thick flease or coarse wool
 It is a dual purpose breed
 Rear on slopes of mount Elgon and Molo

5. Corriedale
 It is a cross breed of Lincoln long wool X-Australian merine

Corriedale
  It has been developed until it is a pure breed sheep
 It is dosile, good forager
 It is hardy

6. Hampshire down
 It is a short legged breed
 It has a compact body produce very fine quality wool

7. Dorset horn sheep

 It utilizes poor pastures well
 It has white face with pink nose
 It is a hardy breed
 It is a high breeder
 It produce good quality wool and mutton
 It is crossed with black head passion to produce dopper

8. Dopper
It is well suited for ranch conditions to give quality mutton

Feeding management in sheep

 Sheep are maintained on unimproved grazing pastures
 In Africa they are grazed extensively with cattle, goats and camels
 Sheep are selective grazers and prefer short grasses and legumes as well as a wide
variety of low growing herb
 Sheep tend to drive pest in drier climate where feed supply fluctuates both in
quality and quantity from wet to dry season
 Supplementary feeding is encouraged during the dry season
 Hay protein supplements during dry periods should be supplied to sheep
 Good feeding is important in breeding season since it helps to improve prolificacy
 Good feeding is also required during the latter half of pregnancy i.e. steaming up
  Well-fed wool sheep produce a heavy but coarse fleece avails mineral sheep at an
average daily of 7 grams
 Sheep must be given access to clean water at all times
 An average daily water intake of sheep is 4-5 litres
 Sheep kept indoors must be fed on rich fodder

Breeding management
Selection and calving are important tools in sheep management
The value of a ram or ewe lies in its performance

When selecting sheep for breeding consider

a) Early maturing
b) Capacity for rapid growth
c) Fleece quality
d) Conformity with breed characteristics
e) Ability to breed adequately
f) Twinning rate
g) Mutton quality

 In temperate regions ewe sheep attains sexual maturity at four to seven months of age
 In tropics it may be slightly longer and ewes are served at ten months af age
 The ewe should be put on high nutritional plane to improve its body condition. This is
called flushing
 Flushing is done 2-3 weeks before mating
 It triggers off, shading of more eggs by the female increasing profitability of multiple
birth
 Ewes are stimulated to oestrus by the presence of the ram
 Tapping which is introduced of males and female will include crutching dirty wool
around the vulva and anus of the ewe, the penis sheath of the ram should be clipped off
to prevent infection at mating
 Overgrown hooves should be treamed to reduce incidence of lameness
  In order to guarantee the survival of unborn lambs, pregnant ewes should be well
managed and the management practices should include

(i) Timing of Lambing

Synchronise the mating to ensure lambing takes place when there is plenty of good
grass and the weather is neither too cold or too wet
Best time for lambing is towards the end of rainy season
Oestrus occurs every 16 – 17 days and the circle will continue for 2 – 3 months until
all ewes are served
Gestation period is 5 months (150 days)

(ii) Mating
During this period rams are fitted with markers that have paint on them on the belly
region
Whenever they mate an ewe the marketing’s remain on the back of the ewe
The colours are changed according to different dates, which enable the farmer to keep
records on dates
When ewes were served a process called raddling
Ram removed after about 6-8 weeks after being put in the pen
Ewes are left to follow normal grazing routine
Ewes should be vaccinated against lamb dysentery and enterotoxaemia; they should
be drenched to control internal parasites

(iii) Steaming up
It is done 1 – 2 months before birth and the ewes are put on better quality feeds i.e.
good pastures supplementary feeding
Steaming up help the foetus to grow rapidly and ensure good buildup of body reserve
for milk production

Lambing management
 At the end of 5 months of gestation lambing is due
 Ewes should be removed into clean lambing paddocks with adequate shelter and grass
 Lambing should be allowed as natural as possible by incase of any difficult the ewe
should be assisted by gently pulling the lamb
 Allow the ewe to leak the lamb as it allows the lamb to suckle colostrum
 Supervision is essential at lambing time to avoid high losses
 Orphans and weak lambs should be adopted by another ewe immediately or fed on
cow’s milk

1. Managements of lambs and young adults

 Lambs should be allowed to suckle their mother for a period of 3 – 4 months
 Their growth depends entirely on the mother’s milk
 The ewes should be fed on quality feeds
2. When lambs have been weaned they should be given fast access to pasture, followed
by cattle and lastly adult sheep’s this is because of danger of ingesting parasites
dropped by the adults
 Also sheep has a divided upper lip which allow them to graze down 1 – 2cm and
can easily clear most of the grass left by the cows

3. Identification
Lambs are identified by ear tagging for easy management and record keeping

4. Castration
Male lambs not intended for breeding purpose should be castrated between the first
month.
Use of rubber rings is referred to open castration

5. Tail docking
It involves cutting 1/3 of the tail during the 1 st and 2nd week of life to reduce fat
accumulation
 6. Drenching
Lambs must be drenched regularly to contain/control internal parasires e.g. tape worms

7. Hoof trimming
It should be done regularly to reduce foot rot. Young sheep should also be allowed to
pass through a foot, with disinfectants or copper sulphate at 10-20% daily

8. Culling
At about 5 months old lambs may be sold off as fat lamb
9. Shearing
It should be done atleast once every year during the dry season
The floor should be clean, free from any dirt
The sheep is shorn in a sitting position as it is kept in a balance by the sheavers knees and
left hand
The right hand should be with the shears and should move smoothly and steady within a
too and ..motion
Care should be taken not to cut skin, udder, testicles, vulva and penis

10. Dipping
Ticks attached themselves in rare areas of the body e.g. feet, legs and belly
They are controlled by dipping immediately after shearing

11. Vaccination
Vaccinate against enterotoxaemia and lamb dysentery

Sheep products and marketing

a) Wool sheep
 The main products of wool sheep is wool or fleese
 The quantity of wool per sheep will vary with breed ranging from 2 – 6kgs per
sheep
 Quality of fleece is determined by the part of the body the wool is obtained from
 Aspects of wool quality
1. Cleanliness – not greasy
2. Length – should be long 8 – 10cm
3. Strength – should not break easily
4. Elasticity – should have crimps which are necessary for spinning purposes
5. Fineness – small diameter
6. Colour – should be pure white

NB:
Wool is marketed by Kenya farmers Association (KFA)

b) Mutton sheep
The main products of mutton sheep is mutton. The best grade of mutton is known as
prime
The second grade is divided from class A to D after which there are lower grades
The higher the grade the higher the price
Grading is done in the slaughter-house

c) Skin
It is a product of both wool and mutton sheep after slaughtering
The quality of the sheep skin is improved by controlling ticks and ensuring sheep is not
injured through piercing by thorns, cuts or skin infection

Crutching
It is the cutting the wool around the reproductive organs to facilitate mating and prevent
infection

Ringing
It is the practice of trimming the wool around the sheath of penis in rams to facilitate
mating
Tupping
This refers to mating in goats

Raddling
This refers to fitting rams with breeding chutes with markers or paints

NB:
During mating, the ration of ram to the ewe is 1:35-60

Quiz
1. Enumerate six social economic attributes of sheep and goats in arid and semi-
arid areas
 They are adapted agro-ecological zones (arid and semi arid)
 They are small in size hence less feed requirements
 Require low initial investment
 Have high reproductive rate and short generation interval
 Act as an insurance to livestock keepers
 Have ready market
 They are accessible to all members of the community (men, women and
children)

2. Highlight 5 measures that should be taken to develop a market system for sheep
and goat in arid and semi-arid areas?
 Farmers should be trained to commercialize their sheep and goat enterprises
 Market information system for sheep and goat and their products should be
streamlines ton keep the producers and traders informed on the market
situation
 Proper linkage between the hazard areas and the market centres as well as
slaughter places
 Promotion of sheep and goat products e.g. goat milk
  Value addition for all livestock products
 Effective disease control measures
 Effective marketing strategies targeting niche market

No Routine practice Available tools

1 Docking Elastrator and rubber ring

2 Identification Tattoo applicator, paint/ink

3 Selection and culling Records

4 Disbudding Disbudding rod

5 Weight determination Weighing band

6 Castration Rubber ring, emasculator

7 Deworming Drenching gun, syringe

8 Vaccination Syringe and needles

9 dehorning Hack saw

Factors affecting reproductive efficiency in sheep

1. Male and female ration
The number of males released to run with the female affects the reproductive efficiency.
Enough males should be provided to ensure the rams are not over worked
One buck should serve 35-60 females in one breeding season
2. Flushing of females
The females should be given high quality feeds 2-3 before mating to increase chances of
conception

3. Age of lambing
 Mating should be delayed until when the females have a mature body mass at the age of
14-15 months
The rams should be of the age of 9 months

4. Diseases

5. Low libido in rams

Methods of improving reproductive efficiency

1. Proper nutrition
2. Choice of breed – choose the breed that have high prolificacy
3. Heat synchronization
4. Use of teaser rams – they stimulate many ewes to come on heat at a uniform rate
5. Healthy herd/flock

Pregnancy toxaemia in sheep

Causes
 It is a condition caused by feeding animals on low glucose dietary
 When there is low glucose level in blood/brain in gestating ewes that are carrying twins
or triplets it leads to breakdown of body fats resulting in keton bodies or free fatty acids
 This condition interferes with proper functioning of enzymes and hormones causing
ketosis
Signs of pregnancy toxaemia
1. The ewe isolate itself from the stock
2. Ewes appears blind
3. Staggering poisture
4. Loss of appetite
5. Constipation
6. The animal trembles around the neck region
7. The animal goes coma and eventually dies
Control
 Proper steaming up of ewes
 Provide ewes with a balance diet

Aflatoxicosis
Causes
It is a condition caused by feeding animals on feeds or cereals containing aflatoxins called
Aspergillus flavus
Those are moulds that grow on grains that are stored on high moisture content
These toxins interfere with protein synthesis by the liver

Clinical signs
 Loss of appetite
 Diarhoea (dark coloured foecal material)
 Emaciation
 Anaemia
 Jaundice/yellowing of the mucus membranes
 On post mortem findings there is enlarge kidney between hemorrhage

Treatment and control

 Give feeds containing proteins
 Avoid giving feeds that contains aflatoxin

Advantages of sheep shearing

1. It protects sheep from overheating during dry weather season
2. It is the grooming of sheep
3. For easy mating
4. To reduce weight of sheep
5. Keep the sheep clean
 GOATS’ PRODUCTION
Goats are found in all parts of the East Africa
 Goats have the ability to feed on any type of vegetation
 Tolerate tropical heat
 Resist many diseases
 Tolerate water shortage

Selection and breeding of goats

 Selection is based on the selected products
 Goats for mea production should be heavier and should mature faster than dairy goats
 Dairy goats should be angular with a lean long neck and head
 They should have well sprung ribs with large udder
 Milk veins should be protruded
 All breeding goats should have the following qualities
1. Healthy fertile
2. Prolific
3. Good conformation
 The selected female goats (nannies) should be served after attaining an age of 1 – 1½
years
 This should take place 5 months before the onset as vains to ensure that kidding occurs
when there is plenty of food

Signs of heat in females?

 Restlessness
 Wagging of the tail
 Constant bleating
 Swollen and radden vulva
 Frequent urination
 When preparing a goat for breeding a pregnant goat is dry up two months before kidding
 The Nanny goat should be kept in a separate pen 1 week before kidding
 A productive female may kid upto 12 times in a breeding life of 10 years
 A one year old billy (male) may be allowed to serve ten females in year
 A mature male can serve 30-40 females per year
 Gestation period takes 147 days and female can be served again 2 months after kidding

Feeding management
Steaming of pregnant goats should begin one month before kidding. It consists of ½kg
concentrates per day in addition to the goats for four days after kidding to avoid milk fever for
the case of dairy goats.
Feeds reach in calcium e.g. lucerne and clove should be included in the feedstuff to ensure
adequate supply of minerals in milk formation.
Mineral licks should also be provided

 Additional are necessary for goats that give births to more than one kid
 In case of mutton goats the kids are left to suckle freely but for milk goats milk kids are
separated soon after birth and train how to take milk from a nibble bottle and eventually
from a bucket
 Goats are weaned after 4 months
 Goats mainly feed on dry grass fallen leaves, twigs, poad and seeds
 Intensive goat rearing systems are adopted where a daily ration for each goat consist of
4kg of green forage (sweet potato vines, green grass etc.) 1kg of hay, 0.5kg of
concentrates (energy and protein) and adequate clean water.

Factors that determine feed intake in goats

1. Palatability of the feed
Taste, smell, texture of the feed

2. Protein content of the feed

High protein content feed are preferred to high roughage content

3. Environmental conditions
High environmental temperature limit high feed intake especially in exotic breeds
 4. Physiological status of the animal
Gestation period require low feed intake but high pled feeds in order to maintain
pregnancy

5. Texture of the feed

Feed intake is low in coarse feeds compared to fine textured feeds

6. Metabolic body weight or signs

Large animals have less feed intake per unit weight of the body compared to small
animals

7. Water availability
Feed intake is high for wet feeds as compared to dry feeds

8. Health status of the animal

It influence the feed intake

9. Learning and conditioning

Animals are reluctant to take new feeds therefore they should be introduced gradually

Factors that limit goat production in Kenya

1. Breeding stock
Most breeding stations are not optimally operated leading to shortage of dairy goats

2. Poor infrastructure
Poor road network in deserts limit goat production

3. Religion
Religion impacts negatively in goat production
 Religious prejudices against goat

4. Disease
Outbreaks of diseases kill goats or increase cost of production

5. Seasonality
Different seasons affect food and water availability for goats

6. Poor land tenure systems

7. Lack of credit facilities

8. Lack of management skills

9. Poor marketing outlet

Raising young stock

 The nanny goat usually kids without any assistance but a close watch will be kept without
disturbing her
 After kidding, the following practices should be carried out
 Enclose both the kid and the mother in a clean dry place for the first few weeks
 Iodine solution should be applied on the novel of kid to prevent injective
 The mother is allowed to suckle the kid for the first week after birth
 Bucket feeding is done in dairy goats where the kid is fed three times in a day starting
with 0.5litres per day and then increasing to 1.25litres per day by the third week after
which feeding on milk is reduced to twice a day until weaning age at 4 months
 Castration of males is done between 2 – 4 months of age for those not needed for
breeding
 Dehorning for the breeds that have horns is done at between 2 – 3 months of age using
hot iron or caustic pot stick
Advantages of dehorning
1. It reduces accidents on dangerous fithing and tendency to fight
2. Prevent destruction of farm structures
3. Disbudded goats share a smaller area where feeding or drinking water or during
transportation

Housing
 Goats have small and single kraals for providing shelter at night
 Where commercial flocks are reared houses are provided to protect goats against rains,
sun, wild animals and feed thieves
 They consist of large communal fence, individual pens and a crash for vaccination and
treatment

Conditions for a good goat house

 Should be well ventilated
 Have a floor made of concrete and has pressed earth that allow free drainage
 A house for dairy goat should be divided to provide for a milking flat form this is called
stanchion
 The house should provide enough space
 An individual goats requires 2.25m2of floor space
 The house should be drought free

Characteristics of a good goat house

 Well ventilated
 Rain proof
 Free from direct wind
 Safe pest and wild animals
 Well lit
 Free from sharp objects that may injure goats
  Proper drainage
 Should have an area of 2.25m2 per goat
 Should have slates on the floor to allow droppings to fall to the ground

Routine management in goats

 The kind of management will depend on
 Whether goats are kept in extreme(free range) or intensive
 Generally meat goats are kept under extensive
 Such goats are hardy and mainly depend on brow for their food thus no routine feeding
system
 They may be drenched 1 – 2 times every year at the onset of rain to reduce infestation by
internal parasite
 Spraying or dipping is necessary to control ticks and frequency of spraying is determined
by the ticks infestation
 It is necessary to vaccinate goats against arthritis and foot and mouth disease
Goats under intensive management system requires close attention and aspects like zero
grazing, housing, disease control and feeding should be considered
 This system is useful for dairy goats which requires close attention
 The goat house should be well ventilated and feed troughs, firm floor and adequate space
 Control of diseases and parasites should be given attention

Control of diseases
 Kids can be deworm 2 – 4 weeks after birth and there a month after
 External parasites like ticks are controlled by dipping or spraying the goats
 Infectious diseases like FMD are controlled by vaccinating goats regularly

Products and marketing

1. Milk
Goats’ milk is an important source of food in arid areas. Indigenous goats do not
produce much milk but exotic ones can produce upto 700 per year. This milk can be sold
fresh or processed into a number of dairy products e.g. cheese, yogurt, butter etc.
 2. Meat
Most of the goats in arid areas are purchased by local butchers who slaughter them for
urban consumption

3. Skin
Skins are major by products after slaughter
The goatskin is put into many uses e.g. making bags, dresses, shoes, tents and sleeping
garments after turning

GOAT BREEDS
Meat goat breeds
1. Galla goat
 They are reared for meat but recent research indicates that they have good milk
product ion potential
 Galla female breed well and leave long (10 years)
 Galla goats have a very strong dental system, they are docile, easy to handle and
so better in low altitude areas
 Ears are upright and point forward

2. Somali goat
 It is found in Northern Kenya and is a member of Galla goat
 It is white in colour
 It weighs between 40-50kg life weights

3. Samburu goats
 It is still a member of the Galla goat
 It weighs 40-44kg in life weight
4. Boar
 It was developed in south Africa
 It is an exotic breed and ubed for cross breed with local breeds for meat
production
 It is reared for meat production

Characteristics
 Fast maturing
 Has long ears and hair
 Produces twins or triplets
 Has a rapid growth rate and weight gain

5. Anglo-nubian goat
 Is a goat of North East Africa origin
 It has mix colour though white colour goat are common

Characteristics
 Has long legs
 Ears droop
 Bold (no horns)
 Adults female weighs 50-75kg
 It can produce 1 – 2 litres of milk per day
 It’s good for meat production
 It is used for cross breeding local breeds

6. Jamnapari goat
 It is a cross breed between Indian Jamnapari and Egyptian Nubian
 Its origin is India
 Colour ranges from white, roan to black

Characteristics
  Ears are large and flopped
 Females weigh 45-60kg life weight
 Horned (has horns)
 Can produce 1 – 1.5 litres of milk per day
 It is kept for meat production

Dairy goat breeds

1. Toggen burg
Origin is Switzerland
Colour – The body is brown with white patches
Ears are white with white stripes on the neck
Very common in Meru and Embu district

Characteristics
 Has erect ears pointing backwards
 They are polled or horned
 Horns in males are long curved back
 Female weighs 40-50kg
 Nanny produces 2-3litres of milk per day with B/F content of 3.5%
 Has long hair
 Face is slightly dished
 It has tassels on either sides of the neck
 They suffer from heat stress resulting in lack of appetite

2. Saanen
Origin – Switzerland
Colour white or creamy white

Characteristics
 Ears are erect and point forward
 Usually polled
  Weigh 50-80kg life weight
 Can produce 2 – 3 litres of milk per day for 3 months with a BF content of 35%
 They are widely used in Kenya for cross breeding to increase milk production

Mohair goat breeds

1. Angora goat
Origin – Angora in Asia
 It is kept for production of morhair
 Average morhair production is 3.64kg per goat
 It is common in USA and South Africa
 It is white in colour

2. French Alps
3. British Alpine
RABBIT PRODUCTION
The annual demand for meat continue to rise at 4% and therefore other sources of meat
Including beef, mutton and poultry have to be ventured into because
 Most animals have poor genetic potential for meat
 Most animals take long to reach market weight
 Most of cattle are kept for dairy purposes
 Land size per capita is also increasing
 From the above rabbit can be kept in the backyard through 4Kclub; young farmers,
children’s etc.
 In Kenya consumption of rabbits is low compared to Europe e.g. France where 250,000
metric tons of rabbit meat is consumed per year

Potential of Rabbit rearing over livestock

1. Quality meat
Meat has low fat content
2. Rabbits require less feed quantity per day
 Feeding of rabbits is that so tedious since no bulk feed is required compared to other
animals like calves
3. Rabbits can be convenient supply of food at family level and even commercially for
manure, fur and meat as well as for aesthetic purpose
4. The initial capital required to initiate rabbit keeping is relatively low the structures and
rabbit themselves are relatively cheaper in comparison with other animals
5. Rabbits have a variety of feeds available for them – rabbits can feed on different
feedstuff
6. Ranging from green vegetation, dry materials, pellets etc
7. Rabbits have high reproductive rate – a doe can raise over 10 young ones in two months
8. Rabbits have relatively fewer diseases compared to larger animals. This makes it more
convenient to rare rabbits
9. Rabbits occupy all a relatively small area this rabbit keeping is not limited by the scarcity
of land and even the modern urban family can easily intergrade rabbit farming with
either enterprises

Factors that promote rabbit production in Kenya

1. Feeding
Rabbits require less feeds. They can feed on vegetables and weeds

2. Growth rate
Rabbit growth rate results in high quick returns

3. Quality protein
Rabbits are a source of low cost high quality proteins

4. Management skills
Rabbits require less management skills

5. Small size body

Rabbits require less space and are also easy to handle or slaughter
 6. Convenient to keep near farmers homestead they don’t make a lot of noise

7. Quality manure
Produce quality manure for crop production

8. High data for other purposes

Pets, fur, research laboratory experiment

RABBIT PRODUCTION SYSTEM

1. Extensive systems
Rabbits are allowed to graze and concentrates provided:-
 They are kept in moveable hutches
 They feed on crop residues
 They take too long to mature
 Temperature is not regulated which affects performance of rabbits
 It is difficult to control predators and disease e.g. coccidiosis

2. Intensive system
 Rabbits are kept in the house (hutch) where 80-90% of the feeds are concentrates
 The system is market oriented with high investments in feeds and equipment’s
 Rabbits reach market weight on time, organized breeding of rabbits
 Found in urban areas

RABBIT BREEDS
1. New Zealand white
 It is entirely white rabbit /Albino rabbit
 It has pink eyes with pink skin
 It is prolific with six kidding’s per litter
 It has good mothering ability
  Adult bucks weighs 5kg and does weigh 5.5kg
 Far is dense but longer than California
 Bucks are blocky and compact
 Does are longer in body and have more room to suckle big litters

2. California
 They were developed in California USA
 They are white in colour with black or dark brown ears, nose and tail
 It is the largest rabbit breed in body size weighing 2kg at 4 months
 Adults weigh 5kg
 Fur is dense and close
 They have medium bones, broad shoulders and broad hind quarters

3. Chinchila
 They are grey in colour with white blackish fur
 They are the most hardy in Kenya
 Utilize well poor weed resource s
 Has low body weight at 4-5months
 They usually have a small litre size

4. Kenya White
 It is a cross breed of Chinchilla, California and new white
 It is white in colour and eyes are black
 It is known as the synthetic rabbit due to crosses
 It produces good quality meat of 6-8kg
 It has a large body size and attains 2kg at 5-6months

5. Flemish giant
 It is a west African breed
 It is black in colour
 It is the largest breed
 6. Mateonsable
 A completely black rabbit
 Very hardy in Kenya
 Has good mothering ability
 It is late maturing at 5 – 6 months
 The colour affects its marketing i.e. farmers prefer to dress it first and sell it

7. French loop
 They are orange yellowish rabbits in colour
 They have drooping ears
 It is a large heavy rabbit
 It has poor prolification of 3-4litres
 It is a heavy feeder

8. Dutch Grey
It is grey in colour with white band around the shoulder

NUTRITION IN RABBITS
 Rabbits are mono-gastric animals and therefore do not
 Consume high crude fibre
 The lower gut is modified and the caecum and appendix has high population of microbes
(bacteria and protozoa) which breaks down cellulose and hemi cellulose to folatile fatty
acids which are absorbed directly into the caecum for energy production
 Rabbits are able to recycle their feaces which are of two types
(i) Dry pellets
(ii) Soft pellets
A condition referred to as caecotrophy
Caecotrophy is the eating of the rabbit’s droppings as they come out of the rectum
It enables the rabbits to benefit from the activity of the cellulose, which occurs in the
caecum
 Rabbits consume them at night or morning hours as a normal situation in rabbits
  It is a natural instinct which rabbits are born with coprophagy
 Providing rabbits with proteins more so those that contain lysine and methiomine
 Provide cereals and herbage for energy
 Ensure minerals are given/provided aslib independently
 Vitamins should be provided and rabbits are able to synthesis their own vitamin B

Feeding procedures
1. Rabbits needs water which must be provided at libit and clean
2. Ratio of roughage to concentrates should be 60-40
3. Mature rabbits can take 100-120g concentrates per day
4. Addition of lucerne or leucaenia can be done for fast growth

Reproduction
 Most rabbits breed according to age and weight
 Reproduction is normally influenced by night or day length
 At the age of 3-4 months rabbits reach puberty at a weight of 2kg but mating should be
delayed until the litter attains a total weight of ¾ adults e.g. if the total weight of an adult
is 6kg then it should be mated at ¾ x 6 =4.5kg
 Rabbits depend on light to trigger off reproductive hormones
Rabbits – When females are on heat separate/segregate them to avoid mounting which
leads to false pregnancies
 Rabbits are spontaneous ovulators taking 10-12 hours
 Luteinizing hormone pregnancy takes 30-31 days
 It will last for 30-31 days. Giving a litter of 6-10 kidling
 Rabbits do not require assistance during parturition but give a nest shape where it will use
its own fur for beddings
 Kids are born blind and avoid touching them when young otherwise the mother will
reject them
 The liter performance is affected by mothering ability i.e. milk of the doe, care and cold
temperature in the nest
Handling rabbits and routine management
 When carrying a rabbit hold skin at neck base and give a support with one hand. (being
kind to the animal)
 Ear notching is done for permanent identification
 Eastration of males which is usually open
 Sexing of rabbits is done when they are still young and the organs are usually inside the
body
For male – round shape
Female – v-shaped
 Mating – hold the female in a cage for the male for successful mating

The reasons of taking doe to the buck are

1. Rabbits are very shy and the buck take some time to get himself to the acquainted to the
new pen hence mating will not take place
2. Bullying by the doe
3. To avoid injuries that may result from bullying

 Transportation – hold the skin at the neck and put under arm for far distance
1. Regular removal of droppings and soiled beddings
2. Changing of contaminated feeds
3. Prompt isolation of sick animals that require treatment
4. Thorough disinfection of cages ubed by any sick animal
5. Quarantine of newly acquired rabbits for atleast 2 weeks

Other management practices

 On kiddlings keeps weigh 40kg, grow fur and open eyes at 10 days
 They should stay in the nest box for at least 26 days suckling
 Introduce solid food at 27 days
 Remove nest box after 35 days
 Separate males from females at four months by sexing (now at 2kgs)carrying out
selection for meat and breeding
  Slaughter at 5 months

Breeding traits
1. Breed for maximum growth
2. Daily weight gain
3. Number of litres size (6-10)
4. Survival of the animal up to 56 days
5. Carcass weight and dressing percentage

Diseases in rabbits
1. Stress
 Due to high temperatures
 Overcrowding
 Excessive noise
 Lack of balanced diet
 Poor design of hatch

2. Mange on the skin

 It leads to loss of fur (Alopaecia)

3. Pneumonia
 Occurs when the hutch is cold, high humidity or high ammonia due to waste
accumulation

4. Coccidiosis
 Is caused by protozoa leading to intestinal complication
 Avoid feeding rabbits from contaminated feeds, toxic plants e.g. solanacea
family’s
 Wilt the feeding materials before feeding

5. Sour hock
  It occurs when rabbits are kept or hard or sharp objects end up developing wounds
leading to infection
 Rabbits require a house of 1m2 per adult rabbits

BEE KEEPING (APICULTURE)

Honey beef
Are social bees that produce honey, which is of economic use
There are many types of bees
The following is bee classification
Kingdom – Animalia
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Insect
Order – Hymerioptera
Family – Apidae
Genus – Apis
Species – Apis Mellifera
Apis Doesata
Apis Florea
NB:
1. Apis Dorsata
Giant bee
Cannot easily be domesticated

2. Apuis cercana
Makes many combs in dark environments

3. Apis florea
Is the small bee in small combs

4. Apis mellifera
 Found in most parts of the worls
  It is the social honey bee
 Nests in dark environments e.g. h oles in trees
 Bees have simple eyes and compound eyes
 Allowing them to form mosaic images
 The thorax has heavily build muscles
 The female bee has spermatheca in which it stores sperm as it maintains them for
the rest of her life
 The female has a long abdomen
 Workers collect food, they are hairy
 Their proposes is long enough allowing them to collect nectar from plants
 Workers have a sting, which is straight and highly barbed, and a poison sac
 Bees have a complete metamorphosis life cycle of egg - larva – pupa – adult

Development of honeybee
QUEEN WORKER DRONE
Egg Lays eggs fertile/unfertile 3 days to hatch 3 days to hatch
3 days to hatch
Larvae Takes 5 days to convert to pupa 6 days 7 days
Pupa Takes 8 days to convert to adult 12 days 14 days
TOTA 16 DAYS 21 DAYS 24 DAYS
L

1. Queen
 She is the leader in the colony
 She is the only one in the hire
 She is the only fertile female in the colony
 She is the mother of all bees in the hire
 Her only duty in the colony is to lay eggs for the propagation of the species
 She has a lifespan of 2 – 4 years during which her maximum egg laying potential
is observed
  She lays eggs ranging from 1500 – 3000 per day
 She controls the colony by producing pheromones (hormones)
 She laid both fertilized and unfertilized eggs
 She produces pheromones that suppress growth of other queens
 Queen is fed on royal selly by nurse bees
 She is a little larger than the worker bees but not as bulky as the drone
 She has a curved sting which she uses only for the purpose of fighting or
destroying rival queens
 When she is 5 days old the queen takes flight to mate with drones up in the sky
 She mates with 8-60 drones after which she remains fertilizes for life
 A few days after mating she starts to lay eggs
 The queen is fed on the royal jelly for all her life time
 With the exception of a mating flight the queen leaves the hire only when
accompanying the swarm
 She communicates with other bees through pheromones

2. Drones
 These are the male bees whose function is to mate the queen been only once in a
life time
 They mate the queen outside the hive by escorting to drone congregation areas i.e.
between hills or valleys
 The drones are shorter, thicker and bulkier than the queen
 They have no sting
 They only mate the queen during the bridal trip and lock their lives in the act of
copulating and die instantly
 Drones have a life span of 3 months
 During times of drought drones are killed or expelled from the hives by workers
and left to die

3. Workers
 They are all the females that develops from unfertilized eggs
  They grow from small cells
 They are the smallest and developed females
 They constitute the great mass of the population
 They possess the whole ruling power of the colony and regulate the economy
 They carry a sting which they utilize for depending the colony
 They have pollen baskets on their legs which collects pollen when they visit a
blossom
 They have a very organized division of labour
 They are fed with nectar and pollen and work is divided according to the age

Work division of worker bees

(i) 1 – 3 days – cleaners
(ii) 3 – 10 days – nurse bees, feeding the queen
(iii) 10 – 16 days – builders, creating cells
(iv) 16 – 20 days – receive and load pollen nectar from ..........
(v) 20 – 30 days – guard around the hive entrance
(vi) Next 6 – 7 weeks – act as forager collect water, pollen, water etc.
Workers have a sting on the abdomen, which is used for defense

Importance of bees
1. Income generation through sell of bee products e.g. honey, bee wax, pollen, royal jelly,
bee vename
2. It helps in pollination of nartive trees, shrubs, agriculture al and horticultural plants
3. It is used to monitor environmental pollution i.e. bees will keep off in polluted fields or
water
4. Medicinal value – bee products e.g. honey, royal jelly are of great value in medicine in
their natural state
5. Tool for research – bees are useful for education purposes and other useful research to
mankind
6. It promotes conservation of forest through agro-forestry
7. It is completely sustainable
 8. It helps in formation of social groups and organizations
It is gender neutral such that both men and women participate

Management of bees
 The following are factors to consider when locating an apiary
 Locate a way from homestead
 Avoid watering sources
 Should be away from reads and other public utility places
 Provide shade for the hives
 There must be foraging sources within 3km radius

(i) Queen rearing

Bees usually rear queens in 3 ways
i) When there is accidental loss of queen i.e.
When the bee keeper accidentally kills queen during inspection or harvesting
– normally the other bees (workers) modify egg cell to a queen cell by
feeding it on royal jelly

ii) Supersedure replacement of a failing queen

If she is sick, wounded, not mated by enough drones
Workers will form a supersedure cell and the new queen will destroy the weak
queen

iii) Reproductive swarming

It happens when these bees multiply in large numbers in the colony and
decides to divide itself (Swamming)

Hive inspection and honey harvesting

 Hives should be inspected regularly
 It helps in detecting incidences of disease and pest outbreak/reproductive efficiency of
the queen replacement of the bars and checking if honey is ready for harvesting
  When bars are ready for harvesting bee keeper should get all equipment’s ready and
this include
i) White goam covering the whole body
ii) Veil used to cover the face region
iii) Boots to protect the legs
iv) Gloves for hand, protection should be from materials that do not allow stain to
pass through
v) Smoker to generate smoke which when directed to bees makes them suck much
honey reducing their ability to sting
vi) Hive tool – to help in opening the bars
vii) Bucket (containers for collecting ready honey)

Process of harvesting honey

 Harvester should be in the bees ., veil, overall, gloves, gumboots etc.
 Smoke the hive with enough fuel 2 – 3 puffs
 Approach the hive from behind
 Puff 2 – 3 smokes at the entrance
 Remove the lid
 Puff on top of the hive and hit the top bar to taste which bars has honey
 Brick the top bars as you continue pulling
 Lift the top bar one at a time
 Of the comb has honey reads for reads for harvesting brush it into the container

Other apiary management practices

 Stocking the hive using bee catcher
 Empty hives can be used to trap or bring in bees
 Reduce factors that will lead bees abscond away or migrate from the hive e.g. noise
predators disease

Storage of honey
 Stores supers away from chemicals like herbicides pesticides
  Keep store clean and free from dust
 Supers should be wrapped in plastic gangey sacks

Bees/hives products land their uses

Honey
 It is the main produce in the hive
 Used as feed for bees
 It is formed as follows

Nectar collected

Honey stomach

Enzyme hydrolysis
Complex sugar

Simple sugar

Stored in cells

Moisture reduced

As bee feed

Excess harvested by man

Qualities of honey/properties
Hygroscopic
Has ability to observe moisture from its surrounding
Honey should be stored in an air tight container
Viscosity
Resistance to flow because it is very dense

Density
It is much heavier than water
Has specific gravity of 1.429

Colour
Determine by the source of nectar and colour does indicate quality

Moisture
Has moisture content of 17-20% above which honey will ferment reducing its quality

Acidity
Honey is acidic in nature and should not be stored in metallic containers

Crystallization
Honey forms granules due to law moisture content with high solid content leading to
crystallization

Honey uses
 Nutritional value - It has simple sugars molecules e.g. glucose, fructose, manose
 Preservatives e.g. in roasted meat
 Medicinal value – relieves high blood pressure, improves appetite etc
 Bakery and cookery industry – makes better quality looking products
 Honey is highly valued in societies
 Payment of dowry
 Manufacture of cosmetics
a) Bee wax
 2nd most important product of bee hive
 Obtained by melting up and pressing the wax from all discarded empty board cells or
super combs or from cappings
 It is creamy while in nature and float in water after solidifying
 Used in cosmetic industry, pharmaceutical industry, shoe polish, paints, making
candles for lighting, chewing gums etc.

b) Bee Venom
 Released from venom sac when bee stings a victim
 Used for medicinal purpose such as treating people who are allergic to these bee
sting

c) Pollen
 Has high protein content and is valued for its nutritive aspect
 Used for various industrial and medicinal purposes in the hive it serve as food for
the broad and can be used for feeding bees in dearth period

d) Propolis
 It is resinous substance obtained from buds or trunks of trees
 Bees used it like cement to seal cracks in the hive and also to reduce the radius at
the hive entrance has water proof and smoothing effect in the hive
 It strengthens the combs at the junctions with the walls
 Used in manufacture of antibiotics due to its anti-viral and anti-bacterial
properties
 Also serve as raw materials for other industrial process

e) Royal jelly
 Highly nutritious milk white gradular secretion from the nurse bees
 Used as feed for queen and young larvae’s
 Used in medicinal industry for manufacture of healthy foods
Absconding and swamming in bees
Abscording is phenomenal where bee colony leaves the hive completely this is attributed to
various factors or can be as a result of:

i) Lack of food
Bees migrate to other areas where there is nectar, pollen and water

ii) Presence of predators or pests

Predators like wax, moth, safari ant, honey badger and mangoes bees to migrate

iii) Environmental conditions

Excessive heat or cold temperature may cause bees to move

iv) Poor harvesting methods

Methods that disturb bees e.g. burning cause bees to move

v) Bad odour/smells
Bad smell, smoke etc. make bees uncomfortable

vi) Bush fires

They destroy the environment and disturb the bees

vii) Natural phenomenal

The bees colony can decide to migrate to another environment

Swamming
 It is one of the nature’s ways of dividing the bee colony in order to create a new colony
 Swamming is responsible for propagating bee species and is responsible for presence of
bees on earth today
Causes of swamming in bees
1. Congestion in the bee hive
Bee cluster around the corner of the beehive or at the entrance
Queen cells are prepared in readiness for swamming

2. Improper ventilation in the hive

Overcrowding in the hive creates excessive heat for bees at the entrance bees start
fanning in order to lower the temperature by creating air currents towards the inside

3. Lack of food
Lack of nectar, pollen and water leads to starvation

4. Failing queen
Supersecture of the queen is nature’s ways of replacing a failing queen
Worker bees take matters into their own hands and construct queen cells as an attempt to
replace their failing mother

5. Supersedure impulse
The emergency of a new queen from the swarm cells makes the failing queen in leave the
colony with the older bees to start a new colony

Types of queen cells

1. Swarm cells
 They are usually ten or more in a hive
 Build when colony want to swarm
 Found at the bottom of the frame]

2. Supersedure cells
 Usually few in the hive and are built during the loss of failing queen
 Found on the sides of the broad comb
  Usually larger than swarm cells

How bees communicate

Bees communicate in two ways
1. Pheromones
2. Dances

1. Pheromones
 There are chemical odours released by the queen and workers to communicate certain
occurrences i.e. in times of intrusion to hive
 When queen intends to induce swamming as well as foot print and recruitment
pheromones for guiding bees back to their specific hives
 Queen pheromones help in inhibition of queen rearing, attract swarm clustering
suppression of worker egg laying
 Attracting drones during mating flight, workers orientation and colony recognition
 The workers also produce pheromones which help in orientation of hive or colony

2. Dances
The scout bees indicate the distance of a food source by the nature of their dungs e.g.

Round dungs – indicate nearby food sources

 Round dance

Wag dungs – indicate far away food source

Wag tail dance

Types of beehives
A beehive is a house for the bees
1. Kenya top bar hive (Ktbit)
 Highly used in East Africa region
 Its main advantage is it allows for inspection of honey as farmers can access each
bar independently

2. Long stroth
 It is the modern hive made of two compartments.
 The (super boxes) where bees stores honey
 The (broader chamber box) w here bees lay eggs and workers store pollen
 It has a excluder that separates the honey

3. Traditional hive long hive

This log hives have poor management, low quality of honey and do not allow easy
inspection and harvesting

Hive pattern
a) Single hive patterns
Hives are placed or hanged individually in an a piary
b) Line patterns
c) Zig zag patterns
d) T-patterns
e) Cross pattern

PEST OF BEES
1. Honey badgers
 This predators feed on honey and is controlled by construction of goal posts

2. Hive beetles
They damage the combs and are controlled by regular hive inspection and removal

3. Bee pirate/wasp
They are honey robbers

4. Wax moth
They are worms like larvae; they feed on nectar (Adult) but the larvae feeds on combs
and can invade bee colonies hence destroying the combs

5. Army ants and termites

Catch bees for food during the night and destroys the colony

6. Bee louse
They sack blood of the bee

7. Bee eater
A bird that eats bees from the entrance

Disease of bees
1. Nosema
 Caused by a sing le celled nosema, it is spore forming and attacks only the adult
bees

2. Foul brood disease

 The kill bees in large numbers
  Caused by a bacteria
 Controlled by antibiotics
 Sterilization of the equipment’s

3. Varroal varroasis
 Caused by a mite called varroa jacobsoni

4. Braula
 Pest fly that feeds on royal jelly found on the queen and it weakens the queen
controlled by use of tobacco smoke

NON-CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK

(Reptilia – snakes, chameleons, crocodiles)

Potential and importance of wildlife

i) Wildlife animals
They are source of meat (game meat) which provides protein for human nutrition

ii) Game watching and tourism

The financial benefit of reaction associated with wildlife is important to the economics of
E.A countries
iii) Trophies and other wild life products
Trophies are by products of wild life animals such as tusks, horns, skins, feathers, beaks
etc.
They are regarded as trophies and has various uses

iv) They can also be used for decorations and other tradition purpose
Wild animals provides hides and skins for making leather products for human use

v) Are source of income through sell of this animals to other countries in case of increase
in populations and also through sell of their products
 vi) Education and research
National parks and zoological gardens provide an ample opportunity for scientist to
conduct research and for students to explore and appreciate nature in the surrounding

vii) Conservation
Conservationists believe that wild life is a national heritage that should be cherished and
preserved
Ecological stability is usually promoted by conserving wild life animals

viii) It enhances development of infrastructure such as roads, electricity in order to

facilitate communication within and around area preserved for wild animals

ix) Provide job opportunities through employment of people such as ranchers, guards and
those working in the hospitality industry
x) Promotes development of social amenities such as school and health facilities around
those areas protected for wild life
This is done through sharing of income obtained from charges levied from tourists

xi) Wild life animals such as snakes provides phenomena which is used in the medical
profession in case of snake bites

xii) They provide important genetic material that can be exploited e.g. resistant to diseases

xiii) Wild animals such as rodents are useful to the environment since they act as grass
cutters stimulating fresh growth
It is a way of utilizing and productive land

xiv) It promotes socialization

Problems of game animals

 1. Source of livestock diseases
2. Some game animals are predator to livestock and man leading to death
3. Losses of crops
4. Human wild life conflicts
5. Overgrazing due to over population of animals
6. Completion for resources

(Essentials/fundamentals)
Principles of animal population management
1) Population assessment to determine wild life species and the abundance in the habitat
2) Control of the stocking rate in order to control utilization of resources
3) Reducing the rate of depletion of the habitat
4) Proper distribution of animals over the reserve to ensure the herbage is not destroyed
5) Understanding seasonality effects animal movement in the habitat
6) Control of illegal and indiscriminate hunting by enforcing effective and poaching
campaigns and education
7) Training of personnel for wildlife management in order to enforce game laws
8) Financial and moral support for the government in order to enforce good wild life
management and good will of the people
9) Research into the distribution of food and water requirements as well as reproductive
patterns of game animals in their habitats

Interventions/strategies in wildlife management (improve)

1. Population assessment to determine wild life species and their abidance in the habitat
2. Control of the stocking rate to balance the productive capacity of the habitat, otherwise
the herbage can be wasteful if the wildlife reserve is under stocked
3. Control of animals utilizing the reserve so as to reduce the rate of depletion of habitats
 Understanding seasonality and how it affects movement of the animals in the habitat

4. Putting up to date legislations to protect the animals from indiscriminate hunting and
provision of appropriate punishment from the offenders
5. Control of illegal and indiscriminate hunting by enforcing anti-pouching campaigns and
education

Factors that influence population changes in wildlife

1. Climatic changes e.g. drought can wipe out a lot of animals
Rainfall and drought can influence availability of pasture and water for wild game

2. Predators
Predators’ feeds on other game animals and therefore the population of predators can
regulate the growth of specific wild game animals

3. Natural disaster
They include floods, drought, fires, epidemics, earthquakes
These disasters can wipe the entire population of game animals

4. Environmental changes
Whenever there is environmental change like climate change it gradually affects game
animals basing on adaptability of these animals

5. Human Activities
These includes activities like poaching environmental degradation, killing and
encroaching on areas ear marked for wild game can directly influenced the population of
wild game

6. Diseases and pests

They can kill, slow growth, thus reducing the population of animals
7. Migration
 Migration can greatly affect game population when animals migrate in such of pasture,
water as breeding depending on the seasons

8. Reproductive trends
The reproductive trend can be influenced by fertility, reproductive efficiency and the
environment of the wild game

9. Legislation
Laws regulating land and management of wild animals can influence population of wild
game

OBJECTIVES OF GAME CROPPING (HARVESTING)

1. Control population of wild game
2. To provide bush meat and other animal products for local consumption and also income
generation

Definition of game cropping

It is sustainable harvesting of wild life

Importance of culling in relationship with wild life management

Culling is a management tool that can be used to control population of animals
1. It is an activity whose primary objective is to reduce animal population. It is carried out
because of preventing or reducing habitat degradation due to high population densities
2. It is a species protection strategy, it happens in cases where there is competition where
there is a locally abundant species and a rear species
This calls for controlling abundance species through culling

3. It is used to control game animals

4. It can be used in game transfer

Systems that can be used in setting traps in game cropping

 1. Setting of traps in areas known to be used by wild animals or along animals trails
and at feeding grounds
The sole aim of such traps is to catch animals especially mammals
Birds traps are normally placed on top of branches of trees which are known to be
regularly used for feeding or roasting

2. Setting traps in and around farms

It involves constructing a fence around a form and traps are set at intervals along the
fence. This system is primarily a crop protection nature whose primary measure is to
reduce damage to crop by

Explain the difference in adaptation between browsers and grazers

 Grazers have a large, more muscular, divided rumen or reticular with a small opening
between reticulum and abomasum that browsers. This adaptation serves to retard the
passage of digesta to the lower tract giving more time for fermentation of plant fibre
(cellulose). This allows grazers to digest the cell wall and obtain more energy per unit of
food consumed. In contrast, most Browsers contain less cell wall and fibre. They have a
smaller rumen which allows indigestible food particles to flow prome a higher food intake

 Browsers then to have an extensive papillae in all parts of the rumen which enlarges the
surface are by two times which allows for efficient absorption of folatile fatty acids from
the rapidly fermenting cell content of plants
 In contrast grazers have fewer and even papillar that limit the absorptive capacity of the
rumen
 Browsers have proportionately large abomasum, large hind gut (caecum & colon) and
ventricular groove in rumen which allows some cell content to escape inefficient rumen
fermentation thus favouring digestion in abomasum and the lower digestive tract

Challenges facing crocodile farming in Kenya

1. Belief
 There is a belief that since crocodiles are reptiles they should not be eaten. This belief
limits the number of people consume crocodile meats

2. Fear
Crocodiles have cost a lot of damage and death to human and livestock. This makes
people fear keeping of them as livestock

3. Skills
Crocodile farming is a relatively new development in Kenya such that very few people
have the necessary skills especially for breeding and value addition of crocodile meat

4. License
Crocodile keeping requires a licence from KWS. In order to get a license one has to meet
certain minimum conditions, which are difficult to most farmers

5. Water
Crocodile farming require a good water supply that is dean and reliable, this limits most
farmers

6. Land
Land for crocodile farming should be isolated and far from populated places for security
reasons. This is difficult to get. The soil in the land should be able to retain water so that
it can facilitate pond construction. This requirement is lacking in some places

7. Market
In many places, market crocodile meat may be backing especially in rural areas. Most
crocodile farmers are unable to secure export markets and even outlets in 5 star hotels
which crocodile eat has the demand

SLAUGHTER PROCEDURE OF RABBITS

(i) Restrain the animal
 (ii) Give a strong blow to the back of the head using a hard object
(iii) Hold the animal by its hind legs with its head pointing downwards so that it will stop
struggling after a few minutes
(iv) Stun the rabbit quickly by ..
(v) Bleeding is done by cutting through the large arteries of the neck
(vi) Hang the carcass upside down on an horizontal bar

Skinning
1. Cut the skin around the hock on one leg and continue with the cut down the leg to the
vent and up the other body
2. Peel the skin off from legs to the tail region cut the tail and pell of the skin completely
from the body
3. Cut off the head with the skin
4. Wash off any fur sticking to the carcass
5. Using a knife slit the rabbit up in the middle of the belly taking care not to pull the
intestines or the urinary bladder
6. Remove all organs except the liver, kidney and heart
7. Wash the carcass with cold clean water
8. Hand the carcass up in cool well ventilated place over to get rid of the excess carcass
moisture as well as tendering the meat as it cures

Factors that determine carcass quality in beef

1. Age of the animal
Beef from old animals is not tender
Tenderness varies with age; young animals’ meat is tender but has weak flavour

2. Marbling
It refers to fat deposition, which should be uniformly in the muscles
Indigenous breeds deposit their fats in specific parts of the body producing low quality
carcass
 3. Colour
It is determined by haemoglobin and myoglobin of the tissue
Young animals have fewer colour determinants hence the meat has pale pink coloration

4. Firmness of lean meat

Lean meat is preferred by most consumers with firm fats. Carcass with oily appearances
discourages buyers

5. Flavour
It is determined by compounds found in fat content in meat. It is affected by age hence
affecting amount of fat deposited on the carcass. Mature animals give better flavour than
young ones

6. Juiciness
Juiciness depends on the water holding capacity of the carcass

7. Texture
It is the prominence of muscles within any piece of meat. Coarse texture is obtained
from areas with a lot of muscles e.g. the leg. Beef from old animals is coarse in texture
and the best age should be at 3 years

8. Attractiveness
This are physical attributes that appeal to the consumers. It is therefore a component of
meat in terms of colour, leanness, fatty, texture, firmness, blood drips

Properties of dairy milk that make it a perfect human food

1. Minerals
Milk has a balanced concentration of common minerals such as calcium, phosphorus and
iron Ca & P are very important in bone formation

2. Proteins
 Minerals and lactose, they make up solid non-fat content of milk that is very important
for growing children

3. Vitamins
Several vitamins are available in dairy milk e.g. vitamin A, B complex and C

4. Proteins
They are building blocks of human tissue are present in acceptable quantities by human
body. proteins lead to growth and development of human system

5. Lactose
This is milk sugar is a source of energy and also gives milk a good taste

6. Butter fat content

Milk from dairy cattle has a BF of below 4% on average which make it easily consumed
in the human body without causing problems in the digestive system

7. Milk also supply human body with water for different body processes

8. Milk contains certain important enzyme in the human system

9. Milk has a PH of about 6.5 – 6.8 which is almost similar to that of human body plasma
(fluid)

Qualities of a good starter culture of milk

1. It should contain only lactic acid forming bacteria
2. Must be free from any organisms capable of forming off flavours or undesirable
fermentation
3. Should produce lactic acid at a steady rate
 4. Must be capable of growing under the conditions offered during the production of the
particular dairy products in which the starter culture is used
5. Should not be affected noticeably by growing in different types of milk

NB:
Milk for starter culture should be pasteurized to kill most of the bacteria that may be
present in the milk

Pasteurization involves heating of milk at 85oC for 30 minutes

Qualities of milk to be used for starter culture

1. Should be from health animals
2. Should have fresh smell and taste
3. Free from physical dirt
4. Should have good souring ability (free from chemical residues such as anti-biotics and
preservatives)

MILK PRODUCTION CURVE

Amount of milk

Phase II

Phase I

Phase III

Explain the phases shown in the illustration

TIME
Phase I
  The cow produces colostrum in the first four days after which normal milk is produced.
The phase starts with low milk production which gradually increases
 The animals is recovering after parturition/calving down
 The animal experienced low appetite which gradually increase
 There is change in secretion of hormones with prolactin controlling lactogenesis and
oxytosin controlling milk let down
 At the end of this phase the animal can be served

Phase II
 The animal attains maximum milk production
 The maximum milk production starts declining gradually
 The animal has high appetite and the feed intake can sustain high milk production

Phase III
 The animal experiences low milk production
 Dry cow therapy is practiced, steaming up starts
 The animals are dried off in preparation for the next parturition
 Lactation period ends after 305 days
 The animal experienced advanced pregnancy whereby the foetus is growing at a high rate

Management practices to minimize dystocia/calving down

1. Size of the heifer at first service
A cow with a small body should not be served if it is still showing growth sign even if it
comes on heat
2. Feeding regime
Steaming up ensures that the cow is strong during calving that it will be able to push out
the calf

3. Over feeding
May also cause distortion since it may lead to large foetus
 4. Age at first service
The dam should be physiologically and physically mature enough for service

5. Matching of the sire and dam

A small dam should not be mated with a large sire since the sire may transmit genes for
large size to the foetus
Large organs e.g. legs, head of foetus may cause dystocia

6. Immediate help should be given to the cow if it is experiencing calving problems i.e.
assist the cow to push or call a veterinary officer

Advantages of Kenya top bar hive

1. The top bar can be removed for inspection of the combs and replaced
2. Honey combs can be removed without disturbing the brood
3. Honey is of high quality as it is harvested without brood combs
4. More wax is harvested as combs are not returned to the hive
5. The hive is easy to construct and repair
6. The hive is cheap to build and does not require expensive equipment to attract honey
7. A queen excluder can be used in the center of the hive to separate honey from the brood.
It further increases the quality of the honey
Types of ranches
Sheep breeds
 Black headed sheep
 Maasai sheep
 Merino sheep
 Corriadale
 Romney marsh
 Hampshire down
 Dorset horn sheep
 Dopper
Factors to consider when selecting sheep for breeding
 Fast maturing
 Capacity for rapid growth
 Fleece quality
 Conformity with breed characteristics
 Ability to breed adequately
 Twinning rate
 Mutton quality