TOPIC 2: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Introduction

Now student, it is important to establish the types of communication that

exist as this will be important for our understanding of other content
regarding communication.

You can categorize communication in three ways.

a) By the number of people involved in the communication process.

b) By the channel or medium used in the communication process.

c) Communication categorized by direction of flow

Student, this is how communication is categorized according to the number of

people involved:

i) Intrapersonal communication: This is the process of sharing meaning

within oneself in the mind, which involves such activities as reflection,
problem solving, planning, and solving internal conflict among others.
This is a continuous process we always engage in, but rarely realize we
are involved in it.

ii) Inter-personal communication: This involves exchanging meaning

between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual
opportunities for both speaking and listening. Interpersonal
communication can be of two types:

 Dyadic communication: Involves two people in communication such as

a doctor and a patient, a lecturer and a student.

 Small group communication: Involves three to ten people such

communication includes that which takes place in families and work
groups.

iii) Public communication: It involves one person communicating to a

 large group of people.

iv) Mass communication: This is communication mediated via a

technological transmission system involving a source (professional
communicator often representing an organization), and a large number of
unseen receivers spread over a wide geographical area. The transmission
system might be in the form of electronic, audio, audio-visual signal or
visual technologies such as publication in form of books or newspapers.

Communication is also categorized by channel or medium;

i) Verbal communication: This type of communication relies on the oral-

auditory signal for communication.

ii) Graphic communication: This communication is also known as visual

communication. It involves visual representation of ideas facts and
objects other than written communication

e.g. cartoons, graphs, charts, models, objects, etc.

iii) Written communication: This is the use of visual symbols, representing

language, on a surface which is read by receivers.

iv) Non-verbal communication: This is the use of visual or oral auditory

signals that do not primarily rely on language or verbalized message for
communication to take place. This form of communication is also known
as paralinguistic communication and would include forms such as
gestures, posture, distance, facial expression, rate of speech, pause,
voice quality, and so on.

Now, Communication can be categorized by direction of flow, since

communication creates links between people for different functions or
purposes. If several links are missing, broken or not aligned properly, the
communication becomes wobbly and may eventually break. The following
are communication situations that represent a different flow of
communication depending on the purpose:
i) Upward communication

This is communicating with people who rank above you, such as your
boss or instructor.

ii) Lateral or horizontal communication

This is communicating with people who are at the same rank or level
as you – your co- workers or classmates.

iii) Downward communication

This is communicating with people who rank below you, such as the
people you might manage at work.

iv) Internal communication

This is a communication situation that takes place in a company or an

organization. Internal communication is the transmittal of
information between and among persons within a business or
organization. It is used to accomplish company goals and objectives.
For example, managers communicating deadline on assignments or
employees seeking promotions.

v) External communication

This is the transfer of information to and from people outside the

company or organization. The goal is to persuade the recipients to
respond favorably to company needs. For example, a job advert tries
to attract qualified personnel to fill a certain position.

vi) Cross-cultural communication

This refers to communicating, either in writing, verbally or non-

verbally, with people who are from a culture different from your own.
This calls for an understanding and respect of cultural differences and
being adaptable.

vii) Grapevine communication

This refers to informal communication within a company/organization,

where information spread bypasses the formal communication
 structure. It spreads in random ways, irrespective of the authority
levels.

Note: The direction your communication flows at any given time

will influence what and how you communicate the words you use and the
method you choose.

Non-Verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication can be divided into 5 categories:

1. Paralanguage

This includes non-verbal communication such as tone, pitch, quality, rate of

speech, laughing, crying, belching or even hesitating or sighing.
Paralanguage can help reinforce a verbal message, for example, a father
says, ―oh…sorry to his daughter who has just fallen.

2. Kinesics/Body language

Body language is the gestures, movements and mannerisms by which a

person communicates with others. Physical attributes such as appearance,
facial expressions, eye contact and posture all contribute to kinesics or body
language. For example:

o Physical appearance includes clothes, jewelry and grooming.

Wearing the appropriate clothing to specific events demonstrates
taste and style.

o Facial expressions indicate our emotions: happy, sad, confused,

angry etc. Eye contact may convey confidence, honesty and interest
in the conversation.

o Gestures can express many things e.g. a friendly wave to say hello,
 etc.

o Posture sends a message. Standing or sitting erect denotes that you

are paying attention to the matter at hand, leaning forward conveys
increased interest.

3. Environment

Our environment communicates many different messages. For example:

A large desk in a corner office with windows communicates high status within
an organization.

Fast food restaurants are deigned to move customers through quickly by

using plastic seats that is comfortable for about 10 minutes.

4. Touch

Touch, or haptic communication, is a primary method for achieving

connection with people, indicating intention, or expressing emotion. The use
of touch can be culturally bound. For example, in a business setting, the
most appropriate form of communication is the handshake. This type of
communication is status-driven. That is, a manager may give an employee
an encouraging pat on the back, but not vice versa. People in business must
avoid touch that could be considered condescending or sexual harassment.

5. Space

Space, as it relates to non-verbal communication, is the physical distance

maintained with others. How you use space to communicate depends on:

 Cultural norms.

 Your relationship with the receivers of your communication.

 The activities involved.

Communication Process
Communication is a process because it involves a number of elements each
playing a key role for efficient and effective communication to take place.
The sharing of meaningful information between two or more people with the
goal of the receiver understanding the sender's intended message. In
business for example, the effectiveness of a company's internal and external
communication process is often very important to its overall success.

Models of Communication

A model is a diagrammatic representation of an abstract idea with the view

to simplifying it. The purpose of a model is to offer a visual representation of
a concept with the intent of facilitating the understanding of it. Traditionally
speaking, there are three standard models of the communication process:
Linear, interactive, and transactional, and each offers a slightly different
perspective on the communication process.

Barriers to Effective Communication

Anything that interferes or distorts our ability to send or receive messages is

called a barrier. Human communication is fraught with problems and
difficulties such as:

Differences in opinion: Your worldview is largely determined by your past

experiences. As vast as these experiences are, so are the perceptions and
interpretations of the world that you have. Age, nationality, culture,
education, occupation, sex, status, personality etc., all bring to bear the
difference in perception.

Jumping to conclusions: You often see what you expect to see, thus hear
what you expect to hear, rather than what is actually intended. This may
lead you to unnecessary conclusions.

Stereotyping: Your experiences could run you the risk of treating different
people as if they were the same.
Lack of knowledge: Communication is adversely affected if it is exchanged
between persons whose knowledge of the particular subject is varied or
whose backgrounds regarding the subject are too different. It requires skill
on the part of you (communicator) to be aware of the discrepancy between
the levels of knowledge, thus communicate accordingly.

Lack of interest: This is lacking alertness to the message being sent. As an

effective communicator, you should avoid assuming that your interest in the
specific subject is everyone’s interest, thus angle your message to appeal to
the interests and needs of the receiver.

Difficulties with expression: This refers to difficulty expressing or

conveying your message as clearly as possible. It includes lack of vocabulary
or communicative competence as well as lack of confidence, both of which
can be overcome by respectively improving your vocabulary and preparing
carefully.

Emotions: Both the receiver and communicator could harbor strongly felt
emotions that could prevent almost anything from being communicated.
Such emotions could entirely distort the communication and should be
avoided. However, any audience knows that a speaker without emotion and
enthusiasm is likely to be a dull speaker. Emotion just needs a clear balance.

Personality: Your personality traits/behaviors can affect the behavior of

others in a communication situation. We may not be able to change the
personalities of others, but at least we should be prepared to consider our
own personality to see, if change in behavior may result in more satisfactory
relationships, thus better communication.

Institutional Communication

Student, communication is key to the success of any organization/institution.

Communication can happen through the spoken or written channel. Some of
the ways in which communication happens are through the use of Letter of
job application, the Curriculum vitae, minutes of meetings, letters of inquiry,
 emails and memos.
a) Emails
Electronic mail, more commonly referred to as e-mail, is written
communication just like memos and letters. The primary difference is the
method of transmission. E-mail messages are sent instantly through the
internet via the modem on your computer and the modem in the recipient’s
computer. The use of e-mail today is so quick, easy and inexpensive that its
use is increasing at a phenomenal rate. In order to ensure that
communication via e-mail is appropriate, follow the following guidelines:

 Use the correct address

 Use a subject line

 Limit the length, topics and recipients

 Watch the tone of your E-mail

 Check spelling and grammar

 Do not send confidential information

 Know your company policy on writing emails

(b) Memoranda/memos

Memos are also a logical way to coordinate the efforts of many people within an
organization – especially large and diverse organizations and for those who do
not have access to e-mail. There can be no fixed rules about the style of
language which is appropriate for an internal memorandum. It will depend on
several factors such as:

a) Nature of the message – information, enquiry, request, reprimand,

congratulations and so on.

b) Context of the message – potential reaction of the reader, what has

gone before, how much the recipient knows already, urgency of the situation
and priority of any action required – routine, emergency, crisis, follow-up
instructions to all staff and so on.
c) Status and personality of the recipient – position in the organization,
known tastes and attitudes on written style and methods of working,
technical/practical background, educational level and so on.