AKRONG MAXWELL MARTEY

11254263
18TH DECEMBER 2023.

AN ASSIGNMENT ON STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION AND SYMMETRY

Stereographic projections
1. Introduction
The stereographic projection is a projection of points from the surface of a sphere on to its
equatorial plane. The projection is defined as shown in Fig.1. If any point P on the surface of the
sphere is joined to the south pole S and the line PS cuts the equatorial plane at p, then p is the
stereographic projection of P. The importance of the stereographic projection in crystallography
derives from the fact that a set of points on the surface of the sphere provides a complete
representation of a set of directions in three-dimensional space, the directions being the set of
lines from the center of the sphere to the set of points. The stereographic projection of these
points is then, for many purposes, the best way of representing on a plane piece of paper the
inter-relationship of a set of directions. A common application is that of representing the angles
between the faces of a crystal, and the symmetry relations between them. Another common
application is representing strike and dip of planar features (e.g., beds, veins, faults).

On a “well-formed” crystal all the faces that are related to one another by the symmetry of the
crystal structure are developed to an equal extent, and the shape of the crystal therefore reveals
its true symmetry. However, real crystals are very rarely well-formed in this way; accidents of
crystal growth such as unequal access of the crystallizing liquid, or interference by adjacent
crystals or other objects, may have impeded the growth of the crystal in certain directions in such
a way as to mask the true symmetry. However these accidents do not affect the angles between
the faces--only their relative sizes. This was first recognized by Nicholas Steno. If the crystal is

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imagined to lie within a sphere that is centered on some arbitrary point inside the crystal, then
lines drawn normal to the faces can be constructed from this point and extended to intersect the
sphere (Fig.2). The point where the normal to a face cuts the sphere is called the pole of the face.
These points of intersection with the sphere (poles) represent the faces of the crystal in terms of
direction, entirely uninfluenced by their relative sizes. A plane drawn tangent to the sphere at the
pole is parallel to the face of the crystal within the sphere. The symmetry of the arrangement of
these points on the surface of the sphere reveals the true symmetry of the crystal, whether or not
the crystal is well-formed. This symmetry can then also be recognized in the stereographic
projection of these points (poles).
Since the angle between the two faces of a crystal is conventionally defined as the angle
between their normals, it is equivalent to the (angular) great circle distance between their poles.
The stereonet will be very useful in helping to visualize and quantify these relations.
A point on the southern hemisphere projects to a point outside the equator, and as such a point
approaches the S-pole its projection recedes to infinity. For many purposes it is convenient to
represent the whole sphere within the equator, and this can be done if points in the southern
hemisphere are projected to the N-pole instead of the S-pole. It is then usual to distinguish such
points by marking those projected to the S-pole as x and those projected to the N-pole as ●.
2. The properties of the Stereographic Projection
There is, of course, a variety of different projections of the sphere on to a plane that could be
used to represent the angular relations between the poles of the faces of a crystal. However, what
makes the stereographic projection pre-eminently suitable for this purpose is the fact that it
projects any circle on the sphere into a circle on the projection (although in some cases this circle
becomes of infinite radius, i.e. a straight line). Circles are much easier to deal with than other
geometric forms, such as ellipses.
It is evident from Fig.1 that if P were to lie on the equator of the sphere then p would
coincide with it. In other words the equator coincides with its own projection. The circle on the
stereographic projection which represents the equator of the sphere plays an important role and is
called the primitive of the projection. Angular distances round the equator on the sphere
obviously project to identical angular distances round the primitive. It is also clear from Fig.1
that the north pole of the sphere projects to the center of the primitive. Figure 3 shows that a
meridian (equivalent to a line of longitude on a globe) of the sphere projects to a diameter of the
primitive (Fig. 3a: this is the case where the projection is a circle of infinite radius), and a circle
of latitude on the northern hemisphere projects to a circle concentric with the primitive and
inside it (Fig. 3b). If the circle of latitude were in the southern hemisphere it would project to a
concentric circle outside the primitive.

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 The equator and a meridian are special kinds of great circles on the sphere. Now consider a
great circle that is randomly oriented in the sphere. Such a great circle in a general position is
shown in Fig. 4. Note that exactly half of such a circle is above the equator and half is below it.
The half above it will project onto the equatorial plane within the sphere, but the half below the
equator will project onto the equatorial plane outside the sphere. It should be clear that the
stereographic projection of any great circle other than the equator will be a circle of radius
greater than that of the primitive. Further, that projection intersects the equator in two points at
opposite ends of a diameter of the primitive. As the tilt on any great circle increases (i.e., as the
great circle approaches a meridian), the diameter of the projection becomes even larger. When
the meridian is reached, the projection is essentially a circle of infinite diameter, and the small
portion of the circle that is within the sphere becomes a straight line (i.e., a diameter in the
equatorial plane).
For some purposes it is necessary to consider the whole circle, but for most purposes it is
more convenient to project the half-circle in the southern hemisphere to the north pole so as to
confine the projection within the primitive. When this is done, the complete representation of the
great circle consists of two arcs of larger radius than the equator symmetrically related across a
diameter of the primitive as shown in Fig. 5.

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 The equator and circles of latitude are of course centered at the north pole, and their
projections are also centered at the projection of the north pole, that is, at the center of the
primitive. However this is the only case in which the projection of the center of a circle coincides
with the center of the projection of the circle. This is evident for great circles from Fig. 4; that it
is also true for small circles and that will be evident from Section 3(iv) below.
3. Geometrical Construction of Stereographic Projections
There are four important constructions that can be done very easily on the stereographic
projection with the aid of a ruler, compass and protractor.
(i) To plot the projection of a point P at a given angle 2 from the N-pole (note that we do not
know the rotational angular relation between P and the N-pole). Consider a meridional section of
the sphere through the point P as in Fig.6 (left). The point P can be inserted (using the protractor)
and joined to S. It cuts the equatorial section at p. Because we do not know the rotational angular
relation, a circle of radius Op can then be transferred to the projection (Fig. 6 right) and this
circle describes the projections of all points at 2 from the N-pole.

(ii) To plot the projection of the opposite of a given point: On the meridional section of the
sphere through the point P (Fig. 7 left) it is easy to join P to the center and extend it to the
opposite point Q (its antipodes). The projection of Q to the S-pole then gives its projection q at a
distance Oq from the center. If p has already been plotted on the stereograph (Fig. 7 right) then it
can be joined to the center O and this line continued a distance Oq transferred from Fig. 7 (left).
One can easily see that as the position of P approaches the N-pole (and as Q approaches the S-
pole), the projection will become very unwieldy. This is why we generally plot points in the
upper half of the hemisphere as projected to the S-pole and points in the lower half of the
hemisphere as projected to the N-pole.
For the following construction (iii) we shall require the opposite of P projected to the S-pole
in this way. However, if, for other purposes, we require to project the opposite of P to the N-pole
then the procedure is very simple; on this convention q’ is simply obtained by joining p to the
center of the stereogram and continuing this line for an equal distance beyond the center to make
Oq’=Op as in Fig. 8.

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(iii) To draw the projection of a great circle through any two points. This will be useful in
determining the angular relationship between crystal faces (see below). Let the projections of the
two points P and R be p and r (Fig. 9). Since every great circle through any point passes through
the opposite (antipode) of that point, the great circle through P and R must pass through Q, the
opposite of P. Thus the required projection is the circle through pqr, and q is found by means of
construction (ii). The center of this circle is at the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of pr
and pq, and the circle can therefore be drawn
(iv) To draw the projection of a small circle of radius 2 from a given point. Such a circle is the
locus of all points at an angular distance from the given point P, and is therefore very useful
when we wish to plot a point at some specified angle from another point. Consider the
meridional section of the sphere through P (Fig.10 left). Mark off two points, A and B at angular
distances 2 at each side of P. Join A, B and P to S-pole to find their projections a, b and p.
Transfer to the stereogram distances ap and bp along the diameter through p.Then a and b
obviously lie on the required circle and its center must be the mid-point of ab. The circle can
therefore be drawn directly (Fig. 10 right)

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 It is commonly required to find a point at a given angle from p and at some other given
angle from q. Such a point is at the intersection of the two corresponding small circles. There are
of course two such points of intersection, but there will usually be some qualitative reason to
show which of these two points is the one required.
All the four procedures described above have involved a subsidiary drawing of a meridional
section of the sphere; the actual construction has been performed on this section, and appropriate
measurements have been transferred from it to the stereogram itself. This use of a subsidiary
drawing is helpful in clarifying the principles involved, but it is not necessary in practice. If the
meridional section is imagined to be rotated by 90° about its equatorial diameter then it coincides
with the plane of the stereogram, so that the construction lines can be drawn on the stereogram
itself. If they are erased afterwards then the same result is obtained directly without having to
transfer a measurement. This way of carrying out construction (ii) is shown by broken lines in
Fig. 8, and the method is equally applicable to all the constructions.
4. The Use of Stereographic Nets
Stereographic projections of the highest accuracy are obtained by the constructions described
in the previous section, and they have been described first because they lead to an understanding
of the principles involved. However, it is often more convenient to prepare stereograms with the
help of stereographic nets and, although the accuracy obtained is usually lower, it is sufficient for
most purposes.

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 A stereographic net is simply a stereographic projection of the lines of latitude and longitude
of a sphere on to a central plane. The most obvious form of stereographic net is shown in Fig. 11.
The N-pole projects to the center as discussed in Section 1, the lines of latitude project to a set of
concentric circles, and the lines of longitude to a set of diameters of the primitive. Such a net, if
graduated sufficiently finely, could be used directly to obtain the same results as constructions (i)
and (iv) of Section 3. However, other nets are possible and, as we will see, more generally
useful. If we imagine a terrestrial globe tilted over as shown in Fig. 12a, and we project all points
on it, not to the geographical S-pole but to the lowest point of the sphere, then the projection of
the lines of the latitude and longitude would be as shown in Fig. 12b. We shall revert to this idea
in Section 5, but the most generally useful result is if we tilt the globe right over so that its N-S
axis is horizontal. The projection is then as shown in Fig. 12c. It is equivalent to what we would
have obtained by projecting to its S-pole; a globe that was inscribed with lines of latitude and
longitude referred to as ‘east pole’ and ‘west pole’. This is the Wulff net, and is so generally
useful that is commonly referred to as the stereographic net.

A commercially available Wulff net graduated in 2° intervals is shown on the next page. On
this figure all the (nearly) vertical lines represent great circles, and all the (nearly) horizontal
lines represent small circles round a point on the primitive.

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 In order to construct stereograms with the help of the Wulff net, it is the most convenient to
work on tracing paper over the net. A thumbtack placed under the net at the center allows for the
rotation of the net, while still keeping the tracing paper properly located on the net.
To plot a point at a given angle from the N-pole (equivalent to construction (i)), one simply
uses the scale along either of the graduated diameters of the net. When dealing with poles to
crystal faces (see Fig. 1), all poles to vertical faces will plot on the equator. Poles that are not
vertical will plot within the stereonet. By convention, the right side of the stereonet is designated
N = 0°. All N angles will be measured relative to this point, with positive N angles measured in a
clockwise direction and negative N angles measured in a counterclockwise direction. By
convention, the D angle is measured as the tilt of the pole from the horizontal, with negative D
angles being below the horizontal and positive D angles being above the horizontal. To actually

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plot these angles requires one to first plot the N angle for the pole to the face, then rotate the
stereonet so that the N point is along either the N-S or E-W diameter of the stereonet. The D
angle can then be measured off using the gradations on the net.
To draw a great circle through any two points (equivalent to construction (iii)), rotate the
stereogram over the net until both points lie on one of the projected great circles (or an
interpolated circle between two of them) and then trace the required arc on to the stereogram.
Because of the simplicity of this procedure one does not need construction (ii). If the two points
have been projected to opposite poles (i.e. one is a x and the other a), then rotate the stereogram
until they lie on projected great circles at equal distances on opposite sides of the vertical
diameter of the net.
To draw a small circle of given radius 2 about a point p (equivalent to construction (iv)),
rotate the stereogram over the net so that the p point lies on the vertical (N-S) diameter. If there
are two points at the appropriate scale distances on opposite sides of p and within the primitive,
then mark these two points and draw a circle through them centered at their midpoint (Fig. 13
left)
If p is closer to the primitive than the required angular radius then only one of the required
points (a) can be found on the net. Position the point p on the horizontal diameter of the net and
mark two points d and d’ (Fig. 13 right) above and below p at distances along the great circle
through p. Then the required small circle can be drawn through a, d and d’ as shown in Figure 9.
Once the circle has been drawn, it is possible to reproject the part that lies outside the primitive.
Count divisions along the diameter from p to the primitive and then continue counting back
inwards until the value of 2 is reached: this leads to a point b’ (Fig. 13 right) and the required arc
is that which goes through b’ and the two intersections e and e’ of the small circle with the
primitive.
If the point p lies on the primitive, then the stereogram must be rotated so that p lies at one
end or the other of the vertical diameter of the Wulff net. A projected small circle of any desired
angular radius can then be traced directly from the Wulff net.

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5. Representation of Symmetry on the Stereographic Projection
A symmetry plane of a crystal necessarily cuts the spherical projection of the crystal along a
great circle. It is therefore represented on the stereogram by a line which will be either the
primitive, a diameter of the primitive, or one of the (nearly) vertical arcs of the Wulff net (after
rotation into an appropriate orientation). It is represented by a thick solid line. The operation of
reflection of a point p in such a reflection plane to p’ can be carried out on the Wulff net. Rotate
the stereogram so that the line representing the mirror plane coincides with a great circle on the
net: then count divisions from p along a small circle until the representation of the mirror is
reached. The position of p’ is then a further equal number of divisions along the small circle
beyond the mirror. If the primitive is reached before p’ then continue counting divisions inwards
until the total is correct, but mark the position instead of ●.
An axis of crystallographic symmetry (2-, 3-, 4- or 6-fold) necessarily intersects the sphere in
a point which can be represented by its projection on the stereogram; and marked with the
appropriate symbol (Ë, •, and [hex] respectively). The same is also true for the direction of the
component rotation axis of an axis of rotation-inversion. The operation of an n-fold symmetry
axis on a point p is to rotate p through graduations equivalent to 360°/n along a small circle
round the pole of the axis. If the symmetry axis is at the center of the stereogram then this is a
straight-forward rotation of 360°/n. If the symmetry axis lies on the primitive, then place the
stereogram so that this point lies at the bottom (or top) of the Wulff net. Increments of 360°/n
may then be counted in terms of the graduations along the small circle through p. When the
primitive is reached, counting continues as the path is retraced but the next point is plotted as
instead of ● (or vice-versa)
In conclusion, if the poles of the faces of a crystal of unknown symmetry are plotted in an
arbitrary orientation on a stereogram, it will often be possible to recognize the orientation of the
symmetry elements. The stereogram can then be re-plotted in one of the standard orientations,
shown in textbooks of morphological crystallography to demonstrate the symmetry of the seven
crystal systems and the thirty-two crystal classes.

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