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Polynomials

Polynomials use full for maths olympiad india

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

52 views71 pages

Polynomials

Polynomials use full for maths olympiad india

Uploaded by

jdiawfin

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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Mathematics - IQ
POLYNOMIALS
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Polynomials
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Ø Introduction :
In preceding chapter we have studied quadratic expressions, equations and inequations. This
chapter discusses the theory and solutions of polynomial equations of degree more than two.
Definition :
An expression of the form f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + .... + anxn where n is a non negative integer
and a0, a1, a2, ...., an are complex or real an ≠ 0 is called a polynomial in x of degree n. A complex
number ‘ α ’ is said be a ‘zero’ of the polynomial f(x) if f( α) = 0.
Example :
1) x4 + 2x3 + x2 + x – 1 is a polynomial of degree 4.
2) x5 – x4 + x3 – x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.
Ø Some important results on polynomials :
M Theorem :
Division Algorithm for polynomials
If f(x), g(x) ( ≠ 0) are two polynomials, then there exist polynomials q(x), r(x) uniquely, such
that f(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) where r(x) = 0 or degree r(x) < degree g(x).
Note:
i) Here q(x) is called quotient and r(x) is called remainder of f(x) when divided by g(x).
ii) f(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) is an identity in x.
M Theorem :
If f(x) is a polynomial, then the remainder of f(x) when divided by x – a is f(a).
Proof : Let q(x), r(x) be quotient and remainder when x – a divides f(x). Then by division algorithm
f(x) = (x – a)q(x) + r(x)
Now f(a) = r(a)
∴ The remainder is f(a)

M Theorem :
(Factor theorem)
If f(x) is a polynomial then f(a) = 0 iff (x – a) is a factor of f(x).
Division of a polynomial by x–a (synthetic division)
If f(x) = a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 +....+an is a polynomial, q(x) = q0xn–1 + q1xn–2 + q2xn–3 +....+qn–1 is
the quotient and r(x) = r be the remainder of f(x) when divided by x – a then f(x) = (x – a) q(x) +
r(x).
⇒ a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + .... + an = (x – a)(q0xn–1 + q1xn–2 + q2xn–3 +....+qn–1)+r
⇒ a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + .... + an
= q0xn + (q1–aq0)xn–1 + (q2–aq1)xn–2 + .....+ (qn–1– aqn–2)x + r – aqn–1
On comparing both sides, a0 = q0
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Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd. 1
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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a1 = q1 – aq0 ⇒ q1 = a1 + aq0 = a1 + aa0
a2 = q2 – aq1 ⇒ q2 = a2 + aq1
an–1 = qn–1 – aqn–2 ⇒ qn–1 = an–1 + aqn–2
an = r – aqn–1 ⇒ r = an + aqn–1
We can find q0, q1, q2, ...., qn–1, r in the following proceedure which is known as Horner’s
method of synthetic division.

a0 a1 a2 a3 ..... an–1 an
a – aq0 aq1 aq2 ..... aqn–2 aqn–1
a0 = q0 q1 q2 q3 qn–1 r

In the first row we write the coefficients of the given polynomial. We divide the polynomial by
x – a by writing a in the left corner as shown. We write the first term in third row by a0 = q0. Now
multiply q0 by a and write it below a1. We add q0a to a1 write the sum as q1 in third row. Now
multiply q1 by a and write below a2. Then add q1a and a2 to write this q2 in third row. Continue this
process to get qn–1 in third row. Finally multiply qn–1 by a and write below an and add it to an to get r.
Note : If any term of f(x) is missing then ‘0’ will be taken as its coefficient.

EXAMPLES
1. Find the quotient and remainder when 3x4 – x3 + 2x2 – 2x – 4 is divided by x + 2.

3 –1 2 –2 –4
Sol. –2 – –6 14 –32 68
3 –7 16 –34 64

∴ Quotient is 3x3 – 7x2 + 16x – 34, Remainder is 64

2. Divide 2x5 – 3x4 + 5x3 – 7x2 + 3x – 4 by x –2.

2 –3 5 –7 3 –4
Sol. 2 – 4 2 14 14 34
2 1 7 7 17 30

∴ Quotient is 2x4 + x3 + 7x2 + 7x + 17, Remainder is 30

Example 3 : If ( x − 1) , ( x + 2 ) and ( x + 3 ) are the factors of cubic polynomial f ( x ) , then find f ( x ) .

Solution : f x = x -1 x + 2 x + 3

x - a x - b x - c = k éëê x 3 - a + b + c x 2 + ab + bc + ca x - abcùûú
f x = k êé x 3 -1 - 2 - 3 x 2 + ëé1-2 + -2-3 + -31ûù x - 1-2-3ùú
ë û
é ù
f x = k ëê x + 4 x + x + 6ûú
3 2

Example 4 : Find the remainder when x1999 is divided by x 2 − 1

Solution : f(x) = (x – a) (x – b) Q(x) + R1x + R2
x1999= (x – 1) (x + 1) Q(x) + R1x + R2
Put x = 1
1 = R1 + R 2
–1 = – R1 + R2
________________________

⇒ R2 = 0 ⇒ R1 = 1
So that remainder is x + 0 = x
Example 5 : Find the remainder when x100 is divided by x2 − 3 x + 2
Solution : f(x) = (x – a) (x – b) Q ( x ) + R1 x + R2
x 100 = f(x) = (x – 2) (x – 1) Q(x) + R1x + R2
Put x = 1
1 = R1 + R 2
2100 = 2R1 + R2
______________________

2 100 –1 = R1 & R2 = 2 – 2100

∴ Remainder = R1x + R2
= (2100 – 1) x + (2 – 2100)

Example 6 : ( a − 3) x2 + ( 2 a + b) x + ( b − c) is a zero polynomials find a, b & c.

Solution : If ax 2 + bx + c is a zero polynomial then a = b = c = 0
a–3=0 ⇔ a=3
2a + b = 0 ⇔ b=–6
b–c=0 ⇔ c=–6
Ø Division of polynomial by x2 – ax – b
If f(x) = a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 +....+an, be polynomial, q(x) = q0xn–2 + q1xn–3 +....+qn–2 and
r (x) = mx + n quotient, remainder respectivey when f(x) is divided by x2 – ax – b.
First write down the coefficient of xn, xn–1, xn–2, .... respectively in a row. Draw a vertical line
to the line left of a0. Write down a, b as column figures to the left of the drawn vertical line in 2nd
and 3rd row. Below a0 write 0 in 2nd, 3rd row. Write this sum is 4th row as q0. Now multiply q0 by
a write below a1 in 2nd row and write 0 below it in third row. Now add these a1, aq0, 0 write this
sum as q1 in 4th row. Now multiply q1 with a and q0 with b write these two product aq1, bq0 below
a2 and add all these to write as q2 continue this process until the terms under an are obtained. Now
the quotient q0xn–2 + q1xn–3 + .... + qn–2 (q0 ≠ 0) and remainder is mx + n.

a0 a1 a2 a3 ..... an–2 an–1 an

a 0aq0 aq1 aq2 aqn–3 aqn–2 0
b 0 0 bq0 bq1 bqn–4 bqn–3 bqn–2
q0=a0 q1 q2 q3 qn-2 m n

EXAMPLES
7. Find quotient and the remainder when 2x5 – 3x4 + 5x3 – 3x2 + 7x – 9 is divided by x2 – x – 3.

2 –3 5 –3 7 –9
1 0 2 –1 10 4 0
Sol. 3 0 0 6 –3 30 12
2 –1 10 4 41 3

∴ Quotient is 2x3 – x2 + 10x + 4

Remainder is 41x + 3
8. Find the quotient and remainder when x4 – 11x3 + 44x2 – 76x + 48 is divided by x2 – 7x + 12.

1 –11 44 –76 48
7 0 7 –28 28 0
Sol. -12 0 0 –12 48 –48
1 –4 4 0 0

∴ Quotient is x2 – 4x + 4
Remainder is 0x + 0 = 0

EXERCISE - I
1. Find the condition that xn – yn may be divisible by (i) x + y, (ii) x – y.

2. If the polynomials px3 + 4 x2 + 3x − 4 and x 3 − 4 x + p are divided by x − 3 , then the remainder in

each case is the same. Find the value of p.

3. Find the value of m in order that x 4 − 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 − mx + 5 may be exactly divisible by x − 3 .

4. Show that (x – 1) is a factor of ( x10 –1) and also of ( x11 − 1) .

5. Without actual division, prove that x 4 + 2 x 3 - 2 x 2 + 2 x - 3 is exactly divisible by x 2 + 2 x − 3 .

6. If a and b are unequal and x 2 + ax + b and x 2 + bx + a have a common factor, then show that
a + b +1 = 0 .

7. If ax 2 + 2a 2 x + b3 is divisible by x + a , prove that a = b or a 2 + ab + b2 = 0

8. If f ( x ) = x 2 + 5 x + p and g ( x ) = x 2 + 3x + q have a common factor, then

i) Find the common factor
ii) Show that ( p − q ) 2 = 2(3 p − 5q )
9. If the equations K(6x2 + 3) + rx + 2x2 – 1 = 0 and 6K (2x2 + 1) + px + 4x2 – 2 = 0 have both the
roots common. Find the value of 2r – p.
10. If 8, 2 are the roots of x2 + ax + β = 0 and 3, 3 are the roots of x2 + α x + b = 0 then find the
roots of x2 + ax + b = 0.
Ø Algebraic equations and its roots :
Definition :
An equation f(x) = 0 is said to be an algebraic equation or a polynomial equation.
A complex number ‘ α ’ is said to be a ‘root’ of the equation f(x) = 0 if f( α ) = 0
Example :
1) 2x5 – x4 + 3x3 – x2 + x + 1 = 0
2) x5 – (2 + i)x4 + 3ix2 – 2 = 0
3) 2x4 – 5x3 + 3x + 5 = 0 is an equation with integer coefficients.
4) 17x3 – 3 x2 + (2 + 5 )x – 5 = 0 is an equation with real coefficients.
Ø Some important theorems and results regarding algebraic equations and roots :
M Theorem :
(Fundamental theorem of Algebra)
Every algebraic equation or polynomial equation of degree nonzero has a root.
M Theorem :
Every polynomial equation of degree n has n roots and cannot have more than n roots.
M Theorem :
If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n with leading coefficient a and α1 , α 2 , ...., α n be the roots of the
equation f(x) = 0 then f(x) = a(x – α1 ) (x – α 2 ) (x – α 3 ) .... (x – α n ), which is an identity.
Ø Quadratic Expression :
Definition : An expression of the form ax2+bx+c, where a, b, c are real or complex numbers, a ≠ 0
is called a quadratic expression in variable x.
Example : x2 + 5x + 6, 3x2 – 5x + 7, x2 – (1 – 2i)x + i
Definition : A complex number ‘ α ’ is said to be a ‘zero’ of quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c, if
aα 2 + bα + c = 0 .
Example : 3 is zero of x2 – 5x + 6
i is zero of x2 + 1

Ø Quadratic Equation :
Definition : An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c are real or complex numbers
and a ≠ 0 is called a quadratic equation in x, with a, b, c as coefficients.
Example : x2 – 7x +12 = 0, x2 + x + 1 = 0, 3x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
Definition : A complex number ‘ α ’ is said to be a ‘root’ or ‘solution’ of the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 if aα2 + bα + c = 0 .
Example : 2 is a root of x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
1 – i is a root of x2 – 2x + 2 = 0
Theorem :

The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0)are − b ± b − 4 ac .

2a
Proof : Given quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
⇒ 4a(ax2 + bx + c) = 0
Let α be a root of the equation.
Then 4a( aα 2 + bα + c ) = 0
⇒ (2 aα ) 2 + 2(2 aα )b + 4 ac = 0

− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
⇒ (2 aα + b) − b + 4 ac = 0 ⇒ 2 aα + b = ± b − 4 ac ⇒ α =
2 2 2
2a
Example :

1) The roots of x2 – 7x + 12 = 0 are 7 ± 49 − 4(1)12 = 7 + 1 , 7 − 1 i.e., 4, 3

2.1 2 2

2) The roots of x2 – 6x + 25 = 0 are 6 ± 36 − 100 = 6 + 8i , 6 − 8i i.e., 3 + 4i, 3 – 4i

2 2 2
Note :
i) The roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 may be real or complex and the equation cannot have
more than two roots.
ii) The roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 may be equal or distinct.
b c
iii) If α and β are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 then α + β = − and αβ =
a a
iv) If α, β are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 then the quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c = a( x − α )( x − β) .
v) The quadratic with roots α, β is x 2 − (α + β) x + αβ = 0 i.e., ( x − α )( x − β ) = 0

b 2 − 4 ac Δ
vi) Difference of roots : If α, β are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 then α ~ β = =
|a| |a|
where Δ = b2 − 4 ac.

Example :
1) The quadratic equation whose roots are 3 + 2, 3 − 2 is
x 2 − (3 + 2 + 3 − 2 ) x + (3 + 2 )(3 − 2 ) = 0 i.e., x2 – 6x + 7 = 0.
2) The quadratic equation whose roots are 2 + 3i, 2 – 3i is x2 – (2 + 3i + 2 – 3i)x + (2 + 3i) (2 –
3i) = 0 is x2 – 4x + 13 = 0.
3) (
The quadratic equation whose roots are 1 + 2, 2 is x 2 − 1 + 2 2 x + 2 + 2 = 0 ) ( )
Ø Nature of the Roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0
Definition : If ax2 + bx + c = 0 a,b,c is a real quadratic equation then the real number b2 – 4ac is
denoted by Δ and is called discriminant.
Example : The discriminant of 3x2 + 4x – 5 = 0 i.e., Δ = 42 – 4(3)(–5) = 76
Theorem :
If a,b,c are real then the nature of the roots of quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is as follows
:
−b
i) If Δ = 0 then the roots are real and equal and each root is .
2a
ii) If Δ > 0 then the roots are real and distinct.
iii) If Δ < 0 then the roots are imaginary and conjugate to each other.
Theorem :
If a, b, c are rational numbers then the nature of the roots of quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
is as follows :
−b
i) If Δ = 0 then the roots are rational and equal, and each root is
2a
ii) If Δ > 0 and if Δ is a perfect square then the roots are rational and distinct.
iii) If Δ > 0 and if Δ is not a perfect square then the roots are irrational and not equal. Also they
are conjugate surds.
iv) If Δ < 0 then the roots are complex and conjugate to each other.
Results to remember
For ax2 + bx + c = 0
c
i) a + b + c = 0 ⇒ 1 is a root and is the other root.
a
c
ii) a – b + c = 0 ⇒–1 is a root and − is the other root.
a
iii) difference of roots = 1 ⇒ Δ = a2
iv) roots are in the ratio m : n ⇒ (m + n)2ac = mnb2
v) one root is k times the other ⇒ (1 + k)2ac = kb2
vi) one root is negative of the other ⇒ b = 0
vii) one root is reciprocal of the other ⇒ a = c
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Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd. 7
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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viii) one root is the square of the other ⇒ ac(a + c) + b3 = 3abc.

1 1
ix) One root is the nth power of the other ⇒ (ac n ) n +1 + (a n c) n +1 + b = 0

EXAMPLES

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
9. Solve 2 ⎜ x 2 + 2 ⎟ − 3 ⎜ x + ⎟ = 1 .
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x⎠

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Sol. Given equation 2 ⎜ x 2 + 2 ⎟ − 3 ⎜ x + ⎟ − 1 = 0
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x⎠

⎛⎛ 1⎞
2
⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
2
⎛ 1⎞
⇒ 2 ⎜ ⎜ x + ⎟ − 2⎟ − 3 ⎜ x + ⎟ − 1 = 0 ⇒ 2 ⎜ x + ⎟ − 3 ⎜ x + ⎟ − 5 = 0
⎝⎝ x⎠ ⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠

1
Put x+ = t then 2t2 – 3t – 5 = 0
x
⇒ (t + 1)(2t – 5) = 0 ⇒ t = –1 or 5/2
1 1 5
⇒ x+ = −1 or x + =
x x 2
⇒ x + x + 1 = 0 or 2x2 – 5x + 2 = 0
2

−1 ± i 3 1
⇒ x= or 2,
2 2
Remember :
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1
While solving equations of the type f ⎜ x + , x 2 + ⎟ = 0 . Put x + = t so that it becomes
⎝ x x ⎠
2 x
f(t, t2 – 2) = 0
10. Solve 2x4 + x3 – 11x2 + x + 2 = 0
1 2
Sol. Divide the given equation by x2 both sides then it becomes 2 x 2 + x − 11 + + =0
x x2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
i.e., 2 ⎜ x 2 + 2 ⎟ + ⎜ x + ⎟ − 11 = 0
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x⎠

⎛⎛ 1⎞
2 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⇒ 2 ⎜ ⎜ x + ⎟ − 2⎟ + ⎜ x + ⎟ − 11 = 0
⎝⎝ x⎠ ⎠ ⎝ x⎠

2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⇒ 2 ⎜ x + ⎟ + ⎜ x + ⎟ − 15 = 0
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠
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8 Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd.
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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1
Now put x + = t then 2t2 + t – 15 = 0
x

−1 ± 1 + 120 5
⇒ t= ⇒ t = –3 or
4 2

1 1 5
x+ = −3 or x + = ⇒ x2 + 3x + 1 = 0 or 2x2 – 5x + 2 = 0
x x 2

−3 ± 9 − 4 5 ± 25 − 16 −3 + 5 − 3 − 5 1
⇒ x= or x = x= , , 2,
2 4 2 2 2
Remember :
For, ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + bx + a = 0, in which coefficients equidistant from both ends are equal.
1
Divide with x2 and put x + = t.
x

11. If α , β are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 ( α ≠ β )and α 4 , β 4 are the roots of lx2 + mx + n = 0,
then prove that the roots of the equation a2lx2 – 4aclx + 2c2l + a2m = 0 are always real and
opposite in sign.
−b c −m n
Sol. We have α + β = , αβ = (a ≠ 0) and α 4 + β 4 = , α 4β 4 = (l ≠ 0)
a a l l
The given equation a2lx2 – 4aclx + 2c2l + a2m = 0 has discriminant
D = 16a2c2l2 – 4a2l(2c2l + a2m) = 8a2c2l2 – 4a4lm

⎡ −m ⎤
⎢Q l = α + β > 0 and ⎥
4 4
⎛ 2c 2 m ⎞
= 4a4l2 ⎜ 2 − ⎟ = 4a4l2 (α 2 + β 2 ) > 0 ⎢ 2c 2 ⎥
⎝ a l⎠
⎢ = 2 α β
2 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ a 2 ⎥⎦
Hence, the roots are real.
2c 2 l + a 2 m 2c 2 m
Also, we have product of the roots = 2
= 2
+ = 2α 2 β 2 − ( α 4 + β 4 )
a l a l
= − (α 2 − β2 ) 2 < 0
which proves that the roots are of opposite signs.
Remember :
c
For a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 roots are real and of opposite sign, then Δ > 0, <0
a

Theorem :
A necessary and sufficient condition for two quadratic equations a1x2 + b1x + c1= 0 and
a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0 to have common root.
Proof : Necessary condition : Let α be the common root of the given equations
Then a1α 2 + b1α + c1 = 0 ..... (1)
a2 α 2 + b2 α + c2 = 0 ..... (2)

α2 α 1
b1 c1 a1 b1
Solve (1) & (2)
b2 c2 a2 b2

b1c2 − b2c1 c a −c a
We get α 2 = ,α = 1 2 2 1
a1b2 − a2b1 a1b2 − a2 b1
eliminate ‘ α’ we get (b1c2 – b2c1) (a1b2 – a2b1) = (c1a2 – c2a1)2
Sufficiency condition : Suppose (a1b2 – a2b1) (b1c2 – b2c1) = (c1a2 – c2a1)2
Case - I : a1b2 – a2b1 = 0 then c1a2 – c2a1 = 0
a1 b1 a c a b c
⇒ = and 1 = 1 , Hence 1 = 1 = 1
a2 b2 a2 c2 a2 b2 c2
∴ a1x2 + b1x + c1 = 0 and a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0 have same roots.
Case - II : a1b2 − a2 b1 ≠ 0
c1a2 − c2 a1
Let α =
a1b2 − a2 b1
from (1)
2
⎛c a −c a ⎞ ⎛ c a −c a ⎞
a1α + b1α + c1 = a ⎜ 1 2 2 1 ⎟ + b ⎜ 1 2 2 1 ⎟ + c1 = 0
2

⎝ a1b2 − a2 b1 ⎠ ⎝ a1b2 − a2 b1 ⎠

similarly we can prove that a2 α 2 + b2 α + c2 = 0

Thus ‘ α ’ is a common root of the given equations.
Remember :
b1 c1 a1 b1
Identify the scheme
b2 c2 a2 b2

Δ 2 = Δ 1 .Δ 3
i) 2

Δ1 ⎛ Δ2 ⎞
ii) common root or
Δ 2 ⎜⎝ Δ 3 ⎟⎠

Ø Sign of the Quadratic Expression ax2 + bx + c :

Theorem :
If the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are imaginary, then for x ∈ R , ax2 + bx + c and a have the same sign.
Proof : The roots are imaginary
⇒ b2 – 4ac < 0
⇒ 4ac – b2 > 0
ax 2 + bx + c b c
= x2 + x +
a a a
2 2
⎛ b⎞ c b2 ⎛ b⎞ 4 ac − b 2
=⎜x+ ⎟ + − 2 =⎜x+ ⎟ + >0
⎝ 2a ⎠ a 4a ⎝ 2a ⎠ 4 a2
∴ For x ∈ R , ax2 + bx + c and a have the same sign.
Corollary : If the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are real and equal then ax2 + bx + c and a will have same sign.
Remember :
Roots are real and equal ⇒ curve touches x - axis
Roots are imaginary ⇒ curve doesn’t meet x - axis
Theorem :
Let α , β be the real roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 and α < β . Then
i) x ∈ R, α < x < β ⇒ ax2 + bx + c and a have the opposite signs.
ii) x ∈ R, x < α or x > β ⇒ ax2 + bx + c and a have the same sign.
Proof : α, β are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0

ax 2 + bx + c
⇒ ax2 + bx + c = a ( x − α )( x − β) ⇒ = ( x − α )( x − β)
a

If α < x < β then ax + bx + c < 0

2
i)
a
⇒ ax + bx + c and a will have opposite signs.
2

ii) If x < α or x > β , then ( x − α )( x − β ) > 0

⇒ ax2 + bx + c and a will have same sign.
Ex: Determine the sign of (i) x2 + x + 1; (ii) x2 – 7x + 12 for x ∈ R .
Sol. i) the roots of x2 + x + 1 = 0 are imaginary as Δ = –3 < 0 and coefficient is x2 = 1 (i.e > 0)
⇒ x2 + x + 1 > 0
ii) x2 – 7x + 12 > 0 for x < 3 or x > 4
x2 – 7x + 12 < 0 for 3 < x < 4
Remember :
Roots are real and distinct ⇒ curve intersects x-axis

Ø Maximum and Minimum Values of ax2 + bx + c :

The maximum and minimum values of a quadratic expression with real coefficients depend on the
sign of the coefficient of x2.
Theorem :
Suppose that a, b, c ∈R, a ≠ 0 and f(x) = ax2 + bx + c ;
b 4 ac − b2
i) If a > 0, then f(x) has absolute minimum at x = − and the minimum value is .
2a 4a
b 4 ac − b2
ii) If a < 0 then f(x) has absolute maximum at x = − and the maximum value is .
2a 4a
2
⎛ b⎞ 4 ac − b2
Proof : Since f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = a ⎜ x + ⎟ +
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a

4 ac − b 2 −b 4 ac − b2
i) If a > 0 then f ( x ) ≥ for all x ∈ R and when x = f(x) = .
4a 2a 4a
b
∴ f(x) has minimum at x = −
2a
4 ac − b2 −b 4 ac − b 2
ii) If a < 0 then f ( x ) ≤ for all x ∈ R and when x = f(x) = .
4a 2a 4a
4 ac − b2 −b
∴ f(x) has miximum value at x =
4a 2a
2
⎛ b⎞ 4 ac − b2
The graph of f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = a ⎜ x + ⎟ + is one of the following.
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a
i) a>0: ii) a<0
x=-b/2a

y y

⎛ −b 4ac − b 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 a , 4 a ⎟⎠
x
x ⎛ − b 4 ac − b 2 ⎞
0 ⎜⎝ 2 a , 4 a ⎟⎠
x=-b/2a

x=-b/2a

x=-b/2a
y y
⎛ − b 4 ac − b 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 a , 4 a ⎟⎠
O
x
O x
⎛ − b 4 ac − b 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 a , 4 a ⎟⎠

x=-b/2a
x=-b/2a

y
y

⎛ − b 4 ac − b 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 a , 4 a ⎟⎠
O
x O
x
⎛ − b 4 ac − b ⎞ 2

⎜⎝ 2 a , 4 a ⎟⎠

Note :
1⎛ 4 ac − b2 ⎞
2
⎛ b⎞
i) The extreme value of f(x) is the ordinate of vertex of the parabola ⎜ x + ⎟ = ⎜ y −
⎝ 2a ⎠ a⎝ 4 a ⎟⎠
where y = f(x).
ii) Using calculus theorem, note that the extremum value of y = f(x) can be identified by the roots

dy b d2 y
of f'(x) = 0. Here y = ax2 + bx + c, = 0 at x = − ; = 2a
dx 2 a dx 2
∴ If a > 0 ; y has minimum value and if a < 0 ; y has maximum value.

Remember :

Either maximum or minimum of ax2 + bx + c is given by 4ac − b

4a
Example : Find maximum or minimum to the expressions
(i) x2 – x + 2 (ii) 4x – x2 – 10
Sol. i) a = 1, b = –1, c = 2
1
Since a > 0 the expression has only minimum value at x = and the value is
2

4 ac − b 2 4(1)(2) − (1) 7
= = .
4a 4(1) 4
ii) a = –1, b = 4, c = –10
Since a < 0. The expression has only maximum value at x = 2 and the maximum value is
4( −10)( −1) − (16)
= −6 .
4( −1)
Remember :
Every polynomial expression in x is continuous and differentiable every-where
Ø Quadratic Inequalities :
Definition :
If ax2 + bx + c, a, b, c real, is a quadratic expression then ax2 + bx + c > 0 or ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 or
ax2 + bx + c < 0 or ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0 is called quadratic inequation or inequality.
Example : x2 – 7x + 12 > 0, 2x2 – 3x – 4 ≤ 0, 3x2 + 4x + 5 ≥ 0.
Ø Solving Quadratic Inequalities :
There are two methods of solving inequations.
i) Algebraic method : In this method, finding solution by observing the sign changes of quadratic
expression.
ii) Graphical method : In this method, finding solution by observing the graph of the quadratic
expression.

EXAMPLES
x2 + x + 1
12. Find the range of 2 , for x ∈ R
x − x+1

x2 + x + 1
Sol. Let y = 2 then y(x2 – x + 1) – (x2 + x + 1) = 0
x − x +1
i.e., (y – 1)x2 – (y + 1)x + (y – 1) = 0
since x is real, discriminant ≥ 0
⇒ (–(y + 1)2 – 4(y – 1)2 ≥ 0
⇒ y2 + 2y + 1 – 4y2 + 8y – 4 ≥ 0
⇒ –3y2 + 10y – 3 = 0
⎡1 ⎤
⇒ 3y2 – 10y + 3 ≤ 0 ⇒ (y – 3) (3y – 1) ≤ 0 ⇒ y ∈ ⎢ , 3⎥
⎣3 ⎦

1 x2 + x + 1
∴ ≤ ≤3
3 x2 − x + 1

x−c
*13. If takes all real values for x ∈ R then show that 1 < c < 2.
x − 3x + 2
2

x−c
Sol. Let y = ⇒ yx2 – (3y + 1)x + (2y + c) = 0
x − 3x + 2
2

Since x is real, (–(3y + 1))2 – 4.y.(2y + c) ≥ 0

⇒ y2 + (6 – 4c)y + 1 ≥ 0
But y is real and coefficient of y2 = 1 > 0 the discriminant of y2 + (6 – 4c)y + 1 = 0 should be
negative.
(6 – 4c)2 – 4 ≤ 0
⇒ c2 – 3c + 2 ≤ 0
⇒ (c – 1) (c – 2) ≤ 0
⇒ 1≤ c≤2
but for c = 1 or c = 2
x−c
can not take all real values.
x − 3x + 2
2

∴ 1<c<2

2x 1
14. Solve > .
2x + 5x + 2 x + 2
2

2x 1
Sol. − >0
2 x + 5x + 2 x + 2
2

2x 1
⇒ − >0
(2 x + 1)( x + 2) x + 2

⇒ 2 x − (2 x + 1) > 0
(2 x + 1)( x + 2)
1 ⎛ 1⎞
⇒ < 0 ⇒ (x + 2) (2x + 1) < 0 ⇒ x ∈ ⎜⎝ −2, − ⎟⎠
(2 x + 1)( x + 2) 2

15. If x, a, b are real, then prove that the maximum value of 4( a − x)( x − a + a2 + b2 ) is
(a2 + b2).

Sol. Let y = 4(a − x )(( x − a ) + a 2 + b2 )

y = −4( a − x ) 2 + 4( a − x) a 2 + b 2

∴ 4 x 2 + 4 x[ a 2 + b 2 − 2 a] + 4 a 2 + y − 4 a a 2 + b 2 = 0
3 x is real, Δ ≥ 0
∴16(/ / a + b − 2a ) − 4.4[4
2 2 2
/ / a + y − 4a a + b ] ≥ 0
2 2 2
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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∴ ( a 2 + b2 − 2 a)2 − [4 a 2 + y − 4 a a 2 + b2 ] ≥ 0
a 2 + b2 + 4 a 2 − 4 a 2 − y ≥ 0
⇒ y ≤ a 2 + b2
∴ Maximum value of 4(a − x )( x − a + a 2 + b 2 ) is (a 2 + b2 )
Ø Identity Property :
i) The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, (a ≠ 0) possesses exactly two roots. But if the equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 is satisfied by more than two distinct values of x then it is called an identity,
and we have a = 0, b = 0, c = 0.
since, if α, β, γ are roots & α ≠ β ≠ γ We have
aα 2 + bα 2 + c = 0 ...... (1)
aβ2 + bβ2 + c = 0 ...... (2)

aγ 2 + bγ 2 + c = 0 ...... (3)
(1) – (2) ⇒ a (α + β) + b = 0 ...... (4)
(2) – (3) ⇒ a (β + γ ) + b = 0 ...... (5)
Now (4) – (5) ⇒ a = 0 and thus b = 0 , c = 0
Thus
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 is an identity ⎫ ⇔ a = o, b = 0, c = 0
⎬
i.e. possesses infinite solutions ⎭

Example :
The equation a(a – 1)x2 + (a2 – 1)x + (a2 – 3a + 2) = 0 possesses infinite solutions, find a ?
a(a –1) = 0 ...... (1)
a2 – 1 = 0 ...... (2)
(a – 1) (a – 2) ...... (3)

commonly we have a = 1
ii) Let α, β are the roots of quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0 then we have the identity in ‘n’ say
a(α n + β n ) + b(α n −1 + β n −1 ) + c(α n −2 + β n − 2 ) = 0
Example :
If α, β are the roots of 2x2 + 3x + 7 = 0 then
2(α10 + β10 ) + 3(α 9 + β 9 )
= −7
(α8 + β8 )

Ø Criteria for Finding Unknown for Given Condition(s)

Let f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0 and a, b, c ∈ R, and α, β are roots of f(x) = 0. Suppose k, k1, k2 ∈R and
k1 < k2, then remember the following.
a) Condition for a number k if both roots of f(x) = 0 are less than k.

⎛ −b −Δ ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 a , 4 a ⎟⎠
a>0 a<0
⎛ −b ⎞ f(k)>0
⎜⎝ 2 a , 0 ⎟⎠ k
α ⎛ −b ⎞ β
⎜⎝ 2 a , 0⎟
α β k ⎠
f(k)<0
⎛ −b −Δ ⎞
⎜⎝ 2a , 4a ⎟⎠

−b
(i) Δ ≥ 0 ; (ii) af(k) > 0 ; (iii) k >
where α ≤ β
2a
b) Condition for a number k if both roots of f(x) = 0 are greater than k.

⎛ −b −Δ ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 a , 4 a ⎟⎠
a>0 a<0
⎛ −b ⎞ k α β
⎜⎝ , 0⎟
2a ⎠ ⎛ −b ⎞
kα β ⎜⎝ 2 a , 0⎟⎠

⎛ − b −Δ ⎞
⎜⎝ a , a ⎟⎠
2 4

−b
(i) Δ ≥ 0 ; (ii) af(k) > 0 ; (iii) k <
2a
c) Condition for k if k lies between the roots of f(x) = 0

a<0

a>0
⎛ −b ⎞ α k ⎛ −b β
⎞
⎜⎝ 2 a , 0⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 a , 0⎟⎠
k
α β

(i) Δ > 0 ; (ii) af(k) < 0 where α < β

d) Condition for the numbers k1 and k2 if exactly one root of f(x) = 0 lies in the interval
(k1, k2).

a>0 a<0

⎛ −b ⎞
k1α β
⎜⎝ 2a , 0⎟⎠ k ⎛ − b ⎞ k2
2 ⎜⎝ 2 a , 0 ⎟⎠
k1 α β

(i) Δ > 0 ; (ii) f(k1)f(k2) < 0 where α < β

e) Conditions for numbers k1 and k2 if both roots of f(x) = 0 are confined between k1 and k2.

⎛ −b −Δ ⎞
⎜⎝ a , a ⎟⎠
2 4
a>0
⎛ −b ⎞ k1 k2
⎜⎝ 2 a , 0⎟
⎠
α ⎛ −b ⎞ β
k1 α β k2 ⎜⎝ 2 a , 0⎟⎠

⎛ − b −Δ ⎞ a<0
⎜⎝ a , a ⎟⎠
2 4

−b
(i) Δ ≥ 0 ; (ii) af(k1) > 0, af(k2) > 0 (iii) k1 < < k2 where α ≤ β and k1 < k2
2a
f) Condition for numbers k1 and k2 if k1 and k2 lie between the roots f(x) = 0

⎛ −b −Δ ⎞ a>0
⎜⎝ , ⎟
2a 4a ⎠ ⎛ −b ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 a , 0 ⎟⎠
a<0 k1 k2
α β

α β
k1 k2
⎛ −b ⎞ ⎛ −b −Δ ⎞
⎜⎝ a , 0⎟⎠ α ⎜⎝ 2 a , 4 a ⎟⎠
2

(i) Δ>0
(ii) af(k1) < 0, af(k2) < 0 where k1 < k2, α < β .

−2(hy + g) ± 4(hy + g )2 − 4 a(by 2 + 2 fy + c )

x= (a ≠ 0)
2a
and the equation will have rational linear factors if the expression under the root is a perfect square
i.e 4(hy + g)2 – 4a(by2 + 2fy + c) = 0 has real and equal roots.
i.e its discrimant = 0 which gives
⇒ abc + 2fgh – af 2 – bg2 – ch2 = 0
a h g
⇒h b f =0
g f c

Example - 16 : If 2xy + y2 + 2x + py – 3 = 0 be capable of resolution into two rational linear factors, find p?
0 1 1
Clearly 1 1 p/2 = 0 ⇒ p = −2
1 p/2 −3

EXAMPLES
17. Show that if p, q, r and s are real numbers and pr = 2(q + s) then atleast one of the equations
x2 + px + q = 0 and x2 + rx + s = 0 has real roots.
Sol. Let Δ1 and Δ 2 be the discriminants of x2 + px + q = 0 and x2 + rx + s = 0 respectively,
then Δ1 + Δ2 = (p2 – 4q) + (r2 – 4s)
= p2 + r2 – 4(q + s)
= p2 + r2 – 2pr
= (p – r)2 ≥ 0
∴ atleast one of Δ1 , Δ 2 is positive.
∴ atleast one of the two equations has real roots.

18. Show that the roots of the equation (a4 + b4)x2 + 4abcdx + c4 + d4 = 0 cannot be distinct, if real.
Sol. The discriminant Δ of the equation given is
Δ = 16a2b2c2d2 – 4(a4 + b4) (c4 + d4)
= –4[(a4c4 + b4d4 – 2a2b2c2d2) + a4d4 + b4c4 – 2a2b2c2d2)]
= –4((a2c2 – b2d2)2 + (a2d2 – b2c2)2) ≤ 0 .... (1)
If the roots are real then Δ ≥ 0 .... (2)
∴ Δ= 0 hence the roots are equal. [From (1) & (2)]
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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19. If a < b < c < d then show that the roots of the equation (x – a) (x – c) + 2(x – b) (x – d) = 0 are
real and distinct.
Sol. Given (x – a) (x – c) + 2(x – b) (x – d) = 0
⇒ 3x2 – (a + c + 2b + 2d)x + (ac + 2bd)
Let D be the discriminant of this equation, then
D = (a + c + 2b + 2d)2 – 12(ac + 2bd) = 0
= ((a + 2d) + (c + 2b))2 – 12(ac + 2bd)
= ((a + 2d) – (c + 2b))2 + 4(a + 2d) (c + 2b) – 12(ac + 2bd)
= ((a + 2d) – (c + 2b))2 + 8(ab + cd – ac – bd)
= ((a + 2d) – (c + 2b))2 + 8(c – b) (d – a) > 0
∴ The roots are real and distinct.
Aliter :
Let f(x) = (x – a) (x – c) + 2(x – b) (x – d) which is continuous and f(b) = (b – a) (b – c) < 0
f(d) = (d – a) (d – c) > 0
So f(x) = 0 has a root lies between b and d and f(a) = 2(a – b) (a – d) > 0
So, f(x) = 0 has another root lie between a and b.
∴ f(x) = 0 has real roots

20. If a, b, c are positive integers and if the roots of the equation ax2 – bx + c = 0 lie in the open
interval (0, 1) and distinct, find the minimum values of a, b, c.
Sol. Let α, β be the roots of the equation ax2 – bx + c = 0.

b c
Then α + β = and αβ = . It is given that α, β ∈ (0, 1) .
a a
On applying AM – GM inequality to α, 1 − α and also to β, 1 − β
α +1− α β +1− β
≥ α (1 − α ) ; ≥ β(1 − β)
2 2
1 1
⇒ 0 < α (1 − α ) < and 0 < β(1 − β) <
4 4
1
⇒ αβ(1 − α)(1 − β) <
16
Since a, b, c are positive integers c(a – b + c) is an integer.
Let f(x) = a( x − α )( x − β)
f(0) , f(1) have same sign and f(0) f(1) ≥ 1
⇒ 1 ≤ f (0)f (1)

⎛ 1⎞
⇒ 1 ≤ a 2 αβ(1 − α)(1 − β) < a 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 16 ⎠
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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⇒ a2 > 16 ⇒ a ≥ 5
∴ Minimum value of a is 5
Since ax2 – bx + c = 0 are real and distinct therefore b2 > 4ac.
⇒ b2 > 20c ⇒ b2 > 20 ⇒ b ≥ 5
∴ Minimum value of b is 5 (Since c ∈ N we have c ≥ 1 .)
∴ Minimum value of c is 1; b is 5; a is 5
21. If α , β are the roots of the equation x 2 + px + q = 0 and also of x2n + pnxn + qn = 0 and
α β
if , are the roots of xn + 1 + (x + 1)n = 0 then prove that n is an even integer.
β α
Sol. Since α, β are the roots of x2 + px + q = 0
∴ α + β = − p; αβ = q
It is given that α, β are also the roots of x + p x + q = 0
2n n n n

∴ α 2 n + p n α n + q n = 0 , β 2 n + p nβ n + q n = 0
⇒ α 2 n − β 2 n + p n (α n − β n ) = 0
⇒ α n + β n + pn = 0 ⇒ α n + β n = − p n .... (1)
n n
⎛ α⎞ ⎛α ⎞
Since ⎜ ⎟ + 1 + ⎜ + 1⎟ = 0
⎝ β⎠ ⎝β ⎠

⇒ α n + β n + (α + β) n = 0
⇒ α n + β n + ( − p) n = 0 .... (2)
(1) and (2) ⇒ n is even integer

22. Solve | x 2 − 3x − 4 | = 9 − | x 2 − 1 | .
Sol. x2 – 3x – 4 = (x + 1) (x – 4)
∴ x2 – 3x – 4 ≥ 0 x ≤ –1 or x ≥ 4
x2 – 3x – 4 < 0, –1 < x < 4
Case (i) : x ≤ –1
x2 – 3x – 4 ≥ 0 and x2 – 1 ≥ 0
∴ x2 – 3x – 4 = 9 – (x2 – 1)
⇒ 2x2 – 3x – 14 = 0 ⇒ x = 7/2, –2 ⇒ x = –2
Case (ii) : –1 < x < 1
x2 – 1 < 0 and x2 – 3x – 4 < 0 , – (x2 – 3x – 4) = 9 + x2 – 1
2x2 – 3x + 4 = 0 which has no real roots
Case (iii) : 1 ≤ x < 4
x2 – 1 ≥ 0 and x2 – 3x – 4 < 0
– (x2 – 3x – 4) = 9 – (x2 – 1) ⇒ 3x – 6 = 0 ⇒ x = 2
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Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd. 21
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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Case (iv) : x ≥ 4
x2 – 3x – 4 ≥ 0 and x2 – 1 ≥ 0
x2 – 3x – 4 = 9 – (x2 – 1)
2x2 – 3x – 14 = 0
7
⇒ x= , –2
2
∴ No solution in this case.
Hence, the solutions of the given equation are x = –2, 2
Remember :
While solving equations of the type f (| φ ( x) |, | ψ ( x ) |) = 0 key points are given by φ ( x ) = 0
or ψ ( x ) = 0

tan( x + α ) π
23. Show that the expression where 0 < α < cannot lie between the values
tan( x − α ) 4
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
tan 2 ⎜ − α ⎟ and tan 2 ⎜ + α ⎟ .
⎝4 ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠
tan( x + α ) ⎛ π⎞
Sol. Let y = α ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎟
tan( x − α ) ⎝ 4⎠
⇒ y (1 − tan x tan α )(tan x − tan α ) = (tan x + tan α )(1 + tan x tan α )
⇒ ( y + 1) tan α tan 2 x + (− y + 1)(1 + tan 2 α ) tan x + ( y + 1) tan α = 0
As tan x is real for x ∈ R , therefore
(1 − y)2 (1 + tan 2 α )2 − 4( y + 1)2 tan 2 α ≥ 0
((1 − y )(1 + tan 2 α ) − 2( y + 1) tan α ) ((1 − y )(1 + tan 2 α ) + 2( y + 1) tan α ) ≥ 0

⎛ ⎛ 1 − tan α ⎞ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 1 + tan α ⎞ ⎞
2

⇒ (1 − tan α ) (1 + tan α ) ⎜ y − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ y − ⎜⎝ 1 − tan α ⎟⎠ ⎟ ≥ 0

2 2
⎝ ⎝ 1 + tan α ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎛π ⎞⎞ ⎛ 2⎛π ⎞⎞
⇒ ⎜ y − tan 2 ⎜ − α ⎟ ⎟ ⎜⎝ y − tan ⎜⎝ 4 + α ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠ ≥ 0
⎝ ⎝4 ⎠⎠

⎛π ⎞ 2⎛π ⎞
⇒ y cannot lie between tan 2 ⎜ − α⎟ and tan ⎜⎝ + α⎟⎠
⎝ 4 ⎠ 4

24. For what real values of ‘a’ do the roots of the equation x2 – 2x – a2 + 1 = 0 lie between the roots
of the equation x2 – 2(a + 1)x + a (a – 1) = 0
Sol. The roots of x2 – 2x – a2 + 1 = 0 are 1 + a, 1 – a
Let f(x) = x2 – 2(a + 1)x + a(a – 1)
For the roots of first quadratic equation lie between the roots of f(x) = 0 then the following must hold.
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22 Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd.
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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i) discriminant D of f(x) = 0 should be greater than 0.

ii) f (1 ± a ) < 0
∴ For D > 0
4(a + 1)2 − 4 a (a − 1) > 0

1
⇒ 3a + 1 > 0 ⇒ a > −
3
f(1 – a) < 0
(1 – a)2 – 2(a + 1) (1 – a) + a(a – 1) < 0
⇒ (1 – a)2 – 2(1 – a2) + a(a – 1) < 0
⇒ –1 – 2a + 3a2 + a2 – a < 0
⇒ 4a2 – 3a – 1 < 0
1
⇒ − < a < 1 and now f(1 + a) < 0
4
⇒ (1 + a)2 – 2(a + 1)2 + a(a – 1) < 0
⇒ – (1 + a)2 + a(a – 1) < 0
1
⇒ – 3a – 1 < 0 ⇒ a > −
3
Thus for D > 0, f(1 – a) < 0, f(1 + a) < 0

⎛ 1 ⎞
we have a ∈ ⎜ − , 1⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠

Remember :
If ax2 + bx + c = 0 is such that k1, k2 lie between the roots, then
i) Δ > 0 ii) a f(k1) < 0 iii) a f(k2) < 0

c b
25. The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two real roots α < − 1, β > 1. Show that 1 + + < 0.
a a
Sol. Let f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0
According to the given conditions, the graph of f(x) is as shown below.

–1
–1 1
1
From the figure the necessary and sufficient conditions are f(–1) f(1) > 0
i.e., (a – b + c) (a + b + c) > 0 i.e., (a + c)2 – b2 > 0
2 2
⎛ c⎞ b2 b2 ⎛ c ⎞
i.e., ⎜1 + ⎟ − 2 > 0 i.e., 2 < ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ a⎠ a a ⎝ a⎠
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Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd. 23
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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b
< 1+
c b ⎛ c⎞
i.e., i.e., < − ⎜1 + ⎟
a a a ⎝ a⎠

⎡ c c ⎤
⎢⎣Q Products of the roots = a < −1 ∴ 1 + a < 0 ⎥⎦

c b
i.e., 1 + + <0
a a

EXERCISE - II
1. The least integral value of m for for which every solution of the inequality 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 is a solution of
the inequality x 2 − mx + 1 < 0 is ______
2. Let p(x) be a polynomial with integral coefficeints. Let a, b, c be three disinct integers such that
p(a) = p(b) = p(c) = –1. Then, the number of integral roots of p(x) be ______
3. The number of polynomials p(x) with integral coefficients satisfying the conditions p(1) = 2,
p(3) = 1 is ______
k
4. If x, y, z ∈ R , x + y + z = 4 and x 2 + y2 + z2 = 6 , then the maximum possible vlaue of z is k, then is
5
______
5. Let a, b be the roots of the equation x 2 − 10 cx − 11d = 0 and c, d be those of x 2 − 10 ax − 11b = 0 . If
a + b + c + d = p2 q , where p is a prime number, then the vlaue of p − q (a ≠ b ≠ c ≠ d ) is m, then 200
m is ______

6. If x 2 − (a − b) x + (1 − a − b) = 0 , where a, b ∈ R , then the least integral value of a for which the equa-
tion has unequal real roots for all values of b is k, the value of 50 k is ______
7. Let a > 2, a ∈ N be a constant. If there are just 18 positive integers satisfying the inequality
( x − a)( x − 2 a)( x − a 2 ) < 0 , then the value of a is ______
8. The complex numbers 1+i and 1+2i are both roots of the equation
x 5 − 6 x 4 + Ax 3 + Bx 2 + Cx + D = 0 , where A, B,C , D ∈ R . The value of D is _____
9. For the equation 3x2+px+3 = 0, p > 0, if one of the roots is the square of the other, then the value of
15p is ____

10. Suppose a cubic polynomial f ( x ) = x 3 + px 2 + qx + 72 is divisble by both x 2 + ax + b and x 2 + bx + a

(where a, b, p, q are constants and a ≠ b ), then the value of p is ____

Ø Relation between the roots and the coefficiens of a polynomial equation

M Theorem :
If α1, α 2 , .., α n be the roots of the equation say f(x) ≡ a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 +..+ an= 0 then
a
i) sum of roots = ∑ α1 = s1 = − a1
0

a
ii) sum of the products of roots taken two at a time = ∑ α1α 2 = s2 = a2
0
iii) sum of the products of roots taken three at a time
− a3
= ∑ α1α 2α 3 = s3 = a0
..... Product of (n) the roots

an
= α1α 2 ....α n = sn = ( −1)n
a0

Corollary - 1 : If α, β, γ are roots of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 then

−d
i) α + β + γ = s1 = −b / a ; ii) αβ + βγ + γα = s2 = c / a ; iii) αβγ =
a
Corollary - 2 : If α, β, γ , δ are the roots of ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0 then
b c
i) α + β + γ + δ = − ii) αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ =
a a
d e
iii) αβγ + αβδ + βγδ + αγδ = − iv) αβγδ =
a a
M Theorem : If the coefficients of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0 are real, and if α is any complex
number and root of f(x) = 0 then the conjugate of α is also a root of f(x) = 0 i.e., in an equation
with real coefficients, imaginary roots occur in conjugate pairs.
Corollary : Every odd degree polynomial equation with real coefficients has atleast one real root.

M Theorem : If coefficients of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0 are rational, and if α = a + b where

a, b are rational, b > 0 then conjugate surd of α i.e., a − b is a root of f(x) = 0. i.e., in an
equation with rational coefficeints, irrational roots occur in pairs of conjugate surds.

M Theorem : If coefficients are rational of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0 and if a , b are irrational
numbers such that one of the numbers a + b , a − b , − a + b , − a − b is a root of the
equation f(x) = 0 then all the four numbers are roots of f(x) = 0.

−2 x 2 + 4 x 3 −2
( −) (+)
−2
−2 x 2 + 4
x 2 − 2 −2 x 2 + 4
( + ) (− )
0
Thus, the HCF is x2 – 2 and hence, the common roots of the given equation are the roots of
x2 – 2 = 0, i.e., ± 2 .
Example - 27 :
Find the common roots of x4 + 5x3 – 22x2 – 50x + 132 = 0 and x4 + x3 – 20x2 + 16x + 24 = 0, and
solve the equations.
Solution :
You can see that 4(x2 – 5x + 6) is HCF of the two equations and hence, the common roots are the
roots are the roots of x2 – 5x + 6 = 0, i.e., x = 3 or x = 2.
Now, x4 + 5x3 – 22x2 – 50x + 132 = 0 (....1)
4 3 2
and x + x – 20x + 16x + 24 (....2)
have 2 and 3 as their common roots.
If the other roots of equation (1) are α and β , then α +β + 5 = −5 ,
⇒ α + β = −10 from Eq. (1)
6αβ = 132
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26 Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd.
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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⇒ αβ = 22
So, α and β are also the roots of the quadratic equation x2 + 10x + 22 =- 0.

−10 ± 100 − 88 −10 ± 2. 3

∴ x= = = −5 ± 3
2 2

So, the roots of eq. (1) are 2,3, −5 + 3 , −5 − 3 . ( )( )

For Eq,. (2), if α1 and β1 be the roots of Eq. (2), then we have
α1 + β1 + 5 = −1
α1 + β1 = −6
6α1β1 = 24 or α1β1 = 4
So, α1 and β1 are the roots of x2 + 6x + 4 = 0

−6 ± 36 − 16
x= = −3 ± 5
2
So, the roots of Eq. (2) are 2,3, −3 + 5, −3 − 5 .

Ø Rational Root Theorem

An important theorem regarding the rational roots of polynomial equations :
p
If the rational number , where p,q ∈ ¢,q ≠ 0 , gcd (p, q) = 1, i.e., p and q are relatively prime, is
q
a root of the equation
a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + .... + a 1x + a 0 = 0
where a0, a1, a2, ...., an are integers and a n ≠ 0 , then p is a divisor of a0 and q that of an.
p
Proof : Since is a root, we have
q
n n −1
⎛ p⎞ ⎛ p⎞ p
a n ⎜ ⎟ + a n −1 ⎜ ⎟ + .... + a1 + a0 = 0
⎝ q⎠ ⎝ q⎠ q

⇒ a n p n + a n −1qp n −1 + .... + a1q1−1 p + a 0 q n = 0 ..... (1)

n −1 n −2 n−2 n −1 a n pn
⇒ a n −1 p + a n −2 p q + .... + a1q p + a 0q =− ..... (2)
q
Since the coefficients an – 1, an – 2, ....., a0 and p, q are all integers, hence the left - hand side is an
integer, so the right-hand side is also an integer. But, p and q are relatively prime to each other,
therefore q should divide an.
Again, a n p n + a n −1qp n −1 + .... + a 1q n −1 p = a 0 q n

a 0q n
⇒ a n p n −1 + a n −1qp n − 2 + .... + a 1q n −1 =
p
⇒ p | a0
As a consequence of the above theorem, we have the following corollary.

Ø Corollary (Integer Root Theorem)

Every rational root of x n + a n −1 x n −1 + .... + a 0 ; 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1 is an integer, where ai (i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n –

1) is an integer, and each of these roots is a divisor of a0.
Example 28.
Find the roots of the equation x4 + x3 – 19x2 – 49x – 30, given that the roots are all rational numbers.
Sol. Since all the roots are rational by the above corollary, they are the divisors of – 30.
The divisors of – 30 are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±5, ±6, ±10, ±15, ±30 .
By applying the remainder theorem, we find that – 1, – 2, – 3, and 5 are the roots.
Hence, the roots are – 1, – 2, – 3 and + 5.
Example 29.
Find the rational roots of 2x3 – 3x2 – 11x + 6 = 0.
p
Sol. Let the roots be of the form , where (p, q) = 1 and q > 0
q
Then, since q/2, q must be 1 or 2 and p/6 ⇒ p = ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
By applying the remainder theorem,
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
f⎜ ⎟ =f⎜ ⎟ = f⎜ ⎟ = 0.
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
(Corresponding to q = 2 and p = 1; q = 1, p = – 2; q = 1, p = 3, respectively).
1
So, the three roots of the equation are , −2 and 3.
2
Example 30.
Solve : x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 15 = 0
Sol. x3 – 3x2 5x – 15 = 0 ⇒ (x2 + 5) (x - 3) + 0
⇒ x = ± 5i,3 .
So the solution are 3, 5i, − 5i .
Example 31.
Show that f (x) = x1000 – x500 + x100 + x + 1 = 0 has no rational roots.
p
Sol. If there exists a rational root, let it be where (p, q) = 1, q ≠ 0 . Then, q should divide the
q
coefficient of the leading term and p should divide the constant term,
Thus, q |1 ⇒ q = ±1 ,
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28 Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd.
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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And p | 1 ⇒ p = ±1
p
Thus, = ±1
q
p
If the root = 1,
q
Then, f (1) = 1 – 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 ≠ 0,
So, 1 is not a root.
p
If = −1 ,
q
Then, f (– 1) = 1 – 1 + 1 – 1 + 1 = 1 ≠ 0
And hence, (- 1) is not a root.
Thus, there exists no rational roots for the given polynomial.

Ø Gauss Lemma
If a polynomial with integer coefficients is reducible over ¤ , then it is reducible over ¢ .
The following theorem is very useful for deciding irreducibility of some integer polynomials over
¢.

Ø Eisenstein’s Irreducibility Criterion Theorem

Let f (x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + ... + a1x + a0 be a polynomial with integer coefficients and there exist
a prime p such that,
1) p|ai for 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1 ,
2) p | an

3) p2 | a 0
Then f(x) is irreducible over the integers.
Proof : If possible let us assume f (x) = g (x).h(x), such that
g(x) = bmxm + bm – 1xm – 1 + b1x + b1,
h(x) = ckxk + ck – 1xk – 1 + c1x + c0,
where bi , ci ∈ ¢∀i = 0,1, 2,...; b m ≠ 0, c k ≠ 0;1 ≤ m, k ≤ n − 1 .
Comparing leading coefficient on both side we get an = bmck.
As p | a n ⇒ p | bm c k ⇒ p | bm and p | ck

Comparing constant term on both side we get a0 = b0 c0. As p|a0 and p2 | a 0

⇒ p|b0c0 but p cannot divide both b0 and c0. Without loss of generality, suppose that p|b0 and
p | c 0 . Suppose i be the smallest index such that bi is not divisible by p. There is such an index i

since p | bm where 1 ≤ i ≤ m . Depending upon i viz a viz k we have following two cases.
Case 1 : for i ≤ k, a i = bi c0 + bi −1c1 + ....b0 ci
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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Case 2 : i > k, a i = bi c0 + bi −1c1 + ....bi − k c k

We have p|ai and by supposition p divides each one of b0, b1, ... bi – 1 ⇒ p|bic0.
But p | c 0 ⇒ p|bi, which is a contradiction. Therefore f(x) is irreducible.

Example 32.
Prove that 16x3 – 35x2 + 105x + 175 is irreducible over ¢ .
Sol. This is irreducible by Eisenstein’s Criterion with the prime p being taken to be 7: for 7 does not
divide the leading coefficient but it divides all the others, and its square, 49, does not divide 175.
Note that using the prime 5 is not valid since 52 does divide the constant coefficient 175.
Example 33.
Prove that x3 – 3x2 + 3x + 22 is irreducible over ¢ .
Sol. Let f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x + 22. Eisenstein Criterion does not apply since there is no suitable prime.
Substituting x – 1 for x gives the polynomial x3–6x2 + 6x + 21 to which Eisenstein does apply, with
p = 3. Writing f(x) for the original polynomial, we deduce that f (x – 1) is irreducible. But a
factorization of f(x) would give a factorization of f(x – 1), hence f (x) is irreducible over ¢ .

Ø Extended Eisenstein’s Irreducibility Criterion Theorem

Let f(x) = anxn + ... + a1x + a0 be a polynomial with integer coefficient. If there exist a prime number
p and an integer k ∈ {0,1,..., n − 1} such that p|a0, a1, ...., ak; p | a k +1 and p2 | a 0 , then f(x) has an
irreducible factor of a degree at least k + 1.
In particular, if p can be taken so that k = n – 1, then f (x) is irreducible.
Proof: Like in the proof of Eisensten’s irreducibility criterion, suppose that f(x) = g(x).h(x) such
that
g(x) = bkxk + bk – 1xk–1 + ... + b1x + b0,
h(x) = crxr + cr – 1xr–1 + ... + c1x + c0,
where bi , ci ∈ ¢∀i = 0,1, 2,....; b k ≠ 0, c r ≠ 0;1 ≤ k, r ≤ n − 1 .
Since a0 = b0c0 is divisible by p and not by p2, exactly one of b0, c0 is a multiple of p, without loss of
generality assume that p|b0 and p | c 0 .
Now, p|a1 = b0c1 + b1c0 ⇒ p|b1c0 ⇒ p|b1
Similarly, p|a2 = b0c2 + b1c1 + b2c0 ⇒ p|b2c0 ⇒ p|b2 and so on.
We conclude that all coefficients b0, b1, ..... bk are divisible by p,
Now, ak + 1 = bkc1 + bk–1c2 + bk–2c2 + .... ⇒ p|ak+1 but p | ak+1 . It follows that degree of g ≥ k + 1 .

Example 34.
Let, f(x) = xn + 5xn – 1 + 3, n > 1 is an integer. Prove that f(x) cannot be expressed as a product of two
polynomials, each of which has all its coefficient integers and degree at least 1.
Sol. Rewrite the given polynomial as
f(x) = xn + 5xn – 1 + 0.xn – 2 + 0.xn – 3 + ... + 0.x + 3.
Now take prime p = 3, obviously 3|ai ∀ i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n – 2; 32 | a 0 = 3,3 | a n −1 = 5 .
Hence by the extended Eisenstein criterion, f has an irreducible factor of degree at least n – 1.
If possible, let us take one factor of degree n – 1 then other must be linear and monic (as f is monic)
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30 Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd.
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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this implies f has integral roots. Bu integer root theorem this root must be an integer divisor of
constant 3, hence would have to be 1, – 1, 3 or – 3. By direct checking we see that none of these is
a root, and hence the polynomial is irreducible.

EXAMPLES
35. Find the roots of x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0
Sol. Let f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6
clearly f(1) = 0
∴ x – 1 is a factor.
Now by dividing f(x) by x – 1.
1 –6 11 –6
1 0 1 –5 6
1 –5 6 0
∴ f(x) = (x – 1) (x2 – 5x + 6)
Now the factors x2 – 5x + 6 are x – 2, x –3
∴ f(x) = (x – 1) (x – 2) (x –3)
∴ The roots of x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 are 1, 2, 3.
36. Solve the equation 6x3 – 29x2 – 17x + 60 = 0, one root being 5.
Sol. Clearly x – 5 is a factor of 6x3 – 29x2 – 17x + 60,
6 –29 –17 60
Now 5 0 30 5 –60
6 1 –12 0
∴ 6x3 – 29x2 – 17x + 60 = (x – 5) (6x2 + x – 12) = (x – 5) (2x + 3) (3x – 4)
∴ The roots are 5, –3/2, 4/3.
37. Solve x3 – 3x2 – 6x + 8 = 0, the roots being in A.P.
Sol. Let the roots be a –d, a, a + d
then s1 = a – d + a + a + d = 3a = 3 or a = 1
and product of roots s3= (a–d)a(a+d) = a(a2–d2) = –8
⇒ 1 – d2 = –8 ⇒ d2 = 9
∴ The roots are –2, 1, 4

38. Solve the equation x4 – 9x3 + 27x2 – 29x + 6 = 0, one root being 2 – 3 .
Sol. Let P(x) = x4 – 9x3 + 27x2 – 29x + 6, since the coefficients are rational and 2 − 3 is one root hence
2 + 3 is a root of P(x) = 0
Let the remaining two roots be α , β .
∴ s1 = α + β + 2 − 3 + 2 + 3 = 9 ⇒ α + β = 5 and
s = αβ (2 − 3)(2 + 3) = αβ = 6
4
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Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd. 31
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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⇒ α, β are 2, 3 or 3, 2
∴ The roots of the given equation are 2, 3, 2 ± 3
39. Solve the equation x5 – x4 + 8x2 – 9x – 15 = 0 if − 3 , 1 – 2i are two of its roots.
Sol. Since − 3, 1 + 2i are two if its roots.
3, 1 − 2i are also roots of the equation.
Let the remaining root be α
Since sum of roots equal to 1.
3 + ( − 3) + (1 + 2i) + (1 − 2 i) + α = 1 ⇒ α = −1
∴ The roots are −1, 3, 1 − 2i, − 3, 1 + 2i .
40. Solve x4 – 16x3 + 86x2 – 176x + 105 = 0
Sol. Let P(x) = x4 – 16x3 + 86x2 – 176x + 105
P(1) = 1 – 16 + 86 – 176 + 105 = 0
∴ x – 1 is a factor of P(x)
Now
1 –16 86 –176 105
1 0 1 –15 71 –105
1 –15 71 –105 0
∴ x4 – 16x3 + 86x2 – 176x + 105 = (x – 1) (x3 – 15x2 + 71x – 105)
Let Q(x) = x3 – 15x2 + 71x – 105, by trial and error x = 3
i.e., root of Q(x) = 0 (Q Q(3) = 27 – 135 + 213 – 105 = 0)
Now dividing Q(x) by x – 3
1 –15 71 –105
3 0 3 –36 105
1 –12 35 0

∴ Q(x) = (x – 3) (x2 – 12x + 35)

∴ P(x) = (x – 1) (x – 3) (x2 – 12x + 35) = (x – 1) (x – 3) (x – 5) (x – 7)
∴ The roots of P(x) = 0 are 1, 3, 5, 7.
41. If the roots of x3 + 3px2 + 3qx + r = 0 are in H.P. show that 2q3 = r(3pq – r)
Sol. Given equation is x3 + 3px2 + 3qx + r = 0 ... (1)
2 1 1
Let α, β, γ be the roots of (1) and given that = +
β α γ
i.e., αβ + βγ = 2αγ
from the equation, α + β + γ = −3p
αβ + βγ + γα = 3q
αβγ = −r
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32 Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd.
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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αβ + βγ + γα = 3q ⇒ 3γα = 3q ⇒ γα = q
−r
∴ β=
q
Since β is a root of (1)
3 2
⎛ r⎞ ⎛ −r ⎞ ⎛ −r ⎞
⎜⎝ − q ⎟⎠ + 3 p ⎜⎝ q ⎟⎠ + 3q ⎜⎝ q ⎟⎠ + r = 0

⇒ −r 3 + 3 pqr 2 − 3q3r + rq3 = 0

⇒ 2q3 = 3 pqr 2 − r 3 = r (3 pq − r ) ∴ 2q3 = r (3 pq − r )
Ø Multiple roots : A root α of an algebraic equation f(x) = 0 is said to be a multiple root of order m
if f(x) = (x – α )m Q(x) for some Q(x).
M Theorem : If α is a multiple root of f(x) = 0 then f (α ) = 0 and f ′ (α ) = 0 where f ' is the
derivative of f.
Some important results to remember :
1. If α, β, γ are the roots of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 then

b2 − 2 ac
i) S2 = α 2 + β2 + γ 2 = s12 − 2 s2 =
a2

3abc − b 3 − 3a 2 d
S3 = α + β + γ = s1 − 3s1s2 + 3s3 =
3 3 3 2
ii)
a3

b 4 − 4ab 2 c + 4a 2 bd + 2a 2 c 2
S4 = α + β + γ = − 4 s12 s2 + 4s1s3 + 2 s22 =
4 4 4
iii) s14
a4

2. If α , β , γ , δ are the roots of ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0 then

b 2 − 2ac
i) S2= α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 + δ 2 = s12 − 2s2 =
a2
3abc − b3 − 3a 2 d
ii) S3 = α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 + δ 3 = s12 − 3s1s2 + 3s3 =
a3
iii) S4 = α 4 + β4 + γ 4 + δ 4 = s14 − 4 s12 s2 + 4 s1s3 + 2s22 − 4 s4

b4 − 4 ab2 c + 4 a2 bd + 2 a2 c2 − 4 a3 e
=
a4

EXAMPLES
42. Given that the sum of two roots of x4 – 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x – 21 = 0 is zero. Find the roots of the
equation.
Sol. Let α , β , γ and δ be the roots of the given equation and α + β = 0 .
Now s1 = α + β + γ + δ = 2 ⇒ γ + δ = 2
Now x4 – 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x – 21 = ( x 2 − (α + β ) x + αβ )( x 2 − (γ + δ ) x + γδ )

⇒ x4 – 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x – 21 = ( x + αβ )( x − 2 x + γδ )
2 2

Let αβ = m, γδ = n
Then x4 – 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x – 21= (x2 + m) (x2 – 2x + n)
On comparing both sides, m + n = 4; –2m = 6
⇒ m = –3 and n = 7
∴ x4 – 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x – 21 = (x2 – 3) (x2 – 2x + 7)
∴ The roots of the given equation are the roots of x2 – 3 = 0 and x2 – 2x + 7 = 0 which are − 3, 3 ,

1 + i 6, 1 − i 6 .
43. Solve x4 – 5x3 + 5x2 + 5x – 6 = 0 given that the product of two of its roots is 3.
Sol. Let α , β , γ , δ be the roots of the equation given.
s1 = α + β + γ + δ = 5
s2 = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ = 5
s3 = αβγ + αβδ + γδα + γδβ = −5
s4 = αβγδ = −6
Let αβ = 3 then from s4, γδ = −2
Now from s3, we get 3(γ + δ ) − 2(α + β ) = −5 and from s1, (γ + δ ) + (α + β ) = 5
on solving these two equations on α + β , γ + δ we get α + β = 4, γ + δ = 1
∴ α + β = 4, αβ = 3 and γ + δ = 1, γδ = −2
⇒ γ = 2, δ = −1 or γ = −1, δ = 2 and α = 3, β = 1 or α = 1, β = 3 .
∴ The roots of the given equation are 1, 3, 2, –1.
44. Solve x3 – x2 – 8x + 12 = 0 if it has a multiple root.
Sol. Let f (x) = x3 – x2 – 8x + 12 = 0 then f '(x) = 3x2 – 2x – 8 = (x – 2) (3x + 4)
Clearly f (2) = 0 and f '(2) = 0
∴ 2 is multiple root of f (x) = 0
Let the remaining root of f (x) = 0 be α then the sum of roots = 2 + 2 + α = 1
⇒ α = −3
∴ The roots of the equation are 2, 2, –3

1 –3 –5 27 –32 12
1 0 1 –2 –7 20 –12
1 –2 –7 20 –12 0

∴ f(x) = (x – 1) Q(x)
where Q(x) = x4 – 2x3 – 7x2 + 20x – 12
again by trial and error x = 1 is a root of f(x) = 0
Now dividing Q(x) by x – 1 gives

1 –2 –7 20 –12
1 0 1 –1 –8 12
1 –1 –8 12 0
Now Q(x) = (x – 1) g(x) where g(x) = x3 – x2 – 8x + 12
Now g'(x) = 3x2 – 2x – 8 = (3x + 4) (x – 2)
Clearly g(2) = 0, g'(2) = 0
∴ x = 2 is also a multiple root of f(x) = 0
∴ The multiple roots of f(x) = 0 are x = 1, x = 2
46. Show that the condition that ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0 may have two pairs of equal roots is
ad2 = b2e
Sol. Let the roots of given equation be α , α , β , β

d e
, s4 = α β =
2 2
Then s1 = 2(α + β ) = −b / a , s3 = α 2 β + α 2 β + β 2α + β 2α = −
a a
d
from s3 , 2(αβ )(α + β ) = −
a
d2
⇒ 4α 2 β 2 (α + β )2 =
a2

e ⎛ − b2 ⎞ d 2
⇒ 4 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 2 ⇒ b2 e = ad 2
a ⎝ 4a ⎠ a

Ø Transformation of equations
M Theorem : The equation whose roots are those of the equation f(x) = 0 with contrary signs is
f(–x) = 0
Proof : If α is a root of f(x) = 0 ⇔ f (α ) = 0
⇔ f ( − ( −α )) = 0 ⇒ −α is a root of f(–x) = 0
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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M Thoerem : The equation whose roots are multiplied by k( ≠ 0) of those of the roots of equation
⎛ x⎞
f(x) = 0 is f ⎜ ⎟ = 0 .
⎝ k⎠

Proof : α is a root of f(x) = 0 ⇔ f (α ) = 0

⎛ kα ⎞ ⎛ x⎞
⇔ f ⎜ ⎟ = 0 ⇒ k α is a root of f ⎜ ⎟ = 0
⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ k⎠

⎛ 1⎞
M Thoerem : The equation whose roots are reciprocals of the roots of f(x) = 0 is f ⎜ ⎟ = 0 .
⎝ x⎠

Proof : α is a root of f(x) = 0 ⇔ f (α ) = 0 .

⎛ 1 ⎞
= 0 ⇒ is a root of f ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 0 .
1 1
⇔ f⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1/ α ⎠ α ⎝ x⎠
M Thoerem : The equation whose roots exceed by h than those of f(x) = 0 is f(x – h) = 0.
Proof : α is a root of f(x) = 0 ⇔ f (α ) = 0
⇔ f (α + h − h ) = 0 ⇔ α + h is a root of f(x – h) = 0

Corollary : If α1 , α 2 , α 3 , ....., α n are the roots of the polynomial equation f(x) = 0 then
α1 − h, α 2 − h, ....., α n − h are the roots of the equation f(x + h) = 0.
Note :
i) Let f(x) be a polynomial of degree n > 0. Then f(x + h) is evidently a polynomial of degreen.
Hence there exist unique constants b0, b1, ...., bn such that f(x + h) = b0xn + b1xn–1 + .... +
bn–1 x + bn.on replacing x by x – h, we obtain f(x) = b0(x – h)n + b1(x – h)n–1+ .... + bn–1
(x – h) + bn
For k = 0, 1, 2, ..... n, let Qk(x) = b0(x – h)n–k + b1(x – h)n–k–1 + .... + bn–k
Then Q0(x) = f(x), Qn(x) = b0 and Qk(x) = (x – h)Qk+1 (x) + bn–k , k = 0, 1, ..., n
Thus bn–k is the remiander and Qk+1 (x) is the quotient that we obtain when we divide Qk(x)
with x – h.
Since Q0(x) = f(x), beginning k = 0, by dividng Qk(x) with x – h, we can determine Qk+1 (x)
and bn–k in a successive manner by using synthetic division. Thus we can determine the
constants bn, bn–1, ...., b0 in that order. This is explained below with an example.
Suppose that f(x) = x5 + 4x3 – x2 + 11 and h = 3
Let f(x + 3) = b0x5 + b1x4 + b2x3 + b3x2 + b4x + b5

3 1 0 4 –1 0 11
0 3 9 39 114 342
1 3 13 38 114 353 = b5
0 3 18 93 393
1 6 31 131 507 = b4
0 3 27 174
1 9 58 305 = b3
0 3 36
1 12 94 = b2
0 3
1 15 = b1
0
1 = b0
∴ f(x + 3) = x5 + 15x4 + 94x3 + 305x2 + 507x + 353
This is known as Horner’s process.
ii) f(x + h) can also be calculated using an important thoerem from real analysis i.e., Taylor’s
theorem given below
Ø Taylor’s : If f(x) is a polynomial function of degree n, then

x x 2 ii x n ( n)
M i
Theorem : f(x + h) = f(h) + f (h) + f (h) +.....+ f (h ).
1 2 n
Example : Let f(x) = x5 + 4x3 – x2 + 11 and h = 3 then

x 1 x 2 11 x 3 111 x4 x5 v
f (x + 3) = f (3) + f (3) + f (3) + f (3) + f iv(3) + f (3)
1 2 3 4 5
f (3) = 35 + 4.33 – 32 + 11 = 353
f i(3) = 5.34 + 12.32 – 2.3 = 507
f ii(3) = 20.33 + 24.3 – 2 = 305 × 2
f iii(3) = 60.33 + 24 = 94 × 6
f iv(3) = 120 × 3 = 15 × 24
f v(3) = 120
∴ f (x + 3) = 353 + 507x + 305x2 + 94x3 + 15x4 + x5
M Theorem : If f(x) = 0 is an equation of degree n then to eliminate rth term, f(x) = 0 can be
transformed to f(x + h) = 0 where h is a constant such that f(n–r+1)(h) = 0.
Proof : Let f(x) = a0xn + a1xn–1 + .... + an = 0 be an equation of degree n and by Taylor’s theorem.
x 2 11 x n ( n)
we have f(x + h) = f(h) + x f1(h) + f (h) + ....+ f (h) For rth term to be eliminated in
2 n

xn x n−1 x n−(r −1)

f (n ) (h ) + f (n −1) (h ) + .... + f (n−r +1) (h ) + .... + f 1 (h ) x + f (h ) f ( n −r +1) (h ) = 0
n n −1 n − r −1
Example : –2 1 8 0 1 –5
nd 4 3
Remove 2 term in x + 8x + x – 5 = 0 0 –2 –12 24 –50
We have to translate the equation to f(x + h) = 0 1 6 –12 25 –55
3 f(3) (h) = 0 (n = 4, r = 2) 0 –2 –8 40
f1(x) = 4x3 + 24x2 + 1 1 4 –20 65
f11(x) = 12x2 + 48x 0 –2 –4
f111(x) = 24x + 48 1 2 –24
f111(h) = 0 ⇒ h = –2 0 –2
∴ f(x – 2) = 0 can be obtained by Horners process. 1 0
f(x – 2) = x4 – 24x2 + 65x – 55 in which x3 term is not present. (i.e. 2nd term absent)
M Theorem : The equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of f(x) = 0 is obtained by
eliminating radical sign from f( x) = 0
Ex 47 : Find the equation whose roots are squares of the roots of x3 + x2 – 2x + 5 = 0
Sol. The required equation is ( x )3 + ( x )2 − 2 x + 5 = 0
i.e., x x + x − 2 x + 5 = 0 ⇒ ( x − 2) x = − ( x + 5)
on squaring we get (x2 – 4x + 4)x = x2 + 10x + 25
⇒ x3 – 5x2 – 6x – 25 = 0

EXAMPLES
48. Find the equation whose roots are those of the equation x7 + 3x5 + x3 – x2 + 7x + 2 = 0 with
contrary signs.
Sol. The required equation is (–x)7 + 3(–x)5 + (–x)3 – (–x)2 + 7(–x) + 2 = 0
⇒ – x7 – 3x5 – x3 – x2 – 7x + 2 = 0
i.e., x7 + 3x5 + x3 + x2 + 7x – 2 = 0
49. Find the equation whose roots are multiplied by 2 of those of x5 – 2x4 + 3x3–2x2 + 4x +3 = 0
x
Sol. For the required equation replace x by in the given equation.
2
5 4 3 2
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞
∴ The required equation is ⎜ ⎟ − 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 3 ⎜ ⎟ − 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 4 ⎜ ⎟ + 3 = 0
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
∴ x5 – 4x4 + 12x3 – 16x2 + 64x + 96 = 0

50. If α , β , γ are the roots of x3 + 4x2 – 2x – 3 = 0 then find the equation whose roots are
α β γ
, , .
3 3 3
Sol. The required equation is (3x)3+ 4(3x)2 – 2(3x) – 3 = 0
i.e., 27x3 – 36x2 – 6x – 3 = 0
⇒ 9x3 + 12x2 – 2x – 1 = 0
51. Find the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of
x5 + 11x4 + x3 + 4x2 – 13x + 6 = 0
1
Sol. Replace x by for the required equation.
x
5 4 3 2
∴ The required equation is ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ + 11⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ + 4 ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ − 13 1 + 6 = 0
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ x
i.e., 6x5 – 13x4 + 4x3 + x2 + 11x + 1 = 0
52. Find the equation whose roots are squares of the roots of x4 + x3 + 2x2 + x + 1 = 0
Sol. Replace x by x in the given equation, which gives ( x )4 + ( x )3 + 2( x )2 + x + 1 = 0

i.e., x2 + 2x + 1 + x (x + 1) = 0 ⇒ (x2 + 2x + 1) = –(x + 1) x

On squaring both sides, we obtain x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x + 1 = (x2 + 2x + 1)x
⇒ x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
∴ The required equation is x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 1= 0
53. Find the equation whose roots are the cubes of the roots x3 + 3x2 + 2 = 0.
Sol. Replace x by x1/3 in the given equation x3 + 3x2 + 2 = 0
Which gives x + 3 x 2 / 3 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 3 x 2 / 3 = −( x + 2)
On cubing both sides, we get 27x2 = (–(x + 2))3
⇒ 27x2 = –(x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8)
⇒ x3 + 33x2 + 12x + 8 = 0
∴ The required equation is x3 + 33x2 + 12x + 8 = 0
54. Find the equation whose roots are the translates of the roots of
x4 – 5x3 + 7x2 – 17x + 11 = 0 by –2
Sol. Let f(x) = x4 – 5x3 + 7x2 – 17x + 11
The required equation is f(x + 2) = 0
∴ f(x+ 2) = (x + 2)4– 5(x + 2)3 + 7(x + 2)2 – 17(x + 2) + 11 = 0
⇒ x4 + 3x3 + x2 – 17x – 19 = 0
f(x + 2) can also be obtained by synthetic division (Horners process)

2 1 –5 7 –17 11
0 2 –6 2 –20
1 –3 1 –15 –19
0 2 –2 –2
1 –1 –1 –17
0 2 2
1 1 1
0 2
1 3
0
1

∴ The required equation is x4 + 3x3 + x2 – 17x – 19 = 0

55. Find the equation whose roots are the translates of the roots of x4 – x3 + 10x2+ 4x +24= 0 by 2.
Sol. Let f(x) = x4 – x3 + 10x2 + 4x + 24
The required equation is f(x – 2) = 0
Now by Horners process
–2 1 –1 10 4 24
0 –2 6 –32 56
1 –3 16 –28 80
0 –2 10 –52
1 –5 26 –80
0 –2 14
1 –7 40
0 –2
1 –9
0
1

∴ f(x – 2) = x4 – 9x3 + 40x2 – 80x + 80

∴ The required equation is x4 – 9x3 + 40x2 – 80x + 80 = 0

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40 Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd.
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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56. Remove the second term from the equation x4 + 4x3 + 2x2 – 4x – 2 = 0
Sol. 2nd term means the term with x3 in f(x) = x4 + 4x3 + 2x2 – 4x – 2
For this f (4–2+1)(h) = 0 i.e., f111(h) = 0 –1 1 4 2 –4 –2
Here f1(x) = 4x3 + 12x2 + 4x – 4 0 –1 –3 1 3
1 3 –1 –3 1
f11(x) = 12x2 + 24x + 4 0 –1 –2 3
f111(x) = 24x + 24 1 2 –3 0
∴ 111 111
f (x) = 0 ⇒ f (h) = 0 ⇒ h = –1 0 –1 –1
∴ The required equation is f(x – 1) = 0 1 1 –4
0 –1
Now for f(x – 1), using Horners process
1 0
∴ f(x – 1) = x4 + 0x3 – 4x2 + 0x + 1 0
∴ The required equation is x4 – 4x2 + 1 = 0 1
57. Remove the third term from the equation x4 + 2x3 – 12x2 + 2x – 1 = 0.
Sol. Third term means term with x2, in f(x) = 0
for this f(4–3+1) (h) = 0 i.e., f11(h) = 0
f1(x) = 4x3 + 6x2 – 24x + 2
f11(x) = 12x2 + 12x – 24
∴ f11(h) = h2 + h – 2 = 0 ⇒ h = –2, h = 1
∴ The required equation is f(x – 2) = 0, f(x + 1) = 0
f(x – 2)
–2 1 2 –12 2 –1
0 –2 0 24 –52
1 0 –12 26 –53
0 –2 4 16
1 –2 –8 42
0 –2 8
1 –4 0
0 –2
1 –6
0 1 1 2 –12 2 –1
1 0 1 3 –9 –7
1 3 –9 –7 –8
f(x – 2) = x4 – 6x3 + 0x2 + 42x – 53
0 1 4 –5
f(x + 1) 1 4 –5 –12
4 3 2
f(x + 1) = x + 6x + 0x – 12x – 8 0 1 5
∴ The required equations are x4 – 6x3 + 0x2 + 42x – 53 = 0 and 1 5 0
x4 + 6x3 + 0x2 – 12x – 8 = 0 0 1
1 6
0
1
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Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd. 41
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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Ø Reciprocal equations :

1
Definition : An equation f(x) = 0 is said to be reciprocal equation if is a root of f(x) = 0 of
α
multiplicity m wherever α is a root of f(x) = 0 of multiplicity m.
M Theorem :
An equation f(x)= a0xn + a1xn–1 + ...+ an= 0 is a reciprocal equation ⇔ either ai = an– i for every
i, or ai = – an–i for every i.
Proof : Let α1 , α 2 , ...., α n be the roots of f(x) = 0
1 1 1 ⎛ 1⎞
The equation whose roots are , , ...., is f ⎜ ⎟ = 0
α1 α 2 αn ⎝ x⎠
n n −1
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⇒ a0 ⎜ ⎟ + a1 ⎜ ⎟ + .... + an = 0
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠

⇒ a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + .... + an x n = 0
Since f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation, f(x) = kg(x) for some k. where
g(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 +........+ a1x + a0
⇒ a0 = kan, a1 = kan-1, ........., an = ka0
⇒ ai = kan-i ∀i
Now a0 = kan and an = ka0
⇒ k2 = 1 ⇒ k = ± 1
∴ ai = an–i or ai = –an–i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n then f(x) = 0, g(x) = 0 have the same roots.
∴ f(x)= 0 is a reciprocal equation.

⎛ 1⎞
M Theorem : If f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation of degree n, then x n f ⎜ = ± f ( x) .
⎝ x ⎟⎠
Proof : Let f(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 +........+ an = 0 be a reciprocal equation.
If ai = an–i, then f(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 + a2xn-2........+ an = 0
⎛ a a an ⎞ ⎛ a a a ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= x n ⎜ a0 + 1 + 22 + .... + n ⎟ = x n ⎜ an + n −1 + n −22 + .... + 0n ⎟ = x n f ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x x x ⎠ ⎝ x x x ⎠ ⎝ x⎠

If ai = –an–i, then f ( x ) = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n −2 .... + an

⎛ a a an ⎞ ⎛ a a a ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= − x n ⎜ − a0 − 1 − 22 − .... − n ⎟ = − x n ⎜ an + n −1 + n −22 + .... + 0n ⎟ = − x n f ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x x x ⎠ ⎝ x x x ⎠ ⎝ x⎠

⎛ 1⎞
∴ f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation then f ( x ) = ± x n f ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ x⎠

EXAMPLES
58. Show that 2x3 + 5x2 + 5x + 2 = 0 is a reciprocal equation of class one.
3⎛ 5 5 2⎞ 3 ⎛ 1⎞
Sol. f ( x) = 2 x3 + 5x2 + 5x + 2 X = x ⎜ 2 + + 2 + 3 ⎟ = x f ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x x x ⎠ ⎝ x⎠
⎛ 1⎞
∴ x 3 f ⎜ ⎟ = f(x)
⎝ x⎠
∴ f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation of class one.
59. Show that 6x6 – 35x5 + 56x4 – 56x2 + 35x – 6 = 0 is reciprocal equation of class two.
Sol. f(x) = 6x6 – 35x5 + 56x4 – 56x2 + 35x – 6 = 0

= x 6 ⎛⎜ 6 − +
35 56 56 35 6 ⎞
− + −
⎝ x x 2 x 4 x 5 x 6 ⎟⎠

⎛ 6 35 56 56 35 ⎞ 6 ⎛ 1⎞
= − x 6 ⎜ 6 − 5 + 4 − 2 + − 6⎟ = − x f ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
⎝x x x x x ⎠ x
f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation of class two.

⎛ 2 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⇒ ⎜ x − 2 ⎟ + 3 ⎜ x − ⎟ = 0 ⇒ ⎜ x − ⎟ ⎜ x + + 3⎟ = 0
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x ⎠

−3 ± 5
⇒ x2 – 1 = 0, x2 + 3x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1, –1,
2
61. Solve 6x5 – x4 – 43x3 + 43x2 + x – 6 = 0
Sol. Given equation is a reciprocal equation of class two and of odd degree. divide the equation by
x – 1.

1 6 –1 –43 43 1 –6
0 6 5 –38 5 6
6 5 –38 –5 6 0
∴ 6x5 – x4 – 43x3 + 43x2 + x – 6 = (x – 1) (6x4 + 5x3 – 38x2 + 5x + 6)
Let Q(x) = 6x4 + 5x3 – 38x2 + 5x + 6 which is a reciprocal equation of even degree.
5 6 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Divide Q(x) = 0 by x2, we get 6 x 2 + 5 x − 38 + + 2 = 0 ⇒ 6 ⎜ x 2 + 2 ⎟ + 5 ⎜ x + ⎟ − 38 = 0
x x ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x⎠
1
Put x + = y then the equation will be transformed to
x
6( y 2 − 2) + 5 y − 38 = 0 ⇒ 6y2 + 5y – 50 = 0
10 5 1 10 1 5
(3y + 10) (2y – 5) = 0 ⇒ y = − ,y= ⇒ x+ =− ; x+ =
3 2 x 3 x 2
2 2
3x + 10x + 3 = 0 ; 2x – 5x + 2 = 0
x = –3, –1/3; x = 2, 1/2
∴ The roots of the given equations are 1, –3, –1/3, 2, –1/2

a2 b2 c2 k2
62. * Show that the equation + + + ..... + = x − m where a’s and a's are
x − a ′ x − b′ x − c ′ x − k′
all real numbers, cannot have non real root.
Sol. Let us suppose that the equation has only imaginary roots
∴ Let α ± iβ be the pair of conjugate roots to the equation.

a2 b2 c2 k2
∴ + + + .... = (α − m ) + iβ .. (1)
(α − a ′ ) + iβ (α − b ′ ) + iβ (α − c ′ ) + iβ (α − k ′ ) + iβ

a2 b2 c2
Again + + + ....
(α − a ′ ) − iβ (α − b ′) − iβ (α − c ′ ) − iβ

k2
= (α − m ) − iβ .... (2)
(α − k ′ ) − iβ
(2) – (1) ⇒
⎡ 2α iβ ⎤ 2⎡ 2α iβ ⎤ 2⎡ 2iβ ⎤
a2 ⎢ ⎥ + b ⎢ ⎥ + ... + k ⎢ 2⎥
= −2iβ
⎣ (α − a ′ ) + β ⎦ ⎣ (α − b′ ) + β ⎦ ⎣ (α − k ′ ) + β ⎦
2 2 2 2 2

⎡ a2 b2 ⎤
⎢1 + + + ... ⎥
⎢ (α − a ′ )2 + β 2 (α − b′ )2 + β 2 ⎥=0 ⇒β =0
∴ 2iβ
⎢ k 2 ⎥
⎢ + ⎥
⎢⎣ (α − k ′ )2 + β 2 ⎥⎦
But this is a contradiction for our assumption.
∴ The equation cannot have non real roots.
Hence the result.
Remove the fractional coefficients from the following equations such that the coefficient of
the leading term remains unity.

3 2 1 1
63. x3 − x − x+ =0
2 16 32

⎛ y⎞
Sol. The transformed equation of the above equation is f ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 0 .
m
3 2
⎛ y⎞ 3⎛ y⎞ 1 ⎛ y⎞ 1
⇒ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟+ =0
⎝ m⎠ 2 ⎝ m ⎠ 16 ⎝ m ⎠ 32

3 2 1 m3 3m m2 m3
y3 − y m − ym 2 + = 0 ; y3 − 1 y 2 − 4 y + 5 = 0
2 16 32 2 2 2
The exponents of 2 in order are 1, 4, 5.
5
Dividing them with the correspnding powers of m, we get 1, 2, .
3
Now, the least integer not less than any quotient is ‘2’.
∴ m = 22 = 4
∴ Transformed equation is x3 – 6x2 – x + 2 = 0

1 4 25 2 14 8
64. x5 − x + x + x− =0
3 27 81 81
y
Sol. Put x =
m
m 4 25m3 2 14 m 4 8 m5
∴ y − y + 3 y + 4 y− 4 = 0
5
3 3 3 3
The exponents of 3 are 1, 3, 4, 4.
4
Dividing with corresponding powers of m, we get 1, 1, 1, .
5
∴ m = 31.
∴ Transformed equation is x5 – x4 + 25x2 + 14x – 24 = 0

3 2 13 77
65. x4 + x + x+ =0
10 25 1000
y
Sol. Put x =
m
3m 2 2 13m 3 77m 4
∴ y +
4
y + 0 2 y+ 3 3 =0
2.5 2 .5 5 .2
1 0 3
1, 0, 3 Þ , ,
2 3 4
1 2 3
1, 2, 3 Þ , ,
2 3 4
∴ m = 21 . 51
∴ m = 10
∴ equation is x4 + 30x2 + 520x + 770 = 0
66. The roots of the equation x3 – x2 + ax + b = 0 are real and are in A.P. find the intervals in which
a and b lie.
Sol. If x1, x2, x3 be the roots of the given equation, then we have
x1 + x2 + x3 = 1 [Q sum of the roots = 1 .... (1)
and x1 + x3 = 2x2 [Q roots are in A.P.] .... (2)
1
Solving equations (1) and (2), we have x2 =
3
Hence, one of the roots of the given equation is 1/3 and therefore putting x = 1/3 in the given
equation, we have
1 1 ⎛ 1⎞ 2
− + a ⎜ ⎟ + b = 0 i.e., a + 3b = .... (3)
27 9 ⎝ 3⎠ 9

⎛ 1⎞ ⎧ 2 ⎛ 2⎞ ⎫
The given equation can now be written as ⎜ x − ⎟ ⎨ x 2 − x + ⎜ a − ⎟ ⎬ = 0 ....(4)
⎝ 3⎠ ⎩ 3 ⎝ 9⎠ ⎭
Since the roots of equation (4) are given to be real, therefore
4 ⎛ 2⎞ 1
D= − 4⎜a − ⎟ ≥ 0 ∴ a≤ .... (5)
9 ⎝ 9⎠ 3
From results (3) and (5), we have
2 1 1
− 3b ≤ ∴ b≥−
9 3 27
67. Find the condition for the biquadratic equation px4 + 4qx3 + 6rx2 + 4sx + t = 0 may have two
pairs of equal roots.
Sol. Method - 1
Let α , α , β , β be the roots. Then
4q 2q
S1 = 2(α + β ) = − (α + β) = − ... (1)
p p

6r
S2 = α 2 4αβ 2 =
p
6r
i.e., α 2 + 2αβ + β 2 + 2αβ =
p

4q 2 6r 6r 4 q 2
which, on using (1) gives + 2 αβ = or 2 αβ = − 2 ... (2)
p2 p p p

4s 4s
S3 = α 2β + α 2 β + αβ2 + αβ2 = − or 2α β(α + β) = − ,
p p

⎛ −2q ⎞ 4s s
which, on using (1) gives 2α β ⎜ ⎟ =− or α β = ... (3)
⎝ p ⎠ p q

t
S4 = α 2β2 = ... (4)
p
(1) has already been used and by eliminating α and β between (2), (3) and (4) we get the required
conditions.
6r 4 q 2 2s
From (2) and (3) − 2 = or
p p q
p2s = 3qpr – 2q3 ... (5)
s2 t
From (3) and (4) 2
= or ps2 = tq 2 ... (6)
q p
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Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd. 47
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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∴ Conditions (5) and (6) are the required ones.
Method - 2
−4 q
2(α + β) = s1 = Equation with α, α, β, β as roots is
p

2q
(x – α )2(x – β )2 = 0 or [x2– ( α +β )x + ( α β )]2 = 0 or [ x 2 + x + b]2 = 0 where b = α β
p
2
⎧ 2q ⎫
∴ We may write px4 + 4qx3 + 6rx2 + 4sx + t ≡ p ⎨ x 2 + x + b⎬ ... (1)
⎩ p ⎭

⎧⎪ 4 4q 3 ⎛ 4q 2 ⎞ 4qb ⎫⎪
≡ p ⎨x + x + ⎜ 2 ⎟ + 2bx 2 + x + b2 ⎬
⎩⎪ p ⎝ p ⎠ p ⎭⎪
(Note that the factor p in the right side of (1)is due to coefficient of x4 on the left side being p and not 1)
⎛ 4q 2 ⎞
≡ px + 4qx + ⎜
4 3
+ 2bp⎟ x 2 + 4qbx + pb 2
⎝ p ⎠
Comparing x2, x coefficients and constants on both sides, we have
4q 2 3r 2q 2
+ 2 pb = 6r or b = − 2 ... (1)
p p p

s
4qb = 4s or b = ... (2)
q

t
pb2 = t or b2 = ... (3)
p
Eliminating b between (1), (2) and (3) we get two conditions as follows :
From (1) and (2)
s 3r 2q 2
= − 2 or p2 s = 3 pqr − 2q3 .... (4)
q p p

s2 t
From (2) and (3) = or ps2 = tq2 ... (5)
q2 p
68. Solve x3–13x2 + 15x + 189 = 0 given that two of its roots differ by 2.
Sol. Taking the roots as α , α + 2, β we have
s1 = 2 α + 2 + β = 13 or β = 13 – 2( α + 1) ... (1)
s2 = α ( α + 2) + ( α + 2) β + α β = 15

or α 2 + 2α + 2β + 2αβ = 15 ... (2)

Substituting for β from (1) in (2)

α 2 + 2α + 26 − 4(α + 1) + 2α (13 − 2α − 2) = 15 or 3α 2 − 20α − 7 = 0

Solving for α , we get
∴ α = 7, –1/3
α = 7 satisfies the equation and so the roots are 7, 7 + 2, β = 13 − 2(7 + 1) = −3
Roots of the given equation are 7, 9, –3
1
Note : α = − does not satisfy the equation
3
69. If x4 – px2 + qx – r = 0 has three equal roots, prove that p2 = 12 r and 9q2 = 32pr and the
3q
repeated root is .
4p
Sol. Roots be α, α, α, β
Then s1 = 3α + β = 0
∴ β = −3α , so roots are α, α, α, − 3α
∴ x 4 − px 2 + qx − r ≡ ( x − α )3 ( x + 3α) ≡ x 4 − 6α 2 x 2 + 8α3 x − 3α 4
∴ 6α 2 = p; 8α 3 = q , 3α 4 = r
Square the first and divide by the third. p2 = 12r. Again multiply the first and the third square the
second and divide one by the other. 9q2 = 32pr.
3q
Dividing the second by the first α =
4p
70. If α , β , γ be the roots of the equation x3 – x – 1 = 0 form the equation whose roots are
1+ α 1+ β 1+ γ 1+ α 1+ β 1+ γ
, , and hence show that + + = −7
1−α 1− β 1− γ 1−α 1− β 1−γ
Sol. If y is the root of the required equation and corresponds to the root x of the given equation, then
1+ x y −1
y= , solving for x, x =
1− x y +1

( y − 1)3 y − 1
Substituting for x in the given equation x3 − x − 1 = 0 , − − 1 = 0 or
( y + 1)3 y + 1

( y − 1)3 − ( y − 1)( y + 1)2 − ( y + 1)3 = 0

Simplify, y3 + 7y2 – y + 1 = 0 .... (1) is got as the required equation
1+ α
∑ 1− α = sum of the roots of (1) = –7

71. If α , β , γ are the roots of x 3 – px 2 + qx – r = 0, form the equation whose roots are
1 1
βγ + , γα + and αβ + 1 .
α β γ
Sol. Given α, β, γ are the roots of x3 – px2 + qx – r = 0
⇒ s1 = α + β + γ = p ; s2 = ∑ αβ = q ; s3 = αβγ = r
1 αβγ + 1 r + 1 r +1
Let y = βγ + = = ⇒ = α which is a root of the equation.
α α α y
3 2
⎛ r + 1⎞ ⎛ r + 1⎞ ⎛ r + 1⎞
∴ The transformed equation is ⎜ ⎟ − p⎜ ⎟ + q⎜ −r = 0
⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y ⎟⎠

⇒ ry3 − q (r + 1) y 2 + p(r + 1)2 y − (r + 1)3 = 0

1 1 1
∴ The equation whose roots βγ + , γα + , αβ + is
α β γ
rx 3 − q (r + 1) x 2 + p (r + 1)2 x − (r + 1)3 = 0

72. If α , β , γ are the roots of equation x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 then find the equation whose roots
are α 2 + β 2 , β 2 + γ 2 , γ 2 + α 2 .
Sol. Given ∑ α = 6; ∑ αβ = 11; αβγ = 6
Let y = α 2 + β 2 = α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 − γ 2

= (∑ α )2 − 2(∑ αβ ) − γ 2 ⇒ y = 36 − 2(11) − γ 2

⇒ γ 2 = 14 − y ⇒ γ = 14 − y
Which is a root of given equation.
∴ The required equation for which y is a root is ( 14 − y )2 − 6( 14 − y )2 + 11 14 − y − 6 = 0

⇒ ( 14 − y )(11 + 14 − y ) = 6(1 + 14 − y )
On squaring both sides, we get (625 + y2 – 50y) (14 – y) = 36(225 + y2 – 30y)
⇒ y3 – 28y2 + 245y – 650 = 0
∴ The required equation is x3 – 28x2 + 245x – 650 = 0
73. If α , β , γ are the roots of x3 + x2 + 2x + 3 = 0, find the equation whose roots are
β + γ − α , γ + α − β and α + β − γ .

Sol. Given ∑ α = −1, ∑ αβ = 2, αβγ = −3

If y is a root of transformed equation, then
− (1 + y)
y = (∑ α ) − 2α = −1 − 2α ⇒ α = which is a root of given equation
2
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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3 2
⎛ − (1 + y) ⎞ ⎛ − (1 + y) ⎞ ⎛ − (1 + y) ⎞
∴⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ + 2⎜ +3 = 0
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

(1 + y )3 (1 + y ) 2
⇒ − + − (1 + y) + 3 = 0
8 4
⇒ y3 + y2 + 7y – 17 = 0
∴ The required equation is x3 + x2 + 7x – 17 = 0
74. If α , β , γ are the roots of x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0 then find the equation whose roots are
α (β + γ ), β (γ + α ), γ (α + β ) .
Sol. Given α , β , γ are the roots of the given equation x 3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0

⇒ ∑ α = − p, ∑ αβ = q, αβγ = −r
αβγ ( −r )
Let y = α(β + γ ) = ∑ αβ − βγ = q − α
=q−
α
r r
⇒ y−q = ⇒α= which is a root of given equation.
α y−q
2
r3 ⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
∴ The required equation is + p⎜ ⎟ +q⎜ +r = 0
( y − q) 3
⎝ y −q⎠ ⎝ y − q ⎟⎠

⇒ r 3 + pr 2 ( y − q ) + qr ( y − q )2 + r ( y − q )3 = 0
⇒ y3 − 2 qy 2 ( pr + q 2 ) y + (r 2 − pqr ) = 0
∴ The transformed equation is x3 – 2qx2 + (pr + q2)x + (r2 – pqr) = 0

75. If α , β , γ are the roots of x3 + 3x2 + 2 = 0 then find the equation whose roots are
α β γ
, , .
β+γ γ +α α +β

Sol. Given ∑ α = −3, ∑ αβ = 0, αβγ = −2

α α α
Let y = = =
β + γ (∑ α ) − α −3 − α

−3 y
⇒α= which is a root of the given equation.
y +1
3 2
⎛ −3 y ⎞ ⎛ −3 y ⎞
∴ ⎜ + 3 ⎜⎝ y + 1 ⎟⎠ + 2 = 0
⎝ y + 1⎟⎠

⇒ − 27 y3 + 27 y2 ( y + 1) + 2( y + 1)3 = 0
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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⇒ − 27 y3 + 27 y3 + 27 y 2 + 2 + 6 y 2 + 6 y = 0
⇒ 2 y3 + 33 y2 + 6 y + 2 = 0
∴ The required equation is 2 x3 + 33 x 2 + 6 x + 2 = 0
76. If α , β , γ are the roots of the equation x3 – 6x + 7 = 0 form the equation whose roots
are α 2 + 2α + 3, β 2 + 2β + 3, γ 2 + 2γ + 3 and hence find
(α 2 + 2α + 3)( β 2 + 2 β + 3)(γ 2 + 2γ + 3) .
Sol. If x is a general root of the given equation and y is the corresponding root of the required equation,
then y = x 2 + 2 x + 3
∴ x 2 + 2 x + (3 − y) = 0 .... (1)
Given equation is x3 − 6 x + 7 = 0 .... (2)
We have to eliminate x between (1) and (2)
(1) – (2) × x gives
−2 x 2 − x (6 + 3 − y) + 7 = 0 or 2 x 2 + (9 − y) x − 7 = 0 .... (3)
We now eliminate x from (1) and (3)
By the method of cross multiplication
x2 x 1
= =
−14 − (3 − y )(9 − y) 2(3 − y) + 7 (9 − y) − 4

x2 x 1
i.e., = =
− ( y − 12 y + 41) 13 − 2 y 5 − y
2

( y 2 − 12 y + 41) 13 − 2 y
∴ x2 = − , x=
5− y 5− y

( y 2 − 12 y + 41) (13 − 2 y )2
∴− = or y3 − 21y 2 + 153 y − 374 = 0 .... (4)
(5 − y ) (5 − y) 2

∴ Product of the roots of (4) = 374 i.e., π (α + 2α + 3) = 374

EXERCISE - III
1. Find the polynomial equation whose roots are the negatives of the roots of the equation
i) x 4 + 5 x 3 + 11x + 3 = 0 ii) x 4 − 6 x 3 + 7 x 2 − 2 x + 1 = 0 .
2. Find the equation whose roots are
i) 3 times the roots of x 3 + 2 x 2 − 4 x + 1 = 0 .
ii) 3 times the roots of 6 x 4 − 7 x 3 + 8 x 2 − 7 x + 2 = 0 .
3. Find the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of
i) x 4 + 3 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 2 x − 4 = 0 .
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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ii) x 5 + 11x 4 + x 3 + 4 x 2 − 13 x + 6 = 0 .
4. Find the equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of
i) x 3 + 3 x 2 − 7 x + 6 = 0
ii) x 4 + x 3 + 2 x 2 + x + 1 = 0
iii) x 3 + p1 x 2 + p2 x + p3 = 0

5. Find the equation whose roots are the cubes of the roots of x 3 + 3 x 2 + 2 = 0.
1 2 1 1
6. Find the equation whose roots are m times the roots of the equation x3 + x − x+ = 0 and
4 16 72
deduce the case when m = 12.
7. Show that 2 x 3 + 5 x 2 + 5 x + 2 = 0 is a reciprocal equation of class one.
8. Find the equation whose roots are the translates of the roots of
i) 4 x 4 + 32 x3 + 83x2 + 76 x + 21 = 0 by 2
ii) x 5 + 4 x 3 − x 2 + 11 = 0 by –3
iii) 3 x 5 − 5 x 3 + 7 = 0 by 4
9. Remove the second highest power of x from the equation
i) x 3 − 6 x 2 + 10 x − 3 = 0
ii) x 3 + 6 x 2 4 x + 4 = 0.
10. Remove the third highest power of x from the equation
i) x 3 + 2 x 2 + x + 1 = 0
ii) x 4 + 2 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 2 x − 1 = 0

11. If α , β , γ are the roots of x 3 − 7 x + 6 = 0 , then find the equation whose roots are
(β − γ )2 , (γ − α )2 , (α − β )2 .
12. If α , β , γ are the roots of x 3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0, then form the monic cubic equation whose roots
are α ( β + γ ) , β (γ + α ) , γ (α + β ) .
13. Solve the following reciprocal equations
i) 4 x 3 − 13x 2 − 13x + 4 = 0 ii) 6 x 4 − 35 x 3 + 62 x 2 − 35 x + 6 = 0
14. Solve the following reciprocal equations
i) x 5 − 5 x 4 + 9 x 3 − 9 x 2 + 5 x − 1 = 0
ii) 6 x 6 − 25 x 5 + 31x 4 − 31x 2 + 25 x − 6 = 0

15. If α , β , γ are the roots x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0, then find the values of

i) α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 ii) α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 iii) β 2γ 2 + γ 2α 2 + α 2 β 2
iv) (α + β )(β + γ )(γ + α ) v) ( β + γ − 3α )(γ + α − 3β )(α + β − 3γ )
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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16. i) If x 4 − 16 x 3 + 86 x 2 − 176 x + 105 = 0 , then find S1, S2 , S3 , S4 .

ii) If 8 x 4 − 2 x 3 − 27 x 2 + 6 x + 9 = 0 , then find S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 .
Ø Nature of roots of a cubic polynomial
f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c (where a, b, c ∈R)
Let f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c
Differentiating f'(x) = 3x2 + 2ax + b
This is a quadratic expression whose discriminant Δ = 4(a2 – 3b)
Depending on the nature of Δ we have the following cases.
(0, c)
Case (i) :
α O
Let Δ < 0
Clearly coefficient of x2 in f '(x) is 3 which is positive.
∴ Clearly f '(x) > 0
∴ f (x) increases on R and cuts y-axis at (0, c)
also, Lt f ( x) = −∞ and Lt f ( x) = ∞
x →−∞ x →∞

⇒ f (x) = 0 has exactly 1 real root.

Let it be ‘ α ’ O α
Clearly, i) α > 0 if c < 0 ii) α < 0 if c > 0 (0, c)
Case (ii) :
If Δ = a2 – 3b > 0, then f'(x) = 0 has 2 distinct real roots.
Let they be x1, x2 where x1 < x2. (say)
Now, f '(x) = 3(x – x1) (x – x2)
f '(x) > 0 ∀x ∈ (−∞, x1 ) ∪ ( x2 , ∞)
f '(x) < 0 ∀x ∈ ( x1 , x2 )

∴ f increases on (−∞, x1 ) ∪ ( x2 , ∞)
f decreases on (x1, x2)
Now observe the following cases.

f(x1) . f(x2) < 0

x2
i) α x1 β γ

f(x1) . f(x2) = 0 f(x1) . f(x2) = 0

x2
ii) (or) x1
α x1 x2

f(x1) . f(x2) > 0 f(x1) . f(x2) > 0

x1 x2

iii) (or)
x1 x2

From the above cases, it is clear that

i) If f(x1) . f(x)2 < 0,
⇒ f(x) = 0 would have 3 real and distinct roots
ii) If f(x1) . f(x)2 = 0,
⇒ f(x) = 0 would have 3 real roots but one of them is repeated. (1 is distinct and 2 equal
roots)
iii) If f(x1) . f(x)2 > 0,
⇒ f(x) = 0 would have just one real root where x1, x2 are the roots of f '(x) = 0
Case (iii) :
If Δ = 0 ⇒ f '(x) = 3(x – x1)2 [Q x1 = x2] ⇒ f(x) = (x – x1)3 + k
if i) k = 0, then f(x) = 0 has 3 equal roots and
if ii) k ≠ 0, then f(x) = 0 has atleast 1 real root.
Ex 77 :f(x) = 2x3 – 6x + p, then find the interval in which p lies so that the equation f(x) = 0 has 3 real
and distinct roots.
Sol. f(x) = 2x3 – 6x + p, ⇒ f (−∞) = −∞, f (∞) = ∞
f'(x) = 6x2 – 6
f'(x) = 0 ⇒ x = ± 1
3 It has 3 real and distinct roots f(1) . f(–1) < 0
∴ (2 – 6 + p) (–2 + 6 + p) < 0
(p – 4) (p + 4) < 0
∴ p ∈ (–4, 4)
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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Diophatine equation :
1. The Diophatine equation to be discussed in this chapter are all non-linear although, but we focus on
the integer solutions of quadratic equations.
I) Factorization Method. Let the right hand side of the equation be a constant, zero or a power
of a prime number (in the case of indicial equations), and factorize the left hand side to the
form of product of linear factors, then discuss the possible values of the linear factors based
on the factorization of the right hand side.
II) Discirminant Method. When a quadratic equation with integetr coefficients has integer solu-
tion (s), its discriminant must be a perfect square. This feature will play an important role.
When the quadratic equation contains two variables x, y, by the formula for roots, x can be
expressed in terms of y. Since the discriminant is a perfect square and that y is an integer. y
can be found easily in many cases.
Besides the use of dicriminant, the use of Viete Theroem and transformation or substitution
are also useful tools for simplifying and solving quadratic equations.
III) Congruence, divisiblity, and parity analysis, etc. are often used in discussing the existence of
integer solutions of quadratic equations.
78. Let n be a positive integer such that n2 + 19n + 48 is a perfect square. Find the value of n.
Sol. This question can be solved by factorization method. Let n2 + 19n + 48 = m2 for some m ∈¥ , then
4n2 + 76n + 192 = 4m2, so
(2n + 19)2 – (2m)2 = 169.
(2n – 2m + 19) (2n + 2m + 19) = 132 = 1. 169 = 13.13.
The difference of 2n – 2m + 19 = 1 and 2n + 2m + 19 = 169 yields 4m = 168, i.e. m = 42. Therefore
n = m – 9 = 33. By checking, 33 satisfies the given equation.
The difference of 2n – 2m + 19 = 13 and 2n + 2m + 19 = 13 yields m = 0, its impossible for n > 0.
So n = 33 is the unique required solution.
79. Find the ineger solutions of the equations 6xy + 4x – 9y – 7 = 0.
Sol. By factorization , 6xy + 4x – 9y – 6 = (2x – 3) (3y + 2) , so the given equation becomes
(2x – 3) (3y + 2) = 1.
If 2x – 3 = 1, 3y + 2 = 1, then y has no integer solution.
If 2x – 3 = – 1, 3y + 2 = – 1, then x = 1 y = – 1, Byv checking , (1, – 1) satisfies the original equaiton,
so it is the unique solution for (x, y).
80. Find the number of ordered pairs of positive integers (x, y) that satisfy the equation

1 1 1
+ = .
x y 2004
Sol. By removing the denomiantors, it follows that xy = 2004 (x + y). Then xy – 2004x – 2004y
20042 = 20042, so
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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(x – 2004) (y – 2004) = 20042.
For any positve factor p of 20042, 20042 = p (20042 /p) yields a solution x = 2004 + p, y = 2004 +
(20042 / p). Since
20042 = (22 × 3 × 167)2 = 24 × 32 × 1672,
the number of positive divisors of 20042 is (4 + 1) (2 + 1) (2 + 1) = 45, so there are 45 such
solutions. If p is a negative factor of 20042, then so is 20042 / p. and one of them must have absolute
value not less than 2004. so one of p + 2004 and (20042 / p) + 2004 is not positive, i.e., such
solutions are not required. Thus, there are a total of 45 required solutions.
81. Find the value of the smallest positive integer m such that the equation
x2 + 2(m + 5)x + (100 m + 9) = 0
has only integer solutions.
Sol. Since the equation has integer solutions.
Δ = 4 [m + 5)2 – (100m + 9)] = 4 (m2 – 90m + 16) ≥ 0
and m2 – 90 m + 16 = n2 for some non-negative integer n. Then (m – 45)2 + 16 – 2025 = n2, so
(m – n – 45) (m + n – 45) = 2009
= 1. 2009 = 41.49 = (– 49) (– 41) = (– 2009) (–1).
When m – n – 45 = 1, m + n – 45 = 2009, m = 1050, n = 1004.
When m – n – 45 = 41, m + n – 45 = 49, then m = 90, n = 4.
When m – n – 45 = – 49, m + n – 45 = – 41, then m = 0, n = 4.
Since x = – (m + 5) ± n, all above values of (m, n) give integral roots. Thus, m = 1050, 90, –960,
0, and the smallest positive value of m is 90.
Viete Theroem is also used for solving Diophantine equations. Below in an example.
82. p, q are two integers, and the two roots of the equation in x

p 2 + 11 15
x −
2
x + ( p + q ) + 16 = 0
9 4
are p and q also. Find the values of p and q.
Sol. Viete Theroem yields

p 2 + 11
p+q= , (26.1)
9

15
pq = ( p + q ) + 16. (26.2)
4
Then p + q > 0 from (26.1) and pq > 0 from (26.2), so p, q are both positive integers. From (26.2)
it follows that
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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16pq – 60 (p + q) = 162
∴ (4p – 15) (4q – 15) = 256 + 225 = 481.
Since 481 = 1 × 481 = 13 × 37 = (–1) × (– 481) = (– 13) × (– 37), and 4p – 15 or 4q – 15 cannot be
– 37 or –481, so the pair (4p – 15, 4q – 15) has the following four possible casses :
(1,481), (481, 1), (13, 37), (37, 37).
Corresponding to them, the pairs of (p, q) are
(4, 124), (124, 4), (7, 13), (13, 7).
By checking, only the pair (13, 7) satisfies the original system : the equation becomes
x2 – 20x + 91 = 0,
and its roots are {13, 7}. Thus, the solution for (p, q) is (13, 7).

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
1. Let p and q be distinct naturals such that 1981 + p = q2 and 1981 + q = p2. Find the value of
(1990 + pq)
Solution :
1981 + p = q2, 1981 + q = p2
⇒ p – q = q2 – p2
⇒ p2 – q2 + p – q = 0
⇒ (p – q)(p + q+ 1) = 0
⇒ p = q or p + q = –1
But p and q are distinct numbers
∴p+q=–1
Now p2 + q2 = p + q + 3962
P2 + q2 = –1 + 3962
1 – 2pq = 3961
2pq = – 3961
pq = –1980
⇒ 1990 + pq = 10
2. If a, b, x and y are real numbers such that
ax + by = 3
ax2 + by2 = 7
ax3 + by3 = 16
and ax4 + by4 = 42. Then find the value of ax5 + by5
Solution :
Qax3 + by3 = (ax2 + by2)(x + y) – xy(ax + by)
⇒ 7(x + y)–3xy = 16
similarly
ax4 + by4 = (ax3 + by3)(x + y)–xy(ax2 + by2)
⇒ 16(x + y)–7xy = 42
On solving (x + y) = –14
xy = –38
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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Now, ax5 + by5 = (ax4 + by4)(x + y)–xy(ax3 + by3)
= –42 × 14 + 38 × 16
= 20

y x+y x x
3. If = = , where x, y and z are distinct positive numbers, then find
x −z z y y
Solution :
x+y x
=
z y
⇒ xy + y2 = xz ................(i)
y x
=
x −z y
⇒ y2 – x2–xz
⇒ x2 – y2 = xz ..................( ii )
From equations (i) and (iii)
x2 – xy – 2y2 = 0
(x + y)(x – 2y) = 0
x
x – 2y = 0, =2
y
4. Find the number of ordered integral pairs (x, y) such that x3 + y3 = (x + y)2 and |x| < 3.
Solution :
x + y = 0 or x2 – xy + y2 = x + y
⇒ (x1, – x) or (x – 1)2 + (y –1)2 + (x – y)2 = 2
⇒ (x1, – x) or (1)2 + (1)2 + (0)2 = 2
⇒ (x1, – x) or (2, 2), (1, 2) , (1, 0), (2, 1), (0, 1)
5. If a, b, c, d are distinct integer such that (x - a) (x - b) (x - c) (x - d)= 4 has an integer solution
a + b+c+d
x = r. Find the ratio
r
Solution :
4 = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c)(x – d) = product of 4
distinct integers = 1 × (–1) × 2 × (-2)
So, (r – a) + (r – b) + (r – c) + (r – d) = 1 + (– 1) + 2 + (–2)
i.e, a + b + c + d = 4r
6. How many ordered four-tuples of integers (a, b, c, d) with 0 < a < b < c < d < 100 satisfy a + d = b
+ c and bc – ad = 93?
Solution :
Let b = a + p, c = a + q
So, d = a + p + q [as a + d = b + c]
Now, 93 = bc – ad = (a + p)(a + q)–a(a + p + q)
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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i.e pq = 93 = 1 × 93 or 3 × 31
So,
(a, b, c, d) = (a, a + 1, a + 93, a + 94)
Or (a, a+3, a + 31, a + 34)
Now, a + 94 ≤ 99 i.e., 1 ≤ a ≤ 5 or
a + 34 ≤ 99 i.e., 1 ≤ a ≤ 65
So, total 5 + 65 = 70cases.

7. Suppose that the roots of x3 + 3x2 + 4x – 11 = 0 are a, b and c and that the roots of x3 + rx2 + 5s +
t = 0 are a + b, b + c, c + a. Find t.
Solution :
a+b+c=–3
ab + bc + ca = 4
abc = 11
So, t = –(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
= – [(a + b + c)(ab + bc + ca) – abc]
= –[(–3)(4)–11] = 23
8. Let P be the product of the real roots of x4 – 4x3 + 6x2 – 4x = 2005. Find the greatest integer less
than or equal to (–P).
Solution :
x4 – 4x3 + 6x2 – 4x + 1 = 2006
i.e (x – 1)4 = 2006
i.e (x – 1)2 = 2006 [Since x is real]
i.e., x = 1 + 4 2006,1 − 4 2006
So, P = 1– 2006 i.e, –P = 2006 –1
So, [–P] = 44 – 1 = 43
[Here [–P] = greatest integer less than or equal to –P]

9. Let p(x) be a quadratic polynomial with real co-efficients such that P(11) = 181, and x2–
2x+2 ≤ p(x) ≤ 2x2–4x+3 for any real number x. Find the value of p(6)
Solution : 46
(x – 1)2 + 1 ≤ P(x) ≤ 2(x –1)2 + 1 for every real x.
So, p(x) = k(x–1)2 + 1 for some k satisfying
1 ≤k ≤ 2
But 181 = p(11) = k × 100 + 1
9
i.e k =
5
9
so, p(6) = × 25 + 1 = 46
5

(a − b)(b − c)(c − a) 17
11. If a, b, c are distinct real number such taht = , then find the value of p if
(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) 18
a b c p
+ + = .7
a + b b + c c + a 36
Solution :
It can be shown that
a −b b−c c−a ⎡ (a − b)(b − c)(c − a) ⎤
, + = −⎢ ⎥
a + b b+ c c+ a ⎣ (a + b)(b + c)(c + a) ⎦
⎛ 2a ⎞ ⎛ 2b ⎞ ⎛ 2c ⎞ −17
i.e ⎜ −1⎟ + ⎜ −1⎟ + ⎜ −1⎟ =
⎝ a + b ⎠ ⎝ b + c ⎠ ⎝ c + a ⎠ 18
a b c 1 ⎛ 17 ⎞ 37
i.e + + = ×⎜3 − ⎟ =
a + b b + c c + a 2 ⎝ 18 ⎠ 36
So, p = 37
12. Let p, q, r be prime numbers such that pq = r + 1 and 2(p2 + q2) = r2 + 1. Find the value of p + q +r.
Solution : 10
r2 + 1 = 2(p2 + q2) and So r is odd
So, pq = r + 1 is even
So, either p = 2 or q = 2
If p = 2, we have
r = 2q–1 and r2 = 2q2 + 7
So, 4q2 – 4q + 1 = r2 = 2q2 + 7
i.e., q = 3
∴ r = 2q – 1 = 5
Similarly, if q = 2 we get p = 3 and r = 5
So, p + q + r = 10 (in both the cases)

3x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1 3x 3 − 2x 2 + 5x − 13
13. If the distinct real number a, b, c satisfy the equation 3 = , then
3x − 2x2 − x − 1 3x3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 13
find the value of 18(a + b + c).
Solution : 75
a+b a+c
The equation has the form = where
a −b a −c
a = 3x3 – 2x2, b = x + 1, c = 5x – 13
a+b a+c
=
a −b a −c
a a
⇒ =
b c
⇒ a = 0 or b = c
⇒ 3x3 – 2x2 = 0 or x + 1 = 5x – 13
2 7
⇒ x = 0, =
3 2
2 7
⇒ 18(a+b+c) = 18(0 + + ) = 12 + 63 = 75
3 2

14. Let f (x) = x + 2x − 1 − x − 2x − 1 , x > 1. Find the value of ((f(9) + f(11) + f(15))2

Solution : 18

(f(x))2 = 2x – 2 x 2 − (2x − 1) = 2x − 2 | x − 1 |= 2

∴ f(x) = 2

( ) = 18
2
∴ ((f(9) + f(11) + f(15))2 = 3 2

1 1 192
15. If p and q are prime numbers such that − = , find the value of p.
p q 2005 − 20042
2

Solution: 19
4009(q–p) = 192 pq (clearly q > p)
Q 4009 = 19 × 211
So, p = 19 and q = 211
16. Let (a1, b1) and (a2, b2) be two ordered pairs of natural numbers (a, b) such that a2 + b2 = 2017
(a–b). Find the largest prime number that divides (a1+b1+a2+b2–1000).
Solution : 61
2(a2 + b2) = 2.2017(a–b)
⇒ (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2.2017(a–b)
⇒ (a + b)2 + (a – b – 2017)2 = 20172
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62 Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd.
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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⇒ u2 + v2 = 20172
Q 2017 is a prime number, so we can assume that u = x2 – y2, v = 2xy and 2017 = x2 + y2
WLOG, x ≥ y
⎡ 2017 ⎤
⇒ x2 ∈ ⎢ 2 , 2017 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⇒ x ∈ [32 , 44]
Also, x2 + y2 = 2017
⇒ x or y = ± 1(mod 5)
Hence x = 34, 36, 39, 41 or 44
Out of which only possible values of (x, y) are (44, 9)
So, u = 1885 and v = 792
Now, a + b = 1855 ∩ a – b = 1225
⇒ (a, b) = (1540, 315)
Or, a + b = 792 ∩ a – b = 162
⇒ (a, b) = (477, 315)
a1 + a2 + b1 + b2 = 2647
⇒ a1 + a2 + b1 + b2 – 1000 = 33 × 61
17. If x2 + xy + xz = 141, y2 + yz + xy = 363 and z2 + xz + yz = 72, then the value of (x + y – z).
Solution : 18
Add the equations,
( x + y + z)2 = 242
⇒ x + y + z = 24
As x(x+y+z) = 141
141 47 121
x= = ,y = ,z = 3
24 8 8
⇒ x + y – z = 21 – 3 = 18

(2019)3 (2017)3
18. If S = − , then find greatest integer not greater than S.
(2017)(2018) (2018)(2019)
Solution : 8
(n + 1)3 (n − 1)3 (n + 1)4 − (n − 1)4
− =
n(n − 1) n(n + 1) n(n − 1)(n + 1)

(4n)(2n 2 + 2)
=
n(n − 1)(n + 1)

⎛ n2 + 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 2
8 ⎟⎟ = 8 ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ n −1 ⎠ ⎝ n −1 ⎠

16
8+
S=
(2018)2 − 1
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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19. Let r,s and t be the roots of the equation 8x 3 + 1001x + 2008 = 0. Find the value of
1001 − (r + s)3 − (s + t)3 − (t + r)3
.
8
Solution : 31

−2008
r + s + t = 0 and rst = = −251
8
so, r3 + s3 + t3 = 3rst = -753
Now, (r + s)3 + (s + t)3 + (t + r)3
= (–t)3 + (–r)3 + (–s)3 = –(r3+ s3 + t3) = 753

So, given expression = 1001 − 753 = 31

a(b − c) b(c − a)
20. If = = r, such that a, b, c are non-zero distinct real numbers and r > 0. Find the
b(c − a) c(b − a)
value of (2r + 1)2.
Solution : 05
a(b − c)
r= .......... (i)
b(c − a)
1 c(b − a)
= ......... (ii)
r b(c − a)
1 (ab − ac) − (bc − ac)
So, r − = = −1
r b(c − a)
i.e., r2 + r – 1 = 0
−1 + 5
i.e r = [Since r > 0]
2
i.e (2r + 1)2 = 5
21. If f(x) = x50 is divided by x2–3x+2, then find the sum of coefficient of x and constant term in the
remainder.
Solution : Solution : 01
X50 = (x2 – 3x + 2)Q(x) + Ax + B
Substitute x = 1 and x = 2
A+B=1
2A + B = 250
On solving A = 250 – 1
B = 2 – 250
∴A + B = 1
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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22. Let f(x) = x6 – x5 – x3-x2–x and g(x) = x4 – x3 – x2 – 1. If a, b, c, d are the four zeroes of the
polynomial g(x), then find the value of f(a) + f(b) + f(c) + f(d).
Solution : 6
f(x) = (x2 + 1)g(x) + (x2 – x + 1)
But g(a) = g(b) = g(c) = g(d) = 0
So, f(a) + f(b) + f(c) + f(d)
= (a2 –a + 1) + (b2 – b + 1) + (c2 –c + 1) (d2 – d + 1)
= (a + b + c + d)2 – 2(ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd)+ 4–(a + b + c + d)
= 12 – 2 × (–1) + 4 – 1
=6

a
23. If P(x) = x15–2018x14 + 2018x13..........–2018x2 + 2018x and p(2017) = a, then find
2017
Solution : P(x) = x15 – 2017x14 – x14 + 2017x13 + x13..............x2 + 2017x + x
= x14 (x – 2017) –x13(x – 2017)+........×(x–2017) + x
P(2017) = 2017 = a
a
∴ =1
2017
24. If five positive real numbers in G.P are the roots of the equation x5 – 40x4 + α x3 + β x2 + γ x + δ =
β γ
0, such that sum of the reciprocals of the roots is 10. Then find the value of + .
α δ
Solution : 12
a a
Consider the roots as 2
, , a, ar, ar 2
r r
⎛1 1 2⎞
3 a ⎜ 2 + r + 1 + r + r ⎟ = 40
⎝r ⎠
1⎛ 1 1 2⎞
And ⎜ 2 + + 1 + r + r ⎟ = 10
a⎝r r ⎠
⇒a = 2
⇒ δ = –32
4
If we replace x by the roots will be same
y
hence equation will be same
4 5 40.4 4 α.4 3 β.4 2 γ.4
− 4 + 3 + 2 + +δ =0
y5 y y y y

5 γ 4 β 3
⇒ y − y − y − 2αy + 320x − 32 = 0
2
8 2
So, γ = +320 and β = –2 α
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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25. It α, β, γ be the roots of the equation x3 – 3x2 – x + 2 = 0 and P(x) is another cubic polynomial with
leading coefficient unity whose roots are βγ − α 2 , γα − β2 and αβ − γ 2 . Then find the value of P(2)
Solution : 27

2 αβγ 2
Let y = βγ − α = − α2 = − − x2
α x
⇒ x3 + xy + 2 = 0 .......... (i)
Given x3 – 3x2 – x + 2 = 0
From (i) and (ii)

y +1
3x2 + x(y + 1) = 0 ⇒ =x=
3
Substituting the value of x in (ii) we get
3 2
⎛ y +1 ⎞ ⎛ y +1 ⎞ ⎛ y +1 ⎞
−⎜ ⎟ − 3⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟+2 =0
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
⇒ –[y3 + 3y2 + 3y + 1] – 9[y2 + 2y + 1] + 9[y + 1] + 54 = 0
⇒ y3 + 12y2 + 12y – 53 = 0
26. If the maximum value for n such that n3 + 100 is divisible by n + 10 is x, where x is any real
x
number, then find .
10
Solution : 89
Let n3 + 100 = (n + 10)(n2 + an + b) + c
= n3 + n2(10 + a) + n(b + 10a) + 10b + c
Equating coefficients
10 + a = 0
b + 10a = 0
10b + c = 100
a = –10, b = 100 and c = –900
Maximum value for n is 890
27. Let p and q be distinct naturals such that 1981 + p = q2 and 1981 + q = p2. Find the value of (1990
+ pq)
Solution :
1981 + p = q2, 1981 + q = p2
⇒ p – q = q2 – p2
⇒ p2 – q2 + p – q = 0
⇒ (p – q)(p + q+ 1) = 0
⇒ p = q or p + q = –1

29. If a, b and c are real number such that a2 + b2 + 2c2 = 4a – 2c + 2bc – 5, Then find the value of
(6a–4b–2c).
Solution : 18
a2 + b2 + 2c2 = 4a – 2c + 2bc – 5
a2 + b2 + 2c2 – 4a + 2c – 2bc + 5 = 0
(a2 – 4a + 4) + (b2 + c2 – 2bc) + (c2 + 1 + 2c) = 0
(a – 2)2 + (b–c)2 + (c + 1)2 = 0
⇒ a = 2, b = c and c = –1
∴ 6a – 4b – 2c = 12 + 4 + 2 = 18
2 2
⎡ (x + 1)2 (x 2 − x + 1)2 ⎤ ⎡ (x − 1)2 (x 2 + x + 1)2 ⎤ 1
30. It is given that ⎢ ⎥ ×⎢ ⎥ = , where x ≠ ±1 and
⎣ (x + 1)
3 2
⎦ ⎣ (x − 1)
3 2
⎦ b−c
10 > b > c > 4. b and c both are integers. Find the number of possible order pairs of (b, c)
Solution : 4
On solving
2 2
⎡ (x + 1)2 (x 2 − x + 1)2 ⎤ ⎡ (x − 1)2 (x 2 + x + 1)2 ⎤ 1
⎢ ⎥ ×⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ (x + 1)
3 2
⎦ ⎣ (x − 1)
3 2
⎦ b−c

1
We get, = 1, b − c = 1
b−c
⇒ (b, c) = (9, 8), (8, 7), (7, 6) (6, 5)
31. Find the number of distinct real numbers which satisfy the equation (x2 + 4x – 2)2 = (5x2 – 1)2.
Solution : 3
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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(x2 + 4x – 2)2 = (5x2 – 1)2
(x2 + 4x – 2)2 – (5x2 – 1)2 = 0
(x2 + 4x – 2 + 5x2 – 1) (x2 + 4x – 2 – 5x2 + 1) = 0
(6x2 + 4x – 3) (–4x2 + 4x – 1) = 0
4x2 – 4x + 1 = 0 6x2 + 4x – 3 = 0
D = 16 – 16 = 0 D = 16 + 72 = 88
Roots are equal and real D>0
Roots are distinct and real
Distinct numbers satisfying equation is 3.
32. Let a, b, c be positive integers less than 10 such that (100a + 10b + c)2 = (a + b + c)5, what is the
value of (a × b – c)?
Solution : 05
Let N = (100a + 10b + c)2 = (a + b + c)5
⇒ N is both a square and fifth power
⇒ N must be tenth power
(100a + 10b + c) denotes a three digit number.
⇒ N is square of three digit number
∴ 210 = (25)2 = (32)2 is not possible
310 = (35)2 = (243)2 is possible
410 = (45)2 = (1024)2 is not possible
∴ N = (243)2 = ( 2 + 4 + 3)5
⇒ a = 2, b = 4 and c = 3
∴ (a × b –c ) = 2 × 4 – 3 = 5

33. Find the sum of all positive rational numbers n such that n 2 + 84n + 1941 is an integer.
Solution : 46
n has to be integer
( n + 42)2 < n2 + 84n + 1941 < (n + 45)2
n2 + 84n + 1941 is a perfect square
n2 + 84n + 1941 = (n + 43)2 .......... (i)
n2 + 84n + 1941 = (n + 44)2 .......... (ii)
On solving ( i ) and (ii ) we get
5
n= , 46
4
∴ n = 46
34. If α is the non-real root of x2 + ax + b = 0 and α 3 = 343, then find (a + b) if a and b are real.
Solution : 56
α3 = 343
⇒ α3 – 343 = 0
⇒ ( α – 7) ( α2 + 7 α + 49) = 0
⇒ α = 7 or α2 + 7 α + 49 = 0
α ≠ 7 , since α is non-real
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Mathematics - IQ Polynomials
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⇒ α2 + 7 α + 49 = 0
D = (7)2 – 4(1)(49)
= – 147
D<0
Since α is also a non-real root of ax2 + bx + c
α2 + 2 α + b = 0
a = 7, b = 49
a + b = 56
35. Find the value of 5xy, if x2 + 10y2 + 1 ≤ 2y(3x – 1)
Solution : 15
x2 + 10y2 + 1 – 6xy + 2y ≤ 0
⇒ x2 + 9y2 – 6xy + 2y + y2 + 1 ≤ 0
⇒ (x – 3y)2 + (y + 1)2 ≤ 0
⇒ x = 3y, y =–1
36. If α and β are real numbers, satisfying α + β = k, and αβ = k where ‘k’ is a positive integer, then
find the smallest value of k
Solution : 4
According to condition,
α and β must be the roots of x2 – kx + k = 0

⇒ D ≥ 0 ( α and β are real)

⇒ k2 – 4k ≥ 0
k(k – 4) ≥ 0
k is positive
∴ k – 4 ≥0
⇒ k≥4

37. If a–b = 3 and b – c = 5, then find the value of a 2 + b2 + c 2 − ab − bc − ca

Solution : 07
c – a = (c – b) + (b – a)
= –(b – c) – (a – b)
=–5–3=–8
a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca

1⎡
= (a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎦
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Polynomials Mathematics - IQ
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1
=
2
[9 + 25 + 64]
= 49

ab + 1 3 a 3 b3 + 1
38. If < where a and b are positive integers and the maximum possible value of 3 3 is
a+b 2 a +b
x
(x and y are relatively prime positive integers), find x + y.
y
Solution : 36

ab + 1 3
<
a+b 2
⇒ 2ab + 2 < 3a + 3b
⇒ 4ab – 6a – 6b + 4 < 0
⇒ (2a – 3)(2b – 3) < 5
⇒ (2a – 3)(2b – 3) = 1, 3, –1, –3, –5, –7.....
⇒ (2a – 3, 2b – 3) = (1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), (1, –1), (3, –1)
(a, b) = (2, 2)(2, 3), (3, 2), (k, –5(5, –1), (7, –1)......

a 3 b3 + 1 65 31
= , ,1
a 3 + b3 16 5
For maximum value,

a 3 b3 + 1 31 x
= =
a 3 + b3 5 y

∴ x + y = 31 + 5= 36
39. What is the smallest positive integers value of λ so that the equation x2–( λ +2)x + 2074 = 0 has
integral roots?
Solution : 93
αβ = 2074 = 2 × 17 × 61
Positive roots can be {1, 2074}, {2, 1037}, (17, 122}, {61, 34}
⇒ λ + 2 = 95
λ = 93

1
c=−
99!

1
and f(–) = –1 − (–2)(–3).........(–100)
99!

100!
f(–1) = −1 +
99!
f(–1) = 99
41. How many real values of ‘a’ are there for which the cubic equation x3 – 3ax2+ 3ax – a = 0 has all
real roots, one of which is ‘a’ itself?
Solution : 2
f(x) = x3 – 3ax2 – 3ax – a = 0
a3 – 3a3 + 3a2 – a = 0
⇒ 2a3 – 3a2 + a = 0
⇒ a(2a2 – 3a + 1) = 0
⇒ a=0

1
2a2 – 3a + 1 = 0 ⇒ a = 1,
2

1
∴ but a = , as the cubic has only one real root
2

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∴ Quotient is 3x3 – 7x2 + 16x – 34, Remainder is 64

∴ Quotient is 2x4 + x3 + 7x2 + 7x + 17, Remainder is 30

Solution : f  x =  x -1 x + 2 x + 3

Example 4 : Find the remainder when x1999 is divided by x 2 − 1

2 100 –1 = R1 & R2 = 2 – 2100

Example 6 : ( a − 3) x2 + ( 2 a + b) x + ( b − c) is a zero polynomials find a, b & c.

a0 a1 a2 a3 ..... an–2 an–1 an

∴ Quotient is 2x3 – x2 + 10x + 4

2. If the polynomials px3 + 4 x2 + 3x − 4 and x 3 − 4 x + p are divided by x − 3 , then the remainder in

3. Find the value of m in order that x 4 − 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 − mx + 5 may be exactly divisible by x − 3 .

4. Show that (x – 1) is a factor of ( x10 –1) and also of ( x11 − 1) .

5. Without actual division, prove that x 4 + 2 x 3 - 2 x 2 + 2 x - 3 is exactly divisible by x 2 + 2 x − 3 .

7. If ax 2 + 2a 2 x + b3 is divisible by x + a , prove that a = b or a 2 + ab + b2 = 0

8. If f ( x ) = x 2 + 5 x + p and g ( x ) = x 2 + 3x + q have a common factor, then

The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0)are − b ± b − 4 ac .

1) The roots of x2 – 7x + 12 = 0 are 7 ± 49 − 4(1)12 = 7 + 1 , 7 − 1 i.e., 4, 3

2) The roots of x2 – 6x + 25 = 0 are 6 ± 36 − 100 = 6 + 8i , 6 − 8i i.e., 3 + 4i, 3 – 4i

viii) one root is the square of the other ⇒ ac(a + c) + b3 = 3abc.

similarly we can prove that a2 α 2 + b2 α + c2 = 0

Ø Sign of the Quadratic Expression ax2 + bx + c :

If α < x < β then ax + bx + c < 0

ii) If x < α or x > β , then ( x − α )( x − β ) > 0

Ø Maximum and Minimum Values of ax2 + bx + c :

Either maximum or minimum of ax2 + bx + c is given by 4ac − b

Since x is real, (–(3y + 1))2 – 4.y.(2y + c) ≥ 0

Sol. Let y = 4(a − x )(( x − a ) + a 2 + b2 )

Ø Criteria for Finding Unknown for Given Condition(s)

(i) Δ > 0 ; (ii) af(k) < 0 where α < β

(i) Δ > 0 ; (ii) f(k1)f(k2) < 0 where α < β

−2(hy + g) ± 4(hy + g )2 − 4 a(by 2 + 2 fy + c )

⇒ (1 − tan α ) (1 + tan α ) ⎜ y − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ y − ⎜⎝ 1 − tan α ⎟⎠ ⎟ ≥ 0

i) discriminant D of f(x) = 0 should be greater than 0.

10. Suppose a cubic polynomial f ( x ) = x 3 + px 2 + qx + 72 is divisble by both x 2 + ax + b and x 2 + bx + a

Ø Relation between the roots and the coefficiens of a polynomial equation

Corollary - 1 : If α, β, γ are roots of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 then

M Theorem : If coefficients of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0 are rational, and if α = a + b where

−10 ± 100 − 88 −10 ± 2. 3

So, the roots of eq. (1) are 2,3, −5 + 3 , −5 − 3 . ( )( )

Ø Rational Root Theorem

⇒ a n p n + a n −1qp n −1 + .... + a1q1−1 p + a 0 q n = 0 ..... (1)

Ø Corollary (Integer Root Theorem)

Every rational root of x n + a n −1 x n −1 + .... + a 0 ; 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1 is an integer, where ai (i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n –

Ø Eisenstein’s Irreducibility Criterion Theorem

Comparing constant term on both side we get a0 = b0 c0. As p|a0 and p2 | a 0

Case 2 : i > k, a i = bi c0 + bi −1c1 + ....bi − k c k

Ø Extended Eisenstein’s Irreducibility Criterion Theorem

∴ Q(x) = (x – 3) (x2 – 12x + 35)

⇒ −r 3 + 3 pqr 2 − 3q3r + rq3 = 0

2. If α , β , γ , δ are the roots of ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0 then

Proof : α is a root of f(x) = 0 ⇔ f (α ) = 0

Proof : α is a root of f(x) = 0 ⇔ f (α ) = 0 .

xn x n−1 x n−(r −1)

i.e., x2 + 2x + 1 + x (x + 1) = 0 ⇒ (x2 + 2x + 1) = –(x + 1) x

∴ The required equation is x4 + 3x3 + x2 – 17x – 19 = 0

∴ f(x – 2) = x4 – 9x3 + 40x2 – 80x + 80

If ai = –an–i, then f ( x ) = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n −2 .... + an

or α 2 + 2α + 2β + 2αβ = 15 ... (2)

Substituting for β from (1) in (2)

α 2 + 2α + 26 − 4(α + 1) + 2α (13 − 2α − 2) = 15 or 3α 2 − 20α − 7 = 0

( y − 1)3 − ( y − 1)( y + 1)2 − ( y + 1)3 = 0

⇒ ry3 − q (r + 1) y 2 + p(r + 1)2 y − (r + 1)3 = 0

Sol. Given ∑ α = −1, ∑ αβ = 2, αβγ = −3

Sol. Given ∑ α = −3, ∑ αβ = 0, αβγ = −2

∴ Product of the roots of (4) = 374 i.e., π (α + 2α + 3) = 374

15. If α , β , γ are the roots x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0, then find the values of

16. i) If x 4 − 16 x 3 + 86 x 2 − 176 x + 105 = 0 , then find S1, S2 , S3 , S4 .

⇒ f (x) = 0 has exactly 1 real root.

f(x1) . f(x2) < 0

f(x1) . f(x2) = 0 f(x1) . f(x2) = 0

f(x1) . f(x2) > 0 f(x1) . f(x2) > 0

From the above cases, it is clear that

So, given expression = 1001 − 753 = 31

⇒ D ≥ 0 ( α and β are real)

37. If a–b = 3 and b – c = 5, then find the value of a 2 + b2 + c 2 − ab − bc − ca

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