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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

GMAT 逻辑指南
本资料由毕出(helr)老师编辑整理。该资料是根据 OG2022 及 OG2023 版本的批判性推理
部分优化而来。

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版本更新日志:
2023 年 6 月 27 日更新版本至 1.3
更新内容 1:重写部分一般型归纳推理的解读方式。
更新内容 2:删除类比推理这一单独分类,划归进入一般型归纳推理的“样本偏差”谬误。
更新内容 3:删减及增补部分例题。
更新内容 4:按照《GMAT 批判性推理》教材进行章节划分。
更新内容 5:增加模态命题和对当关系表格。

2023 年 4 月 21 日更新版本至 1.2


更新内容 1:重构一般型归纳推理的解读方式。
更新内容 2:增加“它因导致结果”方向中的一条注意事项。
更新内容 3:调整类比推理概念描述。

2023 年 4 月 11 日更新版本至 1.1


更新内容 1:第一页增加真题解析链接。
更新内容 2:在“一般型归纳推理解题方式总结”中进一步详述一般型归纳推理的三个潜在谬
误方向的区别。

2023 年 4 月 7 日发布

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

GMAT 逻辑指南 .......................................................................................................... 1

第一章:批判性推理概述 .................................................................................................... 3
第二章:演绎推理考题解法(Deductive Reasoning) .................................................. 4
第一节:基本概念........................................................................................................................................ 4
第二节:模态命题及对当关系 ................................................................................................................. 6

第三章:归纳推理考题解法(Inductive Reasoning) .................................................10


第一节:基本概念...................................................................................................................................... 10
第二节:一般型归纳推理 ........................................................................................................................ 11
一般型归纳推理解题方式总结 ............................................................................................................... 20
第三节:因果型归纳推理 ........................................................................................................................ 22
第四节:方案型归纳推理 ........................................................................................................................ 25

第四章:特殊问法解法 ......................................................................................................28
第一节:解释题 .......................................................................................................................................... 28
第二节:黑脸题 .......................................................................................................................................... 29

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第一章:批判性推理概述

GMAT 批判性推理考题总共可以分为三大类:
1. 演绎推理(约占 20%)
2. 归纳推理(约占 60%)
3. 特殊问法(约占 20%)

逻辑本身源自于生活,所以它并不像想象的那么抽象,例如:
(1) 小明买了三本书。

假设句(1)是客观事实,那么我们能从中推理出什么信息呢?相信部分读者可能会推理得出:
(2) 存在小明这个人。
(3) 小明获得了三本书。

还有部分读者可能会推理得出:
(4) 小明热爱学习。
(5) 小明需要那三本书。

这两类推理结果并无对错之分,它们只是属于不同类型。

从 句 (1) 中 推 理 出 句 (2) 和 句 (3) 的 过 程 被 称 为 演 绎 推 理 。 演 绎 推 理 的 英 文 — Deductive


Reasoning—很好地揭示了这种推理的本质。“de-ductive”的前缀是“de-”,本意为“去掉,去除”。
也就是说,那些把已知信息中的一些信息“去掉”从而得出结论的推理是演绎推理。例如,如果
我们把已知信息中的“买了三本书”去掉,则我们可以推理得出句(2)。当然,这里的“去掉”是带
引号的。这是因为演绎推理并非要求一定要删除信息,而它只要求保证“不增加”任何额外的信
息。例如,在不增加任何信息的情况下,句(1)可以推理出句(3)。

从句(1)中推理出句(4)和句(5)的过程被称为归纳推理。这种推理在生活中更为常见。归纳推理
的英文—Inductive Reasoning—也能很好地揭示这种推理的本质。“in-ductive”的前缀是“in-”,
本意为“在…里面”。也就是说,那些已知信息在结论信息“里面”的推理是归纳推理。要想充分理
解这里讲到的“在…里面”的意义,我们需要剖析一下人类的思维模式。

显然地,即便我们知道从句(1)中推理出句(4)和句(5)是有漏洞的,不充分的,但我们依然很难
抑制住自己向这些方面进行联想。那么,我们为什么会有这些联想而不是联想出“小明饿了”这
样的结论呢?实际上,我们之所以会得出句(4)或句(5)这样的结论,是因为句(1)是句(4)或句(5)
的“典型体现方式”。例如,小明买书显然是他热爱学习的一种体现方式。同理,买书也是需要
这些书的一种体现方式。但是,显然买书在常识上绝不是“饿了”的一种体现方式。

由于“小明热爱学习”有很多其它的体现方式,例如,小明会经常去向老师请教问题或者小明经
常参加学术会议等等,而“小明买书”算是其中之一,所以我们可以说“小明买书”是被蕴含在结
论“小明热爱学习”的众多体现方式中的一种。这就是 Inductive Reasoning 这个词的由来。

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第二章:演绎推理考题解法(Deductive Reasoning)

第一节:基本概念

GMAT 考试对于演绎推理的考查方式是:将“已知信息”放入推理文段,让考生在选项中寻找
“结论”,例如:

小明每周三都一定会穿衬衫。今天是周三。
如果上述说法正确,那么以下哪个说法一定正确?
(A) 小明今天会穿衬衫。
(B) 小明喜欢穿衬衫。

例题答案为选项(A)。这类考题的本质是在问题干信息“蕴含”下列哪个选项。显然地,选项
B 是不一定发生的,即,我们无法确定小明是否喜欢衬衫。

仅从问题来看,演绎推理大体上有三种问法:
(1) Which of the following can be reliably concluded on the basis of the Statements given?
(2) Among the following statements, which is it most reasonable to infer from the
assertions by Mashika and Salim?
(3) Which of the following must be true in Greenspace County if the statements above are
true?

换句话说,但凡一道考题的问题能归于这三类之一的,它必然是在考查演绎推理。

演绎推理的解法是非常简单的—充分理解文段并且不加入任何自己的知识与想法,之后仔
细检查选项是否被文段信息蕴含。

例题 1
From 1980 to 1989, total consumption of fish in the country of Jurania increased by 4.5
percent, and total consumption of poultry products there increased by 9.0 percent. During
the same period, the population of Jurania increased by 6 percent, in part due to
immigration to Jurania from other countries in the region.

If the statements above are true, which of the following must also be true on the basis of
them?

(A) During the 1980s in Jurania, profits of wholesale distributors of poultry products
increased at a greater rate than did profits of wholesale distributors of fish.
(B) For people who immigrated to Jurania during the 1980s, fish was less likely to be a
major part of their diet than was poultry.
(C) In 1989 Juranians consumed twice as much poultry as fish.

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(D) For a significant proportion of Jurania's population, both fish and poultry products
were a regular part of their diet during the 1980s.
(E) Per capita consumption of fish in Jurania was lower in 1989 than in 1980.

推理:因为问题问的是 must be true,所以本题属于演绎推理。

选项分析:
(A) 在 80 年代的 Jurania,家禽批发商获得的利润上涨了更多的比例相对于鱼肉批发商的
利润。销量高不代表利润高,原文没有提到过利润。
(B) 对于 80 是年代移民到 Jurania 的人来说,鱼比家禽更不可能成为他们的主要的食材。
当移民之后,我们能看到的是消耗量的变化,但是并不代表原有居民的口味就是不变的,
所以鱼上涨的没有家禽快不等于移民的人都喜欢吃家禽。
(C) 1989 年 Jurania 的人吃的家禽量是吃鱼量的两倍。80 到 89 年这段时间的增长率差值
是两倍,和总共消耗的数量是两个概念。
(D) 对于大部分的 Jurania 的人来说,鱼和家禽都是他们在 80 年代的主要食材。该信息原
文完全没有涉及到过。原文一直在说的都是他们增长的情况,完全无法得出是否是主要食
材这个概念。
(E) Correct. 人均消耗的鱼的数量 1989 年比 1980 年要低。因为鱼的消耗量增长了
4.5%,而人口增加了 6%,所以平均每个人消耗鱼的数量肯定是要下降的。(如果鱼的消耗
量也增长 6%,则可以不变)

例题 2
In an attempt to genetically engineer a coffee plant that would produce beans containing no
caffeine, Scientists prevented the production of an enzyme necessary for the synthesis of
caffeine. Beans harvested from plants in which production of the enzyme was shut down
throughout the plant contained no caffeine. However, there were normal amounts of caffeine
in beans harvested from plants in which production of the enzyme was shut down in beans
but not in the rest of the plant.

If the information presented above is accurate, which of the following hypothesis is most
strongly supported on the basis of it?

(A) Measurable amounts of caffeine are present in the leaves of a coffee plants in which
production of the enzyme has been completely stopped.
(B) Caffeine production in coffee plants does not require the action of more than one
enzyme.
(C) Coffee made from the beans of the plants in which enzyme production was shut down
only in the beans contains both caffeine and small quantities of the enzyme.
(D) In coffee plants, either caffeine or the enzyme necessary for the production of caffeine
move into the beans from elsewhere in the plant.
(E) When the production of the enzyme is shut down in the beans but not in the rest of the
coffee plant, the quantities of the enzyme produced in the rest of the plant are smaller
than usual.

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推理:因为问题问的是 be supported,所以本题属于演绎推理。文段的大意为:科学家阻止
了合成咖啡因所需的一种酶的产生。如果在整个植物中都阻止这种酶的产生,那么我们能收
获不含咖啡因的豆子。但是,如果只是在豆子部分中阻止这种酶的产生,那么豆子中含有的
咖啡因的数量是和正常的一样的。

选项分析:
(A) 在酶的生产已经完全停止的咖啡植物的叶片中存在着微量的咖啡因。推理文段中没有提
及咖啡植物叶片中是否有咖啡因。
(B) 咖啡植物中咖啡因的产生不需要一种以上的酶的作用。推理文段只讲到了某一种酶是咖
啡豆中合成咖啡因的必要条件,没有提及是否还需要别的酶参与。
(C) 用只在咖啡豆中关闭了酶的生产的植物的豆子制成的咖啡既含有咖啡因又含有少量的
酶。我们只能确定这样的咖啡豆中必然会有咖啡因,但推理文段中并未提及咖啡豆中是否会
出现酶。
(D) 正确。在咖啡植物中,咖啡因或生产咖啡因所需的酶从植物的其他地方移入咖啡豆中。
显然本选项是文章蕴含的信息,即,被在咖啡豆中被关停了酶的合成的豆子里的咖啡因必然
是从其他地方得来的,不可能凭空产生。
(E) 当咖啡豆中的酶的生产被关闭,而咖啡植物的其他部分没有被关闭时,植物的其他部分
产生的酶的数量就会比平时少。推理文段只说了这样的咖啡豆含有的咖啡因的量是和普通
豆子一样的,并没有谈到这种酶本身有多少的问题(我们也无法从推理文段的信息中确定酶
的数量和咖啡因的数量呈正比,也可能是无论生产多少咖啡因,都只需要等量的酶)。

第二节:模态命题及对当关系

在 GMAT 官方指南中,模态命题和对当关系是在演绎推理中被提及到的考点之一。这两个
考点对应的知识点较为驳杂(诸如 AEIO 等),而实际 GMAT 考题中对于它们的体现方式却
比较简单。

所谓模态命题,其实就是陈述事物情况的必然性或可能性的句子,例如,“小明必然去买了
三本书”和“小明可能去买了三本书”。类似于这两者的关系,我们直接从常识上去理解即可。
显然地,从“小明必然去买了三本书”推理出“小明可能去买了三本书”这一结论是符合演绎推
理规律的,反之则不符合演绎推理规律,即,如果“小明可能去买了三本书”是一个事实,那
么我们无法得知小明是否必然会去买书。下表给出了英语中表达可能性的一些方式:

Necessity Probability Possibility


Certainly Probably Can
Clearly Likely Could
Definitely More likely than not May
Must Maybe
Necessarily Might
Surely Perhaps
Possibly

从左至右的推理都被视为是有效的,即,Necessity 可以推理出 Probability,也可以推理出

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Possibility;从右至左的推理都被视为是无效的,即,不能从 Possibility 推理出 Probability,


更不能推理出 Necessity。

所谓对当关系,其实主要是对一些“量词”的理解。例如,
(1) 有些 A 是 B。
(2) 所有 A 都是 B。

句(1)中的“有些”和句(2)中的“所有”都是量词。在 GMAT 演绎推理考题中,在推理文段或者选


项中看到大量的诸如 all, some, any, no 等这些“量词”就可以判断此题是在考查“对当关系”。
英语中常见的量词见下表:
全部 大部分 有些 没有
All Generally A number Never
Always A majority A portion No
Any Most Any None
Both More than half At least one Not any
Each Usually Occasionally Not one
Every One or more Nowhere
Everywhere Some
Whenever Sometimes
Wherever Somewhere

对于这类考题,方法是将推理文段中有意义的信息全部转换成命题形式:
(3) 所有 A 都是 B。
(4) 有的 A 是 B。
(5) 所有 A 都不是 B。
(6) 有的 A 不是 B。

根据这四种形式,我们绘制出韦恩图即可求解。句(3)(4)(5)(6)对应的韦恩图分别为(蓝圈为
A,绿圈为 B,下图主要体现两个集合间的关系而非大小):

句(3):

句(4):

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句(5):

句(6):

例题 3
Book publishing executive: I am becoming increasingly convinced that the interaction
between book sales and literary quality is not a simple one. For example, I now believe that
no number one best seller will win the major literary prizes. But I also believe that all major
literary prize winners will have unusually high long-term sales.

If the beliefs that the book publishing executive claims to hold are true, which of the following
must also be true on the basis of them?

(A) No books with unusually high long-term sales are number one best sellers.
(B) At least some number one best sellers are not books with unusually high long-term sales.
(C) All books with unusually high long-term sales are number one best sellers.
(D) At least some books with unusually high long-term sales are not number one best sellers.
(E) No number one best sellers have unusually high long-term sales.

推理:因为问题问的是 must be true,所以本题属于演绎推理。


文段的中可以提炼出两条信息:
(1) 没有任何一本第一畅销书能赢得目前主流的文学奖。
(2) 所有主流文学奖得主都会有异常高的长期销量。

其中信息(1)转换为命题形式为:
(3) 所有赢得目前主流的文学奖的书都不是畅销书。

因此,信息(1)绘制出韦恩图(蓝圈是赢得目前主流的文学奖的书,绿圈是第一畅销书):

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信息(2)绘制韦恩图可得(蓝圈是赢得目前主流的文学奖的书,红圈是有异常高的长期销量的
书):

两条信息结合,绿圈和红圈的关系可能是绿圈完全被红圈包含,也可能是绿圈和红圈有交集,
还有可能是绿圈和红圈没有交集。

选项分析:
(A) 长期销量异常高的书都不是第一畅销书。本选项讲的是红圈和绿圈没有交集。显然这一
点无法从推理文段中确定。
(B) 至少有些第一畅销书不是长期销量异常高的书。本选项讲的是绿圈不可能被红圈完全包
含。显然无法确定。
(C) 所有长期销量异常高的书都是第一畅销书。本选项讲的是绿圈包含红圈。这是不可能的。
因为信息(1)告诉我们至少绿圈不能包含蓝圈(而蓝圈在红圈里面)。
(D) 正确。至少有些长期销售量异常高的书不是第一畅销书。至少蓝圈部分不能被绿圈包含。
所以本选项是正确的。
(E) 没有任何第一畅销书有异常高的长期销量。本选项讲的是绿圈和红圈没有交集。错误同
选项 A。

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第三章:归纳推理考题解法(Inductive Reasoning)

第一节:基本概念

GMAT 考试对于归纳推理的考查方式是:将“已知信息”和“结论”均放入推理文段,让考生在
选项中寻找能评估推理文段的选项。在归纳推理中,我们称“已知信息”为“前提”。GMAT 对
归纳推理的考查形如:

小明买了三本书。因此,小明是热爱学习的。
以下哪个选项,如果正确,能最强的削弱上述推理?
(A) 小明买的书都是和学习无关的漫画书。
(B) 是否热爱学习是衡量一个孩子好坏的重要标准。

例题答案为选项(A)。这类考题的本质是在考查我们对于归纳推理中可能出现的漏洞(在逻
辑上称之为谬误)的把握。

仅从问题来看,归纳推理有四种问法:削弱;加强;假设;评估。

削弱类的问题包括但不仅限于:
(1) Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the conclusion above?
(2) Which of the following statements, if true, would cast the most doubt on the conclusion
drawn above?
(3) Which of the following, if true, most seriously calls Scott's hypothesis into question?
(4) Which of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion drawn above?
(5) The banker’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which of the following grounds?
(6) Which of the following points to the most serious logical flaw in the reviewer's argument?

加强和假设类的问题包括但不仅限于:
(1) Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument above?
(2) Which of the following, if true, most supports the researchers’conclusion?
(3) Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest grounds for the experts' conclusion?
(4) Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
(5) The argument above assumes which of the following?

评估类问题包括但不仅限于:
(1) Which of the following would be most useful to establish in order to evaluate the analyst's
prediction?

纵然问题的问法不尽相同,但其考查的核心是一致的。例如,上文讲到的中文例题可以改为:
小明买了三本书。因此,小明是热爱学习的。
以下哪个选项,如果正确,能最强的加强上述推理?
(A) 小明买的书都是和学习相关的书籍。
(B) 是否热爱学习是衡量一个孩子好坏的重要标准。

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这道题还可以改为:
小明买了三本书。因此,小明是热爱学习的。
以下哪个选项,如果正确,能评估上述推理?
(A) 小明买的书都是和学习相关的书籍么?
(B) 热爱学习是否是衡量一个孩子好坏的重要标准呢?

上述两道题答案均为选项(A)。观察这三道题的选项 A,我们可以发现,纵然这三句话在形式
上有所不同,但其在核心上是完全一致的,即,都讲的是“书是和学习相关的书”这件事。因
此,归纳推里的解题核心在于如何能快速地找到可以评估该推理那些事件。

要想快速找到这样的事件,一个至关重要的前提条件是要正确区分前提和结论。在归纳推理
中,我们定义:
前提:最直接能推理得出结论的句子。
结论:作者最终通过推理得出的观点句。

GMAT 考试为了让我们能更好的找准前提和结论,它还贴心地给我们提供了一些信号词,如
下:
前提信号词:since, because, for, given that, seeing that, in light of the fact that
结论信号词:therefore, consequently, it follows that, so, hence, it is hypothesized(expected,
showed,) that, clearly

基于前提和结论的关系,我们可以把归纳推理分为三个模型:
(1) 一般型归纳推理
(2) 因果型归纳推理
(3) 方案型归纳推理

第二节:一般型归纳推理

前提讲一个事件且结论讲一个事件的归纳推理属于一般型归纳推理。例如:
前提:小明学习成绩很好。
结论:小明所在的班级中所有同学的学习成绩都很好。

类似这样的一般型归纳推理有三个可能的谬误(漏洞)方向,分别为:
样本偏差(Biased sample)
草率结论(Hasty generalization)
特异性谬误(Fallacy of specificity)

样本偏差(Biased sample)

要想理解“样本偏差”的意义,我们需要先从“样本”开始理解。“样本”经常和抽样调查联系到

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

一起。例如某生产线 A 上有 100 件产品,我们抽取 3 个,之后利用这 3 个的情况来预测生


产线上整体 100 件产品的情况。这种行为是典型的抽样调查,而被我们抽取出的 3 个就是
“样本”。

当然,这种“抽样调查”是存在逻辑漏洞的。其中较为重要的一个漏洞是“样本偏差”。例如,
如果我们抽取的样本是 100 个产品中的前 3 个,那么我们就很可能出现样本偏差的谬误,
这是因为前三个有可能刚好是做的比较认真的三个。

因此,所谓样本偏差,它指的是“抽取的样本和总体或者其它样本是不一样的,有区别的”。
又例如:
前提:小明学习成绩很好。
结论:小明所在的班级中所有同学的学习成绩都很好。

显然此时“小明”是样本,而“班级里的所有同学”是总体。如果想指出“样本偏差”的谬误,我们
可以说:
小明是班级中学习成绩最优秀的孩子之一。
若想加强结论,我们可以说:
小明在班级中的学习成绩属于平均水平,不算最优秀的孩子。

例题 1
Business Analyst: National Motors began selling the Luxora-its new model of sedan—in June.
Last week, National released sales figures for the summer months of June, July, and August
that showed that by the end of August only 80,000 Luxoras had been sold. Therefore, National
will probably not meet its target of selling 500,000 Luxoras in the model's first twelve months.

Which of the following would be most useful to establish in order to evaluate the analyst's
prediction?

(A) Whether new-car sales are typically lower in the summer months than at any other time
of the year.
(B) Whether National Motors currently produces more cars than any other automaker.
(C) Whether the Luxora is significantly more expensive than other models produced by
National Motors.
(D) Whether National Motors has introduced a new model in June in any previous year.
(E) Whether National Motors will suffer serious financial losses if it fails to meet its sales goal
for the Luxora.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:National Motors 在六月,七月,和八月这三个月内总共卖了 80,000 辆。
结论:National Motors 在前十二个月内无法卖超过 500,000 辆。

在逻辑上,显然六月,七月,和八月是样本,而前十二个月是总体。答案选项可以通过指出
“样本偏差”的方式,即,六月,七月,和八月这三个月和其他月份相比较为特殊,来评估整
个推理。因此,本题的答案为选项 A(正常来说,新车的销量是否在夏季月份都不理想)。

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

较为简单的一般型归纳推理中的“样本”和“总体”是很明显的,但 GMAT 考试中(包括生活中)


出现频率较高的一般型归纳推理中的“样本”和“总体”却相对抽象,例如:
前提:小明买了三本书。
结论:小明是热爱学习的。

因为“总体”应包含“样本”,且归纳推理中的结论应蕴含前提(即,前提是能影响结论的因素
之一),所以我们可以将“前提这件事”近似看作是“结论这件事”的一个样本。也就是说,因为
“买书”是“热爱学习”的一种体现方式,所以我们可以将“买书”看作“热爱学习”的样本之一。当
然,热爱学习还包括很多其它样本,例如“热爱和同学讨论学术问题”和“热爱向老师请教问题”
等等。

在这样的推理中,所谓“样本偏差”,实质上指的是“其前提”和“其结论或结论的真正样本”之
间存在明显的概念偷换。例如:
前提:小明买了三本书。
结论:小明是热爱学习的。

结论的“真正样本”应是“小明会购买与学习相关的图书”,但现在的前提对其进行了偷换概念,
其只讲到了“买书”。因此,这个推理具有样本偏差这一谬误。

综上,“样本偏差”实质上是要求我们思考前提事件究竟是否是可以影响结论事件的因素。如
果不是,那么真正影响结论事件的因素到底是什么(也就是结论事件真正蕴含的事件是什
么)?“前提事件”和“这个因素”之间的差别就是寻找答案的方向。

例题 2
The material traditionally used for making kettles in which water for teas is boiled is iron.
When water is brought to a boil in these tea kettles, minute traces of iron dissolve in the water.
These trace amounts of iron affect the taste of the tea. The use of tea kettles made of
nontraditional materials that do not dissolve in water would therefore generally improve the
taste of the tea.

Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

(A) Some metals do not dissolve in boiling water.


(B) Iron from kettles is the only impunity that is found frequently in water used for tea.
(C) Trace amount of dissolved iron do not improve the taste of tea.
(D) A significant number of people would be willing to switch from iron tea kettles to tea
kettles made of nontraditional materials.
(E) Tea can be made without bringing the water to a boil.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:微量的铁会影响茶的味道。
结论:使用不溶于水的非传统材料制成的茶壶一般会提升茶的味道。

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在逻辑上,结论真正的样本应是“溶于水的铁会让茶的味道变差”,但现在的前提偷换了概念,
其只讲到了“铁会影响茶的味道”,而“影响”是一个中性的词,所以产生了偏差。由此可知,
答案选项应该修正偏差,即,这里前提中的“影响”就是“负面影响”。显然地,选项 C 明确的
指出了这一点,即,微量的铁元素不能提升茶的味道。

例题 3
Lightbox, Inc., owns almost all of the movie theaters in Washington County and has
announced plans to double the number of movie screens it has in the county within five years.
Yet attendance at Lightbox's theaters is only just large enough for profitability now and the
county's population is not expected to increase over the next ten years. Clearly, therefore, if
there is indeed no increase in population, Lightbox's new screens are unlikely to prove
profitable.

Which of the following, if true about Washington County, most seriously weakens the
argument?

(A) Though little change in the size of the population is expected, a pronounced shift toward
a younger, more affluent, and more entertainment-oriented population is expected to occur.
(B) The sales of snacks and drinks in its movie theaters account for more of Lightbox's profits
than ticket sales do.
(C) In selecting the mix of movies shown at its theaters, Lightbox's policy is to avoid those
that appeal to only a small segment of the moviegoing population.
(D) Spending on video purchases, as well as spending on video rentals, is currently no longer
increasing.
(E) There are no population centers in the county that are not already served by at least one
of the movie theaters that Lightbox owns and operates.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:Lightbox 影院的观众人数现在仅够盈利,而且该县的人口预计在未来十年内不会增加。
结论:Lightbox 的新屏幕无利可图。

在逻辑上,结论是建立在“观影人数不会增加”的基础上的,但前提进行了偷换概念,其只讲
了“人口不会增加”。显然人口不增加不等于观影人数不会增加。显然答案选项 A 指出了此处
偏差(选项 A 翻译:虽然人口规模预计没有什么变化,但预计会出现一个明显的转变,即向
更年轻、更富裕、更注重娱乐的人口转变)。

例题 4
Because visual inspection cannot reliably distinguish certain skin discolorations from skin
cancers, dermatologists at clinics have needed to perform tests of skin tissue taken from
patients. At Westville Hospital, dermatological diagnostic costs were reduced by the purchase
of a new imaging machine that diagnoses skin cancer in such cases as reliably as the tissue
tests do. Consequently, even though the machine is expensive, a dermatological clinic in
Westville is considering buying one to reduce diagnostic costs.

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Which of the following would it be most useful for the clinic to establish in order to make its
decision?

(A) Whether the visits of patients who require diagnosis of skin discolorations tend to be
shorter in duration at the clinic than at the hospital.
(B) Whether the principles on which the machine operates have been known to science for
a long time.
(C) Whether the machine at the clinic would get significantly less heavy use than the machine
at the hospital does.
(D) Whether in certain cases of skin discoloration, visual inspection is sufficient to make a
diagnosis of skin cancer.
(E) Whether hospitals in other parts of the country have purchased such imaging machines.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:在韦斯特维尔医院,由于购买了一台新的成像机器,皮肤病诊断费用减少。
结论:韦斯特维尔的一家皮肤病诊所正在考虑购买一台以降低诊断成本。

本题的前提和结论存在类比关系。因为诊所和医院本身是不同的,所以显然前提偷换了概念,
即,把“诊所”换成了“医院”。答案选项 C 考虑到了此处的偏差(选项 C 翻译:诊所的机器是
否比医院的机器得到的大量使用要少得多)。

草率结论(Hasty generalization)

即便不考虑前提是否存在样本偏差,归纳推理也依然存在其它的漏洞。既然前提可以被看作
是“抽样”,那自然就会存在样本量不足的问题。也就是说,由于抽出的样本数量不足,所以
结论可能过于“草率”,还需更多样本来证明。例如:
前提:小明学习成绩很好。
结论:小明所在的班级中所有同学的学习成绩都很好。
即便我们选取的小明的确是班里最有代表性的一员,上述推理也不是完美的。毕竟,班级里
可能人数很多,只给出一个样本确实略显“草率”。如果想指出“草率结论的谬误”,我们可以
说:
小李也在班级中,但小李的成绩不佳。
若想加强结论,我们可以说:
小李也在班级中,且小李的成绩也很好。

同理,更一般性地,如果我们把“前提这件事”近似看作是“结论这件事”的一个样本,那么“草
率结论”就是要求我们给出除掉前提之外更多的能影响结论的因素。依然以小明买书事件为
例:
前提:小明买了三本书。
结论:小明是热爱学习的。

除了“买书”之外,还有很多因素可以影响“热爱学习”,例如,小明会经常去向老师请教问题,

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

或者,小明经常参加学术会议等等。因此,如果我们能给出更多类似的样本,那么我们就可
以加强这个推理;反之,如果我们给出这样的样本不存在,那么就可以削弱这个推理。

综上,草率结论这一方向是要我们从选项中找出除前提外结论蕴含的另一个样本。此样本不
存在可以削弱推理;反之则可以加强推理。

例题 5
Many people suffer an allergic reaction to sulfites, including those that are commonly added
to wine as preservatives. However, since there are several winemakers producing wine to
which no sulfites are added, those who would like to drink wine but are allergic to sulfites can
drink these wines without risking an allergic reaction to sulfites.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

(A) Sulfites occur naturally in most wine.


(B) The sulfites that can produce an allergic reaction are also commonly found in beverages
other than wine.
(C) Wines without added sulfites tend to be at least moderately expensive.
(D) Apart from sulfites, there are other substances commonly present in wine that can trigger
allergic reactions.
(E) Wine without added sulfites sometimes becomes undrinkable even before the wine is
sold to consumers.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:酒里不添加硫化物。
结论:那些对硫化物过敏的人可以在不冒着对硫化物过敏的风险喝酒了。

结论受到所有可能使酒中混入硫化物的因素影响。所以,要想削弱这个推理,我们可以指出
另外一些混入硫化物的情况。例如,贮藏酒的桶里会渗入硫化物,或者,酒体发酵过程中会
自然产生硫化物等。显然选项 A 是正确的(选项 D 不正确是因为结论讲的是对硫化物过敏,
因此对其他物质过敏和推理无关)。

例题 6
Although automobile manufacturers in Brunia charge the same prices for automobiles as do
automobile manufacturers in the neighboring country of Corland and the tax structures of
the two countries are nearly identical, the hourly wage that Brunian automobile manufacturers
pay their employees is much lower. Therefore, unless automobile manufacturers in Brunia pay
substantially more for their raw materials, they make higher profits than do automobile
manufacturers in Corland.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

(A) Automobile manufacturers in Corland pay more for some raw materials than do
automobile manufacturers in Brunia.

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

(B) In Brunia but not in Corland, automobile manufacturers are required by law to pay their
employees health care costs in addition to their wages.
(C)In Corland but not in Brunia, most automobile manufacturers restrict their corporate
charitable donations to charities in the communities in which their plants are located.
(D) The number of automobiles owned per capita in Corland is significantly higher than the
number of automobiles owned per capita in Brunia.
(E) Corland imports more automobiles from Brunia than Brunia does from Corland.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:布鲁尼亚的汽车制造商与邻国科兰的汽车制造商收取相同的汽车价格,而且两国的税
收结构也几乎相同,但布鲁尼亚汽车制造商支付给员工的小时工资却低得多。
结论:除非布鲁尼亚的汽车制造商为他们的原材料支付更多的费用,否则他们的利润会比科
兰的汽车制造商高。

结论“总利润”是受到“总收入”和“总成本”的共同影响的。因为前提中只讲到了“总收入”和“一
部分成本”,所以答案选项可以给出另外一些成本以指出结论是草率的,样本不足的。选项
B 明确的指出了这一点,即,布鲁尼亚的汽车制造商还有一些额外的保险成本。

例题 7
Driving the steep road to the mountaintop Inca ruins of Machu Picchu is potentially
dangerous and hiking there is difficult. Now the Peruvian government is installing a cable car
that will make access much easier, and hence result in a large increase in tourism. However,
since the presence of large numbers of tourists tends to accelerate the deterioration of a site,
installation of the cable car is certain to result in harm to the ruins.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously calls into question the argument?

(A) The daily number of tourists that are expected to take the cable car to Machu Piccu is
smaller than the original resident population of Incas.
(B) The construction of the cable car terminal at Machu Picchu will require the use of
potentially damaging heavy machinery at the site.
(C) Machu Picchu is already one of the most popular tourist sites in Peru.
(D) Natural weathering will continue to be a more significant cause of the deterioration of
Machu Picchu than tourist traffic.
(E) The cable car will replace the tour buses whose large wheels and corrosive exhaust at
present do significant damage to the site.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:安装缆车将使交通更加便利,从而导致旅游业的大幅增长(人对遗址有伤害)。
结论:安装缆车肯定会导致对遗址的伤害。

结论是由“安装缆车对遗址的伤害”和“安装缆车对遗址的好处”这两个因素共同决定的(两者
的差值才是安装缆车这件事对遗址的总影响)。但是,前提中只讲到了安装缆车对遗址有伤
害,其会导致整个推理考虑不周,得出的结论过于草率。因此,答案选项可讲出“安装缆车

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

对遗址的好处”来削弱推理。选项 E 很明显的给出了这一点,即,缆车可以替代会对遗址带
来明显伤害的大巴车。

特异性谬误(Fallacy of specificity)

特异性谬误针对的是“结论”。它指的是结论讲的过于精确以至于其本身存在谬误。
例如:
前提:小明学习成绩很好。
结论:小明所在的班级中所有同学的学习成绩都很好。
即便我们选取的小明的确是班里较为普通的一员,且不讨论样本的数量是否不足,我们依然
可以认为该推理的结论过于“精确”。在上述例子中,若将结论改为“小明所在的班级中的一部
分同学的学习成绩很好”,那么显然会让这个推理更加有效。

同理,更一般地,对于前提事件是样本且结论事件是总体的推理来说,特异性谬误指的是该
样本可能同时被两个矛盾的“总体”蕴含。由此造成了原推理的结论太过于“精确”,不够“海纳
百川”,例如:
前提:小明买了三本书。
结论:小明是热爱学习的。

观察上述推理可知,除了“小明热爱学习”可以蕴含“小明买书”这一样本之外,“小明的妈妈让
小明帮她买书”也可以蕴含“小明买书”。而“小明热爱学习”和“小明的妈妈让小明帮她买书”是
矛盾的,这是因为后者没有默认小明热爱学习,而更可能默认的是他的妈妈热爱学习。在上
述例子中,若将结论改为“小明热爱学习或他的妈妈让他帮着买书”,那么显然会让这个推理
更加有效。

因此,特异性谬误这一方向是要我们从选项中找出一个与结论矛盾的且蕴含前提的事件。此
事件存在可以削弱推理;反之则可以加强推理。

例题 8
Because it was long thought that few people would watch lengthy televised political messages,
most televised political advertisements, like commercial advertisements, took the form of
short messages. Last year, however, one candidate produced a half-hour-long advertisement.
At the beginning of the half-hour slot a substantial portion of the viewing public had tuned
in to that station. Clearly, then, many more people are interested in lengthy televised political
messages than was previously thought.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

(A) The candidate who produced the half-hour-long advertisement did not win election at
the polls.
(B) The half-hour-long advertisement was widely publicized before it was broadcast.
(C) The half-hour-long advertisement was aired during a time slot normally taken by one of

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

the most popular prime-time shows.


(D) Most short political advertisements are aired during a wide range of programs in order
to reach a broad spectrum of viewers.
(E) In general a regular-length television program that features debate about current
political issues depends for its appeal on the personal qualities of the program's
moderator.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:在电视政治广告的开始,有很多人调进了这个台。
结论:很多人还是喜欢看电视政治广告的。

在逻辑上,想削弱这个推理,可以指出另一个蕴含前提的事件。例如,可能有人拿枪逼着那
些人看该电视台,或者,有人许以重金诱惑那些人看该电视台。这两个事件均可以导致很多
人调进该电视台。显然选项 C 是正确的,即,可能是那些人被骗了,以为是会播出其它受人
欢迎的节目而调进了该台。

例题 9
Because ethylene dibromide, a chemical used to fumigate grain, was blamed for the high rate
of nerve damage suffered by people who work in grain-processing plants, many such plants
switched to other chemical fumigants two years ago. Since then, however, the percentage of
workers at these plants who were newly diagnosed with nerve damage has not dropped
significantly. Therefore, either ethylene dibromide was wrongly blamed or else the new
chemicals also cause nerve damage.

Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

(A) If the new chemicals cause nerve damage, the nerve damage caused would be different
from any nerve damage that ethylene dibromide may cause.
(B) There are no chemical fumigants that are completely safe for workers in grain-processing
plants.
(C) If ethylene dibromide causes nerve damage, it does not take two years or longer for that
damage to become detectable.
(D) Workers at grain-processing plants typically continue to work there even after being
diagnosed with nerve damage.
(E) Workers at grain-processing plants that still use ethylene dibromide continue to have a
high rate of nerve damage.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:这些工厂中新诊断为神经损伤的工人比例并没有明显下降。
结论:要么二溴乙烷被错误地指责,要么新的化学品也会造成神经损伤。

在逻辑上,想加强这个推理,可以指出另一个蕴含前提的事件,即,指出另外一个可能会到
导致“这些工厂中新诊断为神经损伤的工人比例并没有明显下降”的事件不存在。例如,答案
选项 C 讲的是“如果二溴乙烷导致神经损伤,这种损伤不需要两年或更长的时间就可以检测

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出来”。这个选项给出了另一个可能会导致诊断出损伤的比例依然不变的原因不存在,即,
是因为之前的损伤造成的,而不是二溴乙烷或者新的化学品的问题。

一般型归纳推理解题方式总结

总结解题方式以前,我们需要首先明确一般型归纳推理的三个谬误方向的区别。

第一,样本偏差是更加针对推理文段中的前提的谬误方向。它要求我们找到“已知前提”和“结
论真正的样本”之间的偏差。因此,它关心的是前提部分,也就是“前提事件究竟是不是影响
结论事件的因素”。

第二,草率结论既不针对“已知前提”,也不针对结论,它是在考虑“样本数量”是否足够。因
此,它要求我们给出结论蕴含的更多样本。

第三,特异性谬误是更加针对推理文段的结论的谬误方向。它要求我们找出一个虽然和结论
矛盾却也能蕴含“已知前提”的事件。因此,它更关心的是结论部分,也就是“有没有除掉结论
外的其它事件也能蕴含同样的前提”。

用我们熟悉的“生产线”抽样调查为例,假设我们抽取了前三件产品,发现其中 2 个良品,1
个次品。之后我们得出结论,整条生产线上(100 件产品)的良品率也是 66.7%。这个推理
同时存在三个谬误方向。

首先,前三件产品可能会出现样本偏差,也许它们刚好是做的比较认真的三个。因此,一个
相对好的取样方法应是随机选取三件。

其次,样本数量可能太小了,这会导致通过这些样本得到的结论可能过于草率。因此,如果
我们能抽取 30 件产品检测,那么我们就会得到更可靠的结论。

最后,结论本身也太过“特异”。一个极端情况是,即便良品率只有 2%(总共只有 2 个良品且


都在前三个产品中),也可能会出现和前提相同的情况,即,前三个产品中有 2 个良品和 1
个次品。因此,一个更好的结论是“整条生产线上(100 件产品)的良品率可能是 66.7%”,或
者说的再宽泛一些,即,“整条生产线上(100 件产品)的良品率是 2%至 99%”。

用更贴近实战考题的情况举例:
前提:A 地有布料。
结论:A 地会着火。

样本偏差:着火的一个样本(必要条件)是要具备可燃物,但已知前提只讲了“布料”。要知
道,布料也可以是阻燃布。因此,该推理存在样本偏差的谬误。如果想加强这个推理,那么
我们需要指出“此处的布料不是阻燃布”。

草率结论:想让 A 地着火,除了可燃物之外,还要有火源和助燃气体。显然地,火源和助燃
气体也是结论蕴含的样本。如果想加强这个推理,那么我们可以给出更多的“样本”,例如“A

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地也存在火源”。

特异性谬误:显然并非所有存在布料的地方都会着火,所以这个结论本身存在特异性谬误。
如果想加强这个推理,那么我们可以给出另外一些不着火但有布料的地方(和结论矛盾且蕴
含前提)
,例如,很多年来,B 地存放了大量的布料,但这个地方从没着过火。

当拿到一道一般型归纳推理的考题时,请尽量按照如下步骤解题:
(1) 正确区分与提炼前提和结论。
(2) 按照样本偏差(Biased sample),草率结论(Hasty generalization),和特异性谬误(Fallacy
of specificity)这三个评估方向来思考答案选项可能的方向。
(3) 逐一阅读选项并检查其是否符合三个方向之一。

例题 10
Every fall Croton's jays migrate south. The jays always join flocks of migrating crookbeaks with
which they share the same summer and winter territories. If a jay becomes separated from
the crookbeaks it is accompanying, it wanders until it comes across another flock of
crookbeaks. Clearly, therefore, Croton's jays lack the navigational ability to find their way
south on their own.

Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument above?

(A) Croton's jays lay their eggs in the nests of crookbeaks, which breed upon completing
their southern migration.
(B) The three species most closely related to crookbeaks do not migrate at all.
(C) In the spring, Croton's jays migrate north in the company of Tattersall warblers.
(D) Species other than Croton's jays occasionally accompany flocks of migrating crookbeaks.
(E) In the spring, crookbeaks migrate north before Croton's jays do.

情景:Croton's jays 是一种需要迁徙的鸟。这种鸟的迁徙通常是和另外一种鸟同时发生的,


如果一只 Croton's jays 掉队了,那么它就会等下一波鸟来了之后再走。因此,我们认为
Croton's jays 这种鸟是没有方向感的。

推理:推理文段的前提和结论描述的事件不同,是一般型归纳推理。
前提:如果一只 Croton's jays 掉队了,那么它就会等下一波鸟来了之后再走。
结论:Croton's jays 这种鸟是没有方向感的。

思考方向(加强):
1) 不存在样本偏差:本题中结论是蕴含前提的,也就是说,前提是结论的一个好样本,如
果“Croton's jays 真的没有方向感”,那么“它肯定要跟着其他鸟一起迁徙”。
2) 不存在草率结论:给出结论蕴含的其他样本,例如 Croton's jays 还有其他的一些没有方
向感的表现。
3) 不存在特异性谬误:另外一些和结论矛盾但能蕴含前提的事件是不存在的。例如,Croton's
jays 不是因为其他原因跟着 crookbeaks 一起迁徙的。

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选项分析:
(A) Croton's jays 会在 Crookbeak 的鸟巢中下蛋,Crookbeak 会在向南迁徙的过程中孵化
这些蛋。本选项可以解释为什么 Croton's jays 会跟着 Crookbeak 前行,即,是因为要向
Crookbeak 这种鸟的巢里下蛋,所以才会选择跟着 Crookbeak 迁徙。本选项属于指出了推理
文段的特异性谬误,可以削弱推理文段。
(B) 和 Crookbeak 最相近的三个种类的鸟从来不迁徙。本选项即不能解释为什么 Croton's
jays 会跟随迁徙,又不是结论蕴含的其他样本,可以排除。
(C) Correct. 在春季,Croton's jays 会随着塔特萨尔莺的队伍向北迁徙。本选项提及了结
论蕴含的另一个样本,即,如果 Croton's jays 真的没有方向感,那么它向哪里迁徙都要跟着
其它鸟类。
(D) 除掉 Croton's jays,其他种类的鸟很少和 Crookbeak 一起成群迁徙。本选项不属于任
意一个思考方向。
(E) 在春天,Crookbeak 会先于 Croton's jays 向北迁徙。Croton's jays 不跟着 crookbeak 不
代表它不跟着其它鸟走,因此本选项无法评估推理。

第三节:因果型归纳推理

前提讲两个事件存在正相关或负相关的关系并且结论把这两个事件解读为因果关系的推理
是因果型归纳推理,例如:
前提:在事件 A 出现的时候,事件 B 也会出现。
结论:事件 A 导致事件 B。

因果型归纳推理也有三个可能的谬误方向,分别为:
纯粹巧合(Sheer coincidence)
因果倒置(Which is the cause and which is the effect)
它因导致结果(Other potential causes)

纯粹巧合(Sheer coincidence)

纯粹巧合(Sheer coincidence)指的是:事件 A 和事件 B 在其它的情况下可能不再具有正相


关或负相关的关系,或者事件 A 和事件 B 之间不存在因果的原理,只是纯粹的在时间或空
间上巧合罢了。例如:
前提:凡是考 GMAT 的人都聪明。
结论:考 GMAT 导致聪明。

上例中,“考 GMAT”和“聪明”在前提中同时出现,在结论中呈现因果关系。若想削弱该推理,
我们可以说:
(1) 在美国,考 GMAT 的人的智商和普通人相差无几。
(2) GMAT 只是一个考试,它不会改变人脑的生理结构。

这两个说法均属于指出“考 GMAT”和“聪明”是纯粹巧合的。句(1)是“事件 A 和事件 B 在其它


的情况下可能不再具有正相关或负相关的关系”;句(2)是“事件 A 和事件 B 之间不存在因果

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的原理”。

同理,若题目问加强或假设,则我们可以说:
(3) 在美国,考 GMAT 的人的智商比普通人平均高 20 点。
(4) 备考 GMAT 的过程可以改变人脑的生理结构。

例题 11
Industrial emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) impede cloud formation, lowering temperatures
in regions with high SO2 emissions. Computer modeling suggests that beginning about 1950,
the climate of North America and Europe cooled because of SO2 emissions there, and that
this cooling in turn caused the tropical rain belt to move southward, away from Africa’s Sahel
region. Therefore, industrial emissions in Europe and North America were probably a major
cause of the severe Sahel droughts of the 1970s and 1980s.

Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the position argued in the passage?

(A) During the 1970s and 1980s, industrial SO2 emissions increased rapidly in East Asia.
(B) The effects of the Sahel drought on the local food supply were exacerbated by
overgrazing of pasture that could recover less quickly in the arid conditions.
(C) The Sahel region is subject to a natural cycle of droughts, with which the severe Sahel
droughts of the 1970s and 1980s coincided.
(D) Since 1950, many of the industrial emissions in North America and Europe have been of
substances other than SO2 that tend to cause temperatures to increase.
(E) Rainfall in the Sahel increased following a decline in North American SO2 emissions that
began in the late 1980s.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:大约从 1950 年开始,北美和欧洲的气候因为 SO2 的排放而变冷,这种变冷反过来导
致热带雨带向南移动,远离非洲的萨赫勒地区(萨赫勒地区气候干旱)。
结论:欧洲和北美的工业排放可能是 1970 年代和 1980 年代萨赫勒严重干旱的主要原因。

要想加强这个推理,我们可以说“工业排放”和“严重干旱”不是纯粹巧合的。选项 E 就很好的
符合了这一点,它指出,当 SO2 下降后,降雨量会增加(不干旱)。另外,选项 C 属于“它
因导致结果”,但其是用来削弱推理而非加强推理的。

因果倒置(Which is the cause and which is the effect)

因果倒置(Which is the cause and which is the effect)指的是:也许是事件 B 导致的事件


A,而非事件 A 导致的事件 B。例如:
前提:凡是考 GMAT 的人都聪明。
结论:考 GMAT 导致聪明。

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若想削弱该推理,我们可以说:
是那些本身就聪明的人才会去考 GMAT。
反之,若想加强,我们可以说:
不会是那些本身就聪明的人才去考 GMAT。

例题 12
A study followed a group of teenagers who had never smoked and tracked whether they took
up smoking and how their mental health changed. After one year, the incidence of
depression among those who had taken up smoking was four times as high as it was among
those who had not. Since nicotine in cigarettes changes brain chemistry, perhaps thereby
affecting mood, it is likely that smoking contributes to depression in teenagers.

Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

(A) Participants who were depressed at the start of the study were no more likely to be
smokers after one year than those who were not depressed.
(B) The study did not distinguish between participants who smoked only occasionally and
those who were heavy smokers.
(C) Few, if any, of the participants in the study were friends or relatives of other participants.
(D) Some participants entered and emerged from a period of depression within the year of
the study.
(E) The researchers did not track use of alcohol by the teenagers.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:凡是“吸烟”的人都更容易“抑郁”(“吸烟”和“抑郁”之间存在正相关关系)。
结论:吸烟导致抑郁。

要想加强这个推理,我们可以说:不会是抑郁的人都更容易抽烟。显然地,选项 A 很好的体
现了这一点。

它因导致结果(Other potential causes)

它因导致结果(Other potential causes)指的是:也许存在另一个因素事件 C 导致了事件 B


的发生,又或者,这个事件 C 同时导致了事件 A 和事件 B 的发生(请注意,此时的事件 C
应和事件 A 矛盾)。例如:
前提:凡是考 GMAT 的人都聪明。
结论:考 GMAT 导致聪明。

若想削弱该推理,我们可以说:
考 GMAT 的人都经常吃脑黄金,而这个东西是可以提高智力水平的。
反之,若想加强,我们可以说:
考 GMAT 的人不会经常吃可以提高智力水平的脑黄金。

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例题 13
Science journalist: A study led by Dr. Elaine Hardman shows that consuming walnuts reduces
the risk of breast cancer in at least some types of mice. The study compared the effects of a
typical diet and a diet containing walnuts. During the study period, the group whose diet
included walnuts developed breast cancer at less than half the rate of the typical-diet group.
In addition, the number and sizes of tumors were significantly smaller.

Which of the following would, if true, most undermine the journalist's reasoning?

(A) The mice used in the study received the walnuts directly as food and indirectly through
their mothers when they were in utero and while they were nursing.
(B) The amount of walnuts in the daily test diet equates to about two human servings of
walnuts.
(C) Walnuts contain multiple ingredients that, individually, have been shown in other studies
to reduce the risk of cancer or slow its growth.
(D) In the study’s mice, the walnut-containing diet changed the activity of multiple genes
that are relevant to breast cancer in both mice and humans.
(E) To keep total dietary fat balanced in the mouse groups, unhealthy fats that lower
resistance to disease were reduced by an amount equal to the amount of healthy fats
added by the walnuts.

上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:饮食中包含核桃的小组患乳腺癌的比例不到普通饮食小组的一半。
结论:食用核桃至少可以降低某些类型的小鼠患乳腺癌的风险。

要想削弱这个推理,我们可以说:同时存在另一个可以降低小鼠患乳腺癌的风险的原因。选
项 E 很好的指出了这一点,即,可能是不健康的脂肪被减少导致小鼠的乳腺癌风险下降,而
不是食用核桃。

第四节:方案型归纳推理

前提和结论给出明确的目标和方案的归纳推理是方案型归纳推理。例如:
目标:为了考到 750 分。
方案:我决定每天学习 5 小时。

方案型归纳推理有两个可能的谬误方向,分别为:
(1) 方案难以达成目标
(2) 方案本身实施困难

例如,若想削弱上文给出的方案,我们可以说:
能考到多少分主要由能力和学习效率决定,与学习时间关系不大。

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

这是典型的“方案难以达成目标”方向。也就是说,只要我们能说出方案做了也不一定能达到
目标,就可以削弱方案型归纳推理;反之,则可以加强该推理。

又例如,若想削弱上文给出的方案,我们还可以说:
我每天工作很忙,无论如何也无法抽出 5 小时来学习。

这是典型的“方案本身实施困难”方向。也就是说,只要我们能说出方案本身难以实施,就可
以削弱方案型归纳推理;反之,则可以加强该推理。

例题 14
Trancorp currently transports all its goods to Burland Island by truck. The only bridge over
the channel separating Burland from the mainland is congested, and trucks typically spend
hours in traffic. Trains can reach the channel more quickly than trucks, and freight cars can
be transported to Burland by barges that typically cross the channel in an hour. Therefore,
to reduce shipping time, Trancorp plans to switch to trains and barges to transport goods to
Burland.

Which of the following, if true, casts most serious doubt on whether Trancorp's plan will
succeed?

(A) It does not cost significantly more to transport goods to Burland by truck than it does to
transport goods by train and barge.
(B) The number of cars traveling over the bridge into Burland is likely to increase slightly
over the next two years.
(C) Because there has been so much traffic on the roads leading to the bridge between
Burland and the mainland, these roads are in extremely poor condition.
(D) Barges that arrive at Burland typically wait several hours for their turn to be unloaded.
(E) Most trucks transporting goods into Burland return to the mainland empty.

情景:Trancorp 现在都是用卡车向 Burland 运输物资。现在发现火车和驳船运输的速度要比


卡车更快。因为,为了减少运输时间,Trancorp 打算用火车和驳船来向 Burland 运输物资。
推理结构:
目标:To reduce shipping time
方案:Trancorp plans to switch to trains and barges to transport goods to Burland
思考方向:方案无法达成目标或方案无法操作。

选项分析:
(A) 用汽车送货到 Burland 不会显著的比用火车或者驳船送货到 Burland 贵。成本如何不
一定会导致方案直接“无法操作”。
(B) 在未来的两年内,通过到达 Burland 的桥来到达 Burland 的汽车数量将会上升。汽车
数量上升和方案无关。
(C) 因为有太多的汽车走大桥了,所以那些路的状况都很差。本选项解释了汽车为什么会速
度慢,但是和方案无关。
(D) Correct. 到达 Burland 的驳船需要等很长的一段时间来卸货。如果本选项成立,则方案

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

将无法达成“减少运输时间”的目标。
(E) 大部分的送货到 Burland 的汽车都会空车返回。汽车是否会空车返回和方案无关,可以
排除。

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

第四章:特殊问法解法

特殊问法主要可以分为两类—解释题和黑脸题。

第一节:解释题

顾名思义,解释题就是让我们解释一个现象或者一个观点。这类考题和演绎推理的原理基本
相同。答案选项相当于要求我们找到一个可以蕴含该现象或者观点的选项。从解题角度来说,
我们一定要抓准要解释的现象或观点,时刻不要偏离它们即可。

例题 1
The number of applications for teaching positions in Newtown's public schools was 5.7
percent lower in 1993 than in 1985 and 5.9 percent lower in 1994 than in 1985. Despite a
steadily growing student population and an increasing number of teacher resignations,
however, Newtown does not face a teacher shortage in the late 1990's.

Which of the following, if true, would contribute most to an explanation of the apparent
discrepancy above?

(A) Many of Newtown's public school students do not graduate from high school.
(B) New housing developments planned for Newtown are slated for occupancy in 1997 and
are expected to increase the number of elementary school students in Newtown's public
schools by 12 percent.
(C) The Newtown school board does not contemplate increasing the ratio of students to
teachers in the 1990's.
(D) Teachers' colleges in and near Newtown produced fewer graduates in 1994 than in 1993.
(E) In 1993 Newtown's public schools received 40 percent more applications for teaching
positions than there were positions available.

情景:1993 年应聘教师的人数比 1985 年下降了 5.7%,1994 年应聘教师的人数比 1985 年下


降了 5.9%,且学生数量和老师辞职数量都在上升,但是,Newtown 居然没有碰到教师短缺
的现象。

推理:推理文段属于“A, however, 非 B”型,直接选择可以解释文中现象的选项即可。

选项分析:
(A) 许多 Newtown 的公立学校的学生都没有从高中毕业。如果学生没毕业,那应该更缺乏
老师,无法解释为什么不缺老师。
(B) Newtown 的新的住房在 1997 年会被安排入住并且被期望能给 Newtown 的公立小学
带来 12%的学生数量的增长。如果学生数量还在上升,那么 Newtown 的老师短缺现象就更
加严重了。
(C) Newtown 学校的管理层没有周密考虑在 90 年代上涨的学生与老师的比例。无论学校
的管理层是否有考虑老师短缺的问题,都不会影响老师是否真正的短缺。

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

(D) 1994 年在 Newtown 内的和邻近 Newtown 的师范学校的毕业生少于 1993 年的。本选


项解释了为什么 1994 年应聘老师比 1993 年应聘老师要少,但是无法解释为何不缺老师。
(E) Correct. 1993 年 Newtown 的公立学校收到的应聘者数量超过了应有职位数量的 40%。
若 1993 年收到的应聘者数量比待聘职位的数量多了很多,那么这证明 1993 年教师数量是
供过于求的,自然 Newtown 在 90 年代末期也就不一定缺乏教师。

第二节:黑脸题

句子作用题,俗称“黑脸题”,是 GMAT 批判性推理考题中较为特殊的一类。其推理文段通常


较其他题型更长,其中会有一句或者两句加黑加粗。所有这类考题的问法均类似,即(若有
两个黑体部分)
In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?

那么,什么叫“作用”呢?简单地说,作用的意思是加黑加粗的部分在一个推理中扮演什么样
的角色。例如:
Hunter: Many people blame hunters alone for the decline in Greenrock National Forest's deer
population over the past ten years. Yet clearly, black bears have also played an important
role in this decline. In the past ten years, the forest's protected black bear population has
risen sharply, and examination of black bears found dead in the forest during the deer hunting
season showed that a number of them had recently fed on deer.

In the hunter's argument, the portion in boldface plays which of the following roles?

(A) It is the main conclusion of the argument.


(B) It is a finding that the argument seeks to explain.
(C) It is a correct explanation that the argument concludes.
(D) It provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument.
(E) It introduces a judgment that the argument opposes.

解决黑脸题时,要抓住两个要素:
1. 通读整个文段,判断文段的主结论;确定主结论后,判断黑体部分和主结论的关系。通常
来说,黑体部分和主结论的关系有四种,分别为,和主结论一致,和主结论矛盾,和主结论
无关,和本身就是主结论。
2. 看选项时,不要过分关注那些抽象名词的意思(例如选项 B 中的 finding 和选项 C 中的
evidence 等),要把关注点放在这些抽象名词身后的定语从句上。那些定语从句真正揭示了
黑脸部分的作用。

例题 2:
Hunter: Many people blame hunters alone for the decline in Greenrock National Forest's deer
population over the past ten years. Yet clearly, black bears have also played an important
role in this decline. In the past ten years, the forest's protected black bear population has
risen sharply, and examination of black bears found dead in the forest during the deer hunting
season showed that a number of them had recently fed on deer.

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

In the hunter's argument, the portion in boldface plays which of the following roles?

(A) It is the main conclusion of the argument.


(B) It is a finding that the argument seeks to explain.
(C) It is a correct explanation that the argument concludes.
(D) It provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument.
(E) It introduces a judgment that the argument opposes.

1. 确定文段的主结论并判断黑体部分与主结论的关系。
本文段的主结论为:black bears have also played an important role in this decline.
黑体句本身就是是该主结论。

2. 选项分析
(A) Correct. 它是推理文段的主结论。
(B) 它是一个推理文段寻求解释的发现。推理文段没有尝试去解释这个黑体字部分,而是在
反驳该黑体字部分,排除。
(C) 它是一个推理文段总结下来正确的解释。推理文段不同意这个黑体字部分所述的观点,
排除。
(D) 它给出了一个支持推理文段主结论的证据。黑体字部分不是一个证据,而是一个有待验
证的判断,排除。
(E) 它提出了一个推理文段反对的判断。黑体字部分本身就是主结论。

例题 3
As a large corporation in a small country, Hachnut wants its managers to have international
experience, so each year it sponsors management education abroad for its management
trainees. Hachnut has found, however, that the attrition rate of graduates from this program
is very high, with many of them leaving Hachnut to join competing firms soon after
completing the program. Hachnut does use performance during the program as a criterion
in deciding among candidates for management positions, but both this function and the
goal of providing international experience could be achieved in other ways. Therefore, if
the attrition problem cannot be successfully addressed, Hachnut should discontinue the
sponsorship program.

In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?

(A) The first describes a practice that the argument seeks to justify; the second states a
judgment that is used in support of a justification for that practice.
(B) The first describes a practice that the argument seeks to explain; the second presents
part of the argument's explanation of that practice.
(C) The first introduces a practice that the argument seeks to evaluate; the second provides
grounds for holding that the practice cannot achieve its objective.
(D) The first introduces a policy that the argument seeks to evaluate; the second provides
grounds for holding that the policy is not needed.

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GMAT 逻辑指南 毕出 GMAT

(E) The first introduces a consideration supporting a policy that the argument seeks to
evaluate; the second provides evidence for concluding that the policy should be
abandoned.

1. 确定文段的主结论并判断黑体部分与主结论的关系。
本文段的主结论为:if the attrition problem cannot be successfully addressed, Hachnut should
discontinue the sponsorship program.
第一个黑体句算是背景,它给出的方案是主结论不同意的,即,和主结论矛盾;第二个黑体
句在支持主结论,及,和主结论方向一致。

选项分析:
(A) 第一个黑体字描述了一个论证试图去证明的方案;第二个黑体字描述了一个用来支持
那方案的证明的判断。第一个黑体字描述的方案是论证不支持的。
(B) 第一个黑体字描述了一个论证试图去解释的方案;第二个黑体字给出了一部分论证对
于这个方案的解释。第一个黑体字描述的方案是论证不支持的。
(C) 第一个黑体字描述了一个论证试图去评估的方案;第二个黑体字认为这个方案不能达
成它的目的。第二个黑体字并不是说现有方案不能达成目标,而是说有替代方案可以备选。
(D) Correct. 第一个黑体字描述了一个论证试图去评估的方案;第二个黑体认为这个方案是
不需要的。
(E) 第一个黑体字给出了一个对论证试图去评估的方针的支持;第二个黑体字提出了这个
方案应该被废除的证据。第一个黑体字本身就是一个方案,不是对方案的支持。

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