SECTION-1

(General Physics)

 Measurement

 Kinematics

 Dynamics

 Mass, weight and density

 Turning effect of forces

 Work, power, energy

 Pressure
 Unit #1 Measurements Physics O-Level

PHYSICS is the science that deals with idea of matter and energy. The physical quantities are measured in

units. There are seven SI base quantities in physics. The names and their units are given below.

Physical Quantities Base unit Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Current ampere A

Temperature kelvin K

Amount of substance mole mol

Light intensity candela cd

Prefixed for SI Unit:

Prefixes are multiple and sub multiple units of physical quantities. The prefixes are used to express the physical

quantity in big or small values. Some commonly used SI prefixes are given below:

Value Prefix Symbol

10-1 Deci d

10-2 Centi c

10-3 Milli m

10-6 Micro Μ

10-9 Nano n

103 Kilo K

106 Mega M

109 Giga G
THE INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

1: Metre Rule:

a. A metre rule is a wooden or plastic or steel bar of length 1m or 100cm.

b. The divisions marked on ruler are in cm, mm and inches.

c. The accuracy or least count of ruler is 1mm or 0.lcm.

d. The ruler is used to measure the length of straight objects or straight distance between two points in cm

or in mm.

e. The eye sight must be perpendicular to the point of reading of ruler to avoid parallax error.

f. The wear and tear of instrument may damage few divisions at the ends of ruler. The error caused due to

the damaged divisions is called zero error. Check the zero error before using the ruler.

2: Measuring Tape:

a. A measuring tap is a plastic strip of several metres long.

b. The divisions marked on tapes are in cm, mm, inches, feet and metres.

c. The accuracy or lest count of tape is 1mm or 0.1cm.

d. The measuring tape is used to measure the distance between two points in meters. The tape can also

measure the length or diameter or circumference of curved objects.

e. The parallax error and zero error must be avoided while using measuring tape.
3: Vernier Callipers:

a. A vernier caliper consists of main scale, vernier scale and two jaws, made up of steel.

b. The accuracy of this instrument is 0.1mm or 0.01cm.

c. The vernier caliper is used to measure the diameter of spherical objects, internal and external diameter

of tubes in cm or mm.

4: Micrometer Screw gauge:

a. A screw gauge consists of ratchet, thimble, sleeve, spindle and anvil.

b. The accuracy of this instrument is 0.01 mm or 0.001cm

c. The screw gauge is used to measure diameter of ball bearings & wires, thickness of coin & paper etc.

How to read Screw gauge

 Check the zero error, by closing the spindle without any object. This value is either added to or

subtracted from the final reading.

 Grip the object between anvil and spindle. The rachet is used to tighten the object in the grip.
  Read the main scale, by noting the last division seen on the sleeve. For diagram above:

Main scale reading = 8.5mm

 Read the thimble scale division, coinciding with the datum line.

i.e Thimble scale reading = 40 x L.C

= 40 x 0.01= 0.40 mm

The final reading can be calculated as:

Final reading = main scale reading + thimble scale reading

Final reading= 8.5 + 0.40

i.e. Final reading = 8.90 mm

Precautions of using calipers and micrometer:

1. Check zero error and note its value.

2. Clean and wipe the instruments.

3. Avoid parallax error.

4. Grip the object in instruments gently.

5. Repeat the reading and take average value for more accuracy.

Errors in measurement:

1. Parallax error:

This error is produced due to wrong positioning of eye level on the point of reading. The eye sight must be

perpendicular to the point of reading to avoid this error.

2. Zero error:

The zero error occurs when the vernier caliper or micrometer is fully closed without any object and does not

give zero reading.

The zero error is either added to or subtracted from the final reading.

3. Human Reaction error:

This error caused by a person in noting the time intervals, due to his/her reaction time. This error varies from

person to person according to their age. This error can be minimized by repeating the experiment and taking

average values.

Measurement of Time:

Time is measured in years, months, days, hours, minutes and seconds. Due to wide range of time intervals
different kinds of clocks and watches are used as summarized in the table below.

Type of clock / watch Use and accuracy

Atomic Clock Measure very short time intervals of about 10-10 seconds.

Digital stopwatch Measure short time interval (in minutes and seconds) to

an accuracy of ±0.01s

Analogue stopwatch Measures short time intervals (in minutes and seconds) to

an accuracy of ±0.ls.

Ticker-tape timer Measures short time intervals of 0.02 s.

 Watch Measures longer time intervals in hours, minutes and

seconds.

Pendulum clock Measures longer time intervals in hours, minutes and

seconds.

Radioactive decay clock Measures in years the age of remains from thousands of

years ago

The Simple Pendulum:

A simple pendulum consists of a metal bob, attached at the end of string, hanging from a support.

Oscillation:

One complete round trip of a pendulum is called one oscillation. i.e. from O-A-B and back to 0.

Time Period (T):

Time taken by a pendulum to complete one oscillation.

Frequency (f):

It is number of oscillations completed in one second.

where f = frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz).

How to determine time period of a Pendulum using stop watch

Set the pendulum into motion. Note time for 20 oscillations by using stopwatch. Find the time for one
oscillation by using the formula:

Where

t = time noted by watch.

n = no. of oscillations.

T = time period.

Unit #2 Kinematics Physics O-Level

Basic Definitions:

Displacement:

The shortest and straight line distance between two points, travelled in a specific direction.

Unit: m

Speed

Distance travelled per unit time.

dis tan ce
Speed=
Formula: time

Unit: m/s or ms-1

Types of Speed:

a) Average Speed:

It is the total distance travelled in total time.

Formula:

total Distan ce
Average Speed=
Total Time
 u+v
Or <V> = 2

Where u = initial speed

<V> = average speed

b). Uniform speed

If the object is moving with constant speed, then its speed is uniform.

c). Non-Uniform speed

If the speed of an object changes with time, then it is moving with non-uniform or variable speed.

DISTANCE-TIME GRAPHS

A horizontal line indicates a body is not moving from its initial position.

A straight line shows uniform speed since distance increases

uniformly with time.

The distance-time curve is that of non-uniform speed. From OA,

speed decreases gradually to zero, from A—B, speed increases.

Key points of Distance-Time graph:

 The gradient of distance-time graph is the speed of a body.

 If gradient is zero, body is at rest.
 If gradient is constant, body is moving with uniform speed.
 If gradient varies, body is moving with non-uniform or variable speed.
 If gradient is negative, body is moving in opposite or reverses direction.
Calculation from Distance-Time Graph:

1. Speed = gradient of line

change in dis tan ce

i.e. speed time taken

total dis tan ce

2. average speed= total time

Speed time graphs

Object is at rest.

Speed of object is increasing uniformly with constant acceleration.

Speed of object is constant so acceleration is zero.

Speed of object is decreasing uniformly, with

constant retardation.

From A-B, speed is constant with zero acceleration, from B-C, speed

decreases uniformly with constant retardation.

From AB, speed is decreasing uniformly with constant retardation. At B,

object is at rest. From BC speed is increasing uniformly with constant

acceleration.

The acceleration decreases gradually, because rate of change of speed is

decreasing with time.

The acceleration increases gradually because rate of change of speed is

increasing with time.

AB, acceleration is uniform BC, acceleration is zero. CD,

retardation is uniform.

Calculations from Speed-Time graph:

v−u
=
1. Acceleration = t gradient of line

2. Distance = Area under a speed time graph

Area of a triangle – ½ base x height

Area of rectangle = length x breadth

Area of a trapezium = ½ (sum of parallel sides) height

i.e. ½ (a+b)h.

where a = length of one side

b= length of other side

h= height between and b.

Acceleration of free fall or acceleration due to gravity

The uniform acceleration produced to the freely falling body, due to gravity is called acceleration of free fall. Its
value is approximately 10ms-2.

 The acceleration due to gravity is directed towards centre of the earth.

 The acceleration due to gravity does not depend on masses of the falling bodies.
 In the pressure of air resistance, the acceleration due to gravity decreases.
 For upward motion, the acceleration due to gravity is g = -10ms -2 and for downward motion, g =
+10 ms-2.

Motion of bodies in air resistance

The air resistance has the following effects:

1. It always opposes the motion of moving objects.

2. It increases with the increase of speed of the objects.
3. It increases with the size of the object.

Terminal velocity:

When the air resistance on an object falling in gravitational filed become equal to the force of gravity, then
object moves with uniform velocity, called as terminal velocity.

Graph of terminal velocity

Unit #3 Dynamics
 Section-1 = Forces

Force:

It is pull or push on an object that changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform motion of that object.

Effect of Force:

 Force can change the shape of a body.

 Force can stop the moving body.
 Force can set the body into motion.
 Force can accelerate the body.
 Force can decelerate the body.
 Force can change the direction of a moving body.

Types of Forces:

Forces Description

Force of Gravity The pull of earth acting on an object.

Force of gravitation It is force of attraction between any two

objects in the universe.

Tension It is the force experienced by stretched or

compressed objects.

Friction The contact force which opposes the

motion of body, due to the roughness of

surface.

Resistance When a body is dragged through a fluid

(air or liquid), there is a friction between

body and fluid called as resistance or

viscous force.

Contact force or normal reaction force When an object is made in contact with a

surface, then the reaction force of that

surface is called contact force or normal

 reaction force.

Electric force The push or pull between electric

charges.

Magnetic force The push or pull between magnets.

Effects of Friction:

Friction is a contact force that slows down moving objects. Friction has both positive and negative effects.

Negative Effects Positive Effects

Force f friction causes wear and tear in Force of friction helps in holding the

moving parts of machine. objects, walking on ground

Force of friction reduces the engine Force of friction helps in stopping the

power moving vehicles

Methods of Reducing Friction

1. Using highly polished surface for moving parts.

2. Using a layer of lubricants between moving parts.
3. Using ball bearings to enable surface to roll over.
4. Making the aerodynamic shapes of moving objects.

Effects of friction on the motion of a vehicle

1. Tyre surface: If tyre surface is in good condition then there is more friction between the tyre and road. The
moving vehicle can be stopped easily within the stoppi9ng distance.

2. Road Condition: If road is wet, the friction between tyres and road reduces, resulting to increase in stopping
distance. The vehicles can also skid at turns, due to wetness of road.

3. Braking Force: If braking pads/discs are in good condition, then braking force causes more friction and
stopping distance reduces.

Braking, thinking & stopping distances

1. Braking distance: The distance travelled by a moving vehicle during the time that the brakes are applied.

2. Thinking distance: The distance travelled by moving vehicle: during the reaction time of driver, before
applying the brakes.

3. Stopping distance: The total distance travelled by moving vehicle, between thinking the distance and
stopping the vehicle. i.e. Stopping distance = thinking distance + breaking distance.
The braking, thinking and stopping distances are not equal due to following factors.

a. The road condition

b. The tyres condition
c. The brakes condition
d. The speed of moving vehicle
e. The vehicle is loaded or unloaded.
f. The human reaction of driver

Circular motion

If the distance of an object remains constant from a fixed point, throughout its motion, then object is in circular
motion. The circular & motion has following characteristics.

 If speed of object in circle is constant, its direction keeps on changing, so velocity is not constant.
 The direction of velocity at any instant in circular motion is determined by the tangent to circle at that
point.
 The force which keeps the object moving circular path is called centripetal force. This force is always
directed towards centre of circle.

Examples of circular motion:

1. Motion of electrons:

The electrostatic fore exerted by the nucleus on electron, provide centripetal force to electrons. The electrons
keep on orbiting around the nucleus in circular motion.

2. Motion of Satellite:

The force of gravity of earth provides centripetal force to the satellite. The satellite keeps on orbiting around the
earth in circular motion.

3. Motion of Planets:

The planets move around the sun due to gravitational force. The gravitational force provides centripetal force to
the planets. Each planet in the solar system is directed towards sun, due to centripetal force and keeps on
moving in fixed orbit.

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces:

Balanced Forces: Two equal forces acting in opposite directions cancel each other out. These forces are
balanced forces. The balanced forces produce two effects.

1. Object is either at rest or

2. Moving at a steady speed.

Unbalanced Forces: Two forces of different values acting in opposite directions, on an object are unbalanced
forces. The unbalanced forces

1. Either accelerate the object or

2. Decelerate the object
Newton’s law of motion:

First Law: A body continues its state of rest or uniform motion until an external force acts on it.

Second Law: When a force acts on a body, then acceleration is produced such that

i. a ℘ F i.e. acceleration directly proportional to the force applied.

ii. a ℘ 1/rn i.e. acceleration inversely proportional to the mass of body.

The acceleration, force and mass are related by the formula:

The unit of force is Newton (N).

Third law: To every action there is equal and opposite reaction.

SECTION —2

Scalar and Vector

1. A scalar quantity is that which has magnitude only.

2. A vector quantity has magnitude as well as direction.

Examples:

Quantity Scalar Vector

Distance

Displacement

Length

Speed

Velocity

Time

Acceleration

Force
 Weight

Density

Area

Volume

Energy

Pressure

Resultant Vector: The combined effect of two vectors is called resultant vector.

Methods to determine resultant vector:

1. By addition: If two vectors are in the same direction then their magnitudes are added up to find resultant
vector.

2. By Subtractions: If two vectors opposite direction, then they are subtracted from each other to find resultant
vector.

3. Parallelogram method: If two vectors are at certain angle, then Parallelogram method is used to find
resultant vector. “Complete the parallelogram joining the given vectors at their angle. The length of diagonal
determines the resultant vector.”

4. Triangle method:

If two vectors art at 900, then the resultant vector is obtained by head to tail rue.

“Join the head of first vector with the tail of second vector. The resultant vector is
obtained by joining the tail with the tail of first vector and head with the head of
second vector.”
 SECTION — 3
Deformation

Elasticity or Elastic deformation:

When a force is applied then shape of an object can be changed. On releasing the force if object regains its
original shape then this effect is called elasticity or elastic deformation.

Elastic limit or limit of proportionality:

It is the maximum extension in an elastic object, after which it either breaks or deforms permanently.

Hooke’s Law:

Within elastic limit, the extension produced in an elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied.

Point A = Hooke’s law is valid

Point B = Elastic limit or limit of proportionality

Point C = Breaking point

A to B = Elastic deformation

Experiment to verify Hook’s law

Apparatus: Spring, metre rule, stand, weights or loads. Arrangement & Procedure:

i. Attach a spring with stand and measure its original length (l1) with rule.

ii. Attach a load or weight at the end of spring. Measure stretched length of spring (l2) with rule.

iii. Similarly, attach different loads at the end of spring and measure the stretched lengths of spring for each
load.
iv. Record the results in the table.

No. of Obs. Original length (l1) Final length (l2) Extension (l2-l1) Load/weight

v. Draw the graph between extension and load the graph is a straight line, passing through origin. So Hooke’s

law is verified.

MOMENTUM:

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity.

Every object has mass. So when an object is moving, then it will obviously have momentum.
Momentum depends upon the variables mass and velocity.

In terms of an equation, the momentum of an object is equal to the mass of the object times the velocity
of the object.

Momentum = mass x velocity.

 In physics, the symbol for the quantity momentum is the lower case p. Thus, the above equation can be
rewritten as p = m x v where m is the mass and v is the velocity. The equation illustrates that
momentum is directly proportional to an object's mass and directly proportional to the object's velocity.

The units of momentum are kg m/s (the units of mass multiplied by the units of velocity)
Momentum is a vector quantity - it has direction as well as magnitude. This means that momentum can
be negative as well as positive:
If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling in the opposite direction
(to the left) will have negative momentum

IMPULSE:

 When a resultant (unbalanced) force acts on a mass, the momentum of that mass will change

 The impulse of a force is equal to that force multiplied by the time for which it acts:

impulse = F × t

 The change in momentum of a mass is equal to the impulse provided by the force:

impulse = change in momentum

F × t = mv – mu

(Where u is the initial velocity of the mass and v is the final velocity of the mass)

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM:

The principle of conservation of momentum states that:

 For two or more bodies in an isolated system acting upon each other, their total momentum remains
constant unless an external force is applied. Therefore, momentum can neither be created nor destroyed.

Unit #4 Mass, Weight and Density

Gravitational Field

Gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction.

Gravitational Field Strength

It is the gravitational force acting per unit mass. Its value is approximately 10NKg -1 i.e. force of gravity acting
on an object of mass 1kg is about on, on the Earth’s surface.
Difference between Mass and Weight:

Mass Weight

1. The amount of substance in a body is 1. The pull of gravity on a body is called

called mass.

2. The mass remains constant 2. The weight of a body varies from place to

everywhere. place.

3. Mass has no direction i.e. scalar 3. The weight is directed towards centre of earth

quantity. i.e. vector quantity.

4. It s measured in Kg. 4. It s measured in N.

5. It is measured by beam balance or 5. It is measured by spring balance or Newton

electronic balance. meter.

Calculation of Weight:

The mass and weight are related by the formula:

Where m = mass of object

W = weight of object

g = gravitational field strength or acceleration to gravity. The value of g is 10NKg-1 or 10ms-2

Inertia:

It is the ability of a body to resist when its state of rest or uniform motion tends to be charged.

The inertia depends on mass of a body. The massive bodies offer more resistance, when their state of rest or
motion is changed i.e. they have higher inertial values than lighter bodies.

Examples:

1. When the car travelling straight turns round the corner, the passengers tend to fall in opposite direction of
turn, due to inertia.

2. A person riding on motorcycle; if suddenly brakes are applied tends to fall forward due to inertia.

Density
The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density.

mass
Formula: density = volume

m
p=
Or v

Unit:

Kgm-3 or gcm-3

Methods to determine density of a

a) Liquid.

b) Regularly shaped object.

c) Irregularly shaped object.

To determine density of Liquid:

Apparatus: beam balance, burette, beaker and stand.

Procedure:

1. Find the mass (m1) of an empty beaker with beam balance.

2. Shift a known volume (V) of the liquid from burette into beaker.
3. Find the mass (m2) of beaker and the liquid with beam balance.

Calculation:

The mass of liquid = m = m2-m1

Use the formula:

Mass
Density = volume

To find density of given liquid

To determine density of Regular object:

Apparatus: beam balance, ruler, regular shaped object

Procedure:
1. Determine the mass of regular object with beam balance.

2. Measure the length (i’), breadth (b) and height (h) by using a meter rule.

Calculation:

The volume of object: l x b x h

Use the formula,

Mass
Density = volume

To find density of regular object

To determine density of irregular object:

Apparatus: beam balance, measuring cylinder, irregularly shaped object.

Procedure:

1. Find the mass of irregular object with beam balance.

2. Fill measuring cylinder with water up to volume (V1)
3. Completely immerse the object into water. Find the new volume (V2).

Calculation:

The volume of irregular object = V2-V1

Mass
Use the formula: density = volume

To determine density of irregularly shaped object

Precautions:

 Avoid parallax error,

 Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface.
 Read the volume from bottom of meniscus.
 The object must be completely immersed into liquid.
 Measure mass of object, before measuring its volume.

Note:

 If object floats in water, then tie a sinker to object.

Subtract the volume of the sinker from the final
reading.
 If the object is too big to be lowered into the
measuring cylinder, use a displacement can to
determine volume of solid.

Unit #5 Turning Effect of Forces

Turning Effect:

When a force is applied then object may turn round a fixed point. This is called turning effect of force. The
point around which objet turns is called pivot or hinge or fulcrum.

The turning effect depends on

a. Magnitude of force (F) applied.

b. The perpendicular distanced (d) from the line of action of force to the pivot.

Example of Turning Effect:

a. Opening of a hinged door.

b. Paddling of a bicycle.
c. Opening of a bottle cap.
d. Turning the steering wheel.

Moment of Force:

“It is the product of force and perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot.”

Formula:

Where F = magnitude of force

 d= perpendicular distance

Unit: nm.

Clockwise and Anticlockwise Moments:

 If the object turns clockwise, then turning effect is called clockwise moments.
 If object turns anticlockwise effect is called anticlockwise moments

Equilibrium:

“A body at rest moving with uniform velocity is said to be in equilibrium.”

The two condition of equilibrium are:

1. Sum of forces in one direction is equal to sum of forces in other direction.

2. Sum of clockwise moments is equal to sum of anticlockwise moments.

Principle of moments:

For an object in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments is equal to sum of anticlockwise moments. i.e.

Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments

i.e. F1xd1= F2xd2

Experiment: To investigate the Principle of Moments

Apparatus: Uniform metre rule, load (W1), load (W2), strings, knife edge, retort stand.
Procedure:

1) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure with the knife edge at the 50 cm mark.

2) Balance the system by adjusting the distances d1 and d2.

3) Vary d1 and change d2 so that the system is balanced for 5 sets of d1 and d2.

4) Calculate the anticlockwise moments W1 x d1 and the clockwise moments W2 x d2 and tabulate as follows:

Table

W1 D1 W2 D2 W1 x d1 W2 x d2

Observation:

From the table, the anticlockwise moments given by (W 1 x d1) are found to be equal to the clockwise moments
given by (W2 x d2) for each set of d1 and d2.So principle of moments is verified.

Centre of mass (c.m) or Centre of gravity (c.g)

The point through which whole mass or weight of an object appears to act is called its centre of mass (c.m) or
centre of gravity (c.g).

To locate c.g. of regular objects:

The c.g of regular objects can be determined by balancing them on a knife edge or pivot. The c.g. of some
regular objects are described below will diagrams.
To determine position of c.m or c.g of plane lamina of irregular shape by plumb line

Apparatus: Irregular lamina, Stand, Plumb line, cork and pin.

1. Make three small holes near the edges of the lamina.

2. Suspend the lamina through one of the holes using a pin.
3. Hang a plumb line on the pin in front of the lamina.
4. When the plumb line is steady, draw a line on the lamina along the plumb line.
5. Repeat the above procedure for the remaining two holes.
6. The point of intersection of the three lines on the lamina is the position of centre of mass or centre of
gravity.

Precautions:

1. The lamina should be free to swing about its point of suspension.

2. The parallax error must be avoided

Stability of Objects:
“The ability of an object to regain its original position after it has been tilted slightly” determines the stability of
that object.

The stability of an object depends on:

a) Base are of object:

The area of the base of an object should be as wine as possible, for more stability.

e.g. the household objects like desk lamps have wide and heavy bases for more stability.

b) The position of c.m or c.g:

The centre of gravity (c.g) of an object should be as low as possible, for more stability.

e.g. the bus is not as stable as racing car, when they come to take a corner at high speed. For safety reasons the
e.g of a vehicle should therefore be as low as possible.

Unit #6 Work, Power and Energy

Basic Definitions:

Work:

Work is said to be done, when a force acts on a body and body covers some distance.

Work = force x distance

Unit or S.I unit of work is Joule (J).

Power: Rate of doing work

work
Power = time

Unit: S.I unit of power is watt (W).

Energy: It is the ability of doing work.

Unit: Joule

Kinetic Energy:

The energy possessed by a body, due to its motion is called Kinetic energy.

Ek= 1/2mv2
Where m = mass of body.

V = speed of body.

Ek = kinetic energy.

Gravitational potential energy

It is the energy possessed by a body, when it is vertically elevated in gravitational field.

Ep= mgh

Where m = mass of body

g = gravitational field strength.

h = height to which body is raised.

Different forms of energy

Forms of energy Some common examples

1 Chemical Fuels such as oil, wood, coal, electric cells, food and

explosives.

2 Nuclear Atomic bombs, nuclear reactors.

3 Radiant The electromagnetic (E.M.) spectrum such as visible light,

radio waves, infra-red(IR), Ultra Violet(UV), X-rays and

y-rays.

4 Electrical The energy associated with the current in a electric drill,

power tools and an immersion heater, and electrical

appliances.

5 Internal energy The energy possessed by the atoms or molecules of matter

in the form of kinetic energy and potential energy.

6 Mechanical (K.E & P.E) (a) kinetic energy: all objects in motion.

potential energy:

i. Gravitational P.E. I. a waterfall, raised objects.

 ii. Elastic ii.. Compressed: or stretched springs the bent condition of

a diving board, the stretched band of a catapult.

Principle of Conservation of energy:

Energy can neither be create4 nor destroyed, however it can be converted from one form to the other and total
amount of energy remains

Example:

A swinging pendulum obeys law of conservation of energy. At point A, E p is max and Ek is zero. At point 0, Ek
is max and Ep is mm. At point B again Ep is na and Ek is zero.

Therefore Ep Ek Ep and so on, but at every point sum of E p and Ek is always
constant.

Major energy conversions:

Discuss the major energy changes in the following cases.

1. An object falling from certain height on a floor.

Ans: Gravitational Ep Ek  Sound & heat energy.

2. A cyclist riding the bicycle up the bill.

Ans: Chemical energy  Ek  Ep

3. An object released from a catapult, hitting the target.

Ans Elastic EpEk sound and heat energy

4 To switch on filament lamp connected to battery

Ans chemical energy electric; energy light & heat energy

5 A diver on a spring board, jumping into pool

Ans Chemical energy  Elastic Ep  Ek energy

6. A person knocking the nail into wooden block with hammer.

Ans: Ans: Chemical energy  Ep Ek  sound & heat energy.

Energy conversions in the production of electricity:

1. Burning of Coal:

Chemical energy heat energy steam energy kinetic energy electrical energy.

2. Hydroelectric generations:

Gravitational potential energy  Kinetic energy Electrical Energy.

3. Windmills:

Wind energy Kinetic Energy electrical energy.

4. Nuclear Power Generation:

Nuclear Energy  heat energy  steam energy  kinetic energy electrical energy.

5. Solar Energy:

Solar energy  electrical energy.

6. Geothermal Energy:

Heat energy steam energy  kinetic energy electrical energy.

Block diagram of Electricity generation:

Fuel such as coal, oil and natural gas are stored forms of chemical energy. The burning of fuel is used to heat up
water which produces steam.

The steam energy then converted to K.E of turbine, which produces electricity. The major energy conversions,
from burning of fuel are:

Chemical energy  heat energy  steam energy  K.E.  electrical energy

The block diagram for electricity generation is:

Chemical energy Boilerturbinegeneratortransformerelectrical energy

Input output

Environmental issues of power generation:

 The burning of fuel like coal causes air pollution and produces harmful gases like Co.
  The constructing of huge dams cause destruction of forests of habitats in large space.
 The nuclear power generation produces radioactive waste and byproducts, which remains harmful for
long time.

Renewable and Non-renewable energy sources:

1. A source of energy which is infinite and will never run out is known as the renewable source of energy.
e.g. wind, tidal, geothermal, hydroelectric, solar.
2. A source of energy which is finite and cannot be replaced easily when runs out is known as non-renewable
energy source.
e.g. coal, oil, gas, radioactive nuclei.

Einstein’s mass energy equation

The mass can be changed into energy and energy can be changed into mass i.e. mass and energy are
interchanged by the equation. E = mc2

Where m = decreases or loss in mass E= energy produced C = speed of light = 3 x 10

ms-1

Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion:

1. Nuclear Fission is the splitting up of heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei with release of energy.

The thermal energy released from nuclear fission can be used to heat water to produce steam. The steam is then
used to drive turbines to produce electricity.

2. Nuclear Fusion is the combining up of two lighter nuclei to produce a heavy nucleus with release of energy.
This reaction occurs only into sun because extremely high temp is required for this reaction. We have to invent
a usable fusion reactor.

Efficiency: it is the ratio of power output to power in put.

Formula:

Power Output
efficiency = ×100
Power Input

Energy Output
efficiency= ×100
Or Energy Input

The efficiency of a machine can never.be100%.becaus some of the energy is lost in the surroundings in the form
of heat, sound etc.

Unit #7 Pressure
Pressure: Pressure is the force acting per unit area.

Force
Pr essure=
Formula: Area

Unit: SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa).

1P = N/rn2

Factors on which pressure depends:

1. Force or Weight of Object:

Greater is the weight of an object, larger is the pressure. i.e. P α F.

2. Area in Contact with the object:

Greater is the area in contact with the object, lesser is the pressure. i.e. P α 1/A

Examples:

 Suppose a single brick is lying on the table. If another brick is placed on the first one, then pressure
increases, because force or weights increases.
 A brick lying vertically on the table exerts more pressure than horizontally, because there is less area in
contact with table in vertical position.
 A girl wearing heel shoes exerts more pressure than flat sole shoes, because area in contact with heel
shows is less.

Pressure of Liquid:

The pressure of a liquid is defined by the relation

P= ρ gh
Where p = density of liquid.

g = gravitational field strength.

h = depth of liquid.

P = Pressure of a liquid.

Conclusion:

1) The greater the depth h, the greater is the liquid pressure. i.e.

Pαh

2) The pressure increase with the density of liquid, at given depth. i.e.
 Pασ

3) The pressure of liquid increases with the increase of gravitational field strength i.e.

Pαg

Atmospheric Pressure:

The pressure exerted due to the collision or bombardment of air molecules present in atmosphere is called
atmospheric pressure.

The atmospheric pressure decreases with height. As height increases, concentration of air molecules decreases,
so less collision occurs and atmospheric pressure decreases. The value of atmospheric pressure is approximately
10000 Pa. This standard pressure is sometimes called one atmospheric or one bar.

Experiment to demonstrate atmospheric pressure:

Fig. shows a thin-walled metal can, attached to a vacuum pump. Before the air was pumped out, the pressure
inside the can is equal to that outside. As the air is pumped out, a partial vacuum of very low pressure forms
inside the can and immediately the great external atmospheric pressure crushes the can. is assumed that the
material of the can is thin or flexible.

The Simple Mercury Barometer:

Use: A barometer is an instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure.

Construction:

A barometer consists of a thick walled glass tube 1m long, closed at one end. It is fully filled with mercury and
then, placed open end downwards, in a mercury reservoir. The mercury column will drop to about 76cm or 760
mm as shown in fig.
Calculation:

The height to which mercury column falls is measured then the formula P = pgh is applied to calculate
atmospheric pressure, which is approximately 100000 Pa.

Pressure-Volume relationship of a gas:

The intermolecular forces between gas molecules are negligible. The gas molecules are at large distances from
each other. If pressure on a gas is increased, then gas molecules come close and the spaces between them
reduce. There fore as the pressure on a gas is increased, the volume of gas is reduced, provided that temp
remains constant.

Boyle’s Law

The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure if temp is kept constant. This concept first was
stated by Boyle.

The formula for Boyle’s law is

Where P1= Initial Pressure. V1= Initial Volume.

P2= Final Pressure. V2= Final Volume.

When a graph of p against v is plotted, the result is smooth curve, as

shown below
SECTION-2
(Thermal Physics)

 Kinetic Model of Matter

 Thermal Properties of Matter

 Transfer off thermal Energy

Unit #8 Kinetic Model of Matter

Properties of solids, liquids and gases:

Solids:

 Fixe shape and volume.

 Normally hard and rigid.
 Incompressible.
 Large force needed to change shape.
 High density.

Liquids:

 Fixed volume, occupy shape of container.

 Can flow easily.
 Incompressible.
 High density.

Gases:

 Neither fixed shape nor fixed volume.

 Can flow more easily.
 Compressible.
  Low density.

The distinguishing properties between solids, liquids and gases can be summarized in the table below.

Solid Liquid Gas

Inter-practical force Very strong attraction Strong attraction Weak attraction

Inter-practical Close Far apart Very far apart

distances

Shape Fixed shape Takes the shape of Entirely fills container

container

Compression No easily compressed Not easily Easily compressed

compressed

Motion of particles Vibration about fixed Random rotation Random rotation and

points and translation translation

Kinetic Molecular Theory of gases:

Key Points:

 All gases are made up of tiny particles called as atoms or molecules.

 The gas particles are always in continuous and random motion.

Effect of temperature on molecular motion:

The increase in temp causes the following changes in the motion of gas molecules.

a. At high temp. molecules have higher kinetic energy.

b. At high temp. molecules have greater speed.
c. At high temp. molecules become more vigorous.
d. At high temp. molecules collide more frequently, resulting more pressure.

Pressure of a gas:

According to kinetic molecular theory, gas molecules are always in continuous and random motion. They
collide with each other and with the walls of container. Due to collisions they exert a force per unit surface area
of container and pressure is produced.

Change of states
  Melting and Solidification
 Boiling and Condensation

a) Melting and Solidification:

 Melting is the change of state from solid to liquid. The change occurs at a fixed or constant
temperature. This particular temperature is called as melting point.
 The reverse process of changing a liquid to a solid is called solidification. A pure substance
freezes at a temperature equal to its melting point. During solidification temperature remains
constant and heat is released by the substance.

b) Boiling and Condensation:

 Boiling is the change of state from a liquid into a vapour. The change occurs at a fixed or
constant temperature. This particular temperature is called as boiling point.
 Condensation is the process whereby vapour changes into liquid at the same constant
temperature Heat is given out during condensation.

INTERNAL ENERGY:

It is the sum of the Kinetic energy and potential energy of molecules of a substance. The internal energy
depends on the temperatureerature i.e. higher is the temperature more is the k.e and P.e of molecules of a
substance and higher is its internal energy.

Heat Capacity:

It is the heat energy required to raise the temperatureerature of any mass of a substance through 1K.

Where Q = Heat energy supplied (J)

∆Ө= Increase in temperatureerature (K or °C)

C = Heat Capacity

The Heat capacity is measured in JK-1 orJ0C-1

Specific Heat Capacity:

It is the heat energy required to raise the temperatureerature of 1Kg of a substance through 1K.

Where Q = Heat energy supplied (J)

 M = Mass of substance (Kg)

∆Ө= Increase in temperatureerature (K or °C)

C = Specific heat capacity

The unit of specific heat capacity is JKg-1K-1 or JKg-1oC-1

Latent Heat

The amount of heat energy required to change the substance from one state to the other, at a constant
temperature is called latent heat.

Molecular explanation of latent heat:

Since there is strong force of attraction between solid as well as liquid molecules. Energy is required to
overcome the strong inter-molecular forces of attraction in the solids and in liquids. The amount of energy
required for this purpose is called latent heat. The latent heat changes the substance from one state to the other,
at constant temperature.

Heating Curve:

When ice at -10°C is heated, it first converts into water and then into steam. The temperature changes occurring
with time are recorded. A graph between temperature and time is then plotted. This graph is called heating
curve.

From -10°C to 0°C, temperature of ice increases.

The temperature of ice remains constant at 0°C. The ice is converting into water.

From X to Y, the temperature of water increases from 0°C to 100°C.

From Y to Z, the temperature of water remains constant. The water is converting in to vapours.

Cooling Curve:

When liquid Naphthalene at 90°C is cooled, it extracts heat out and solidifies. The temperature changes
occurring with time are recorded and then a graph between temperature and time is plotted, called as cooling
curve.

 From
A to B, the temperature of liquid falls from 90°C to 79°C.
 From B to C, the temperature of Naphthalene remains constant at 79°C.
 From C to D, the temperature of solid Naphthalene falls further

Thermal Expansion:

The increase in the volume of a substance on heating is called thermal expansion When a substance is heated,
its molecules gain heat energy and move apart form each other. The average gap between molecules increases
and substance expands.

Order of Expansion:

The amount of expansion depends on the intermolecular forces of a substance. The stronger the intermolecular
forces, the least the expansion and vice versa. For the same quantity of heat supplied, the following is the order
of expansion.

Expansion of gases > expansion of liquids > expansion of solids.

The relative order of expansion of solids, liquids and gases is 1:10:100.

Applications of Thermal Expansion

 A bimetallic strip is made up of two different metals. On heating, strip bends due to different rate of
expansion, of given metals on cooling, strip becomes straight again. A bimetallic strip is used in
thermostats to maintain the temperature steady.
  Railway tracks can be bent and damaged on a very hot day if there is no allowance for the expansion of
the rails.
 The overhead power lines expand and sag in summer and contract and tighten in winter.
 Concrete blocks of pavements and road surfaces are laid with soft material, which can be squashed when
blocks expand in summer.
 The process of fixing a metal tyre on the wheel of a railway train is another application of thermal
expansion. On heating, tyre expands and pass over the wheel. On cooling, tyre contracts to give a tight
fit on the wheel.

Effect of temperature changes on volume:

When a substance is heated, then its volume increases with increase in temperature.

 In solids the increase in volume is extremely small with change in temperature So the effect on the
density of solid is negligible.
 In liquids, the increase in volume is large enough, with increase in temperature so there will be
appreciable effects on density of liquids i.e. as temperature increases, volume increases and density of
liquid decreases.
 Since the increase in volume of gases is much greater so the density of gases are greatly effected with
rise of temperature e.g. formation of sea and land breezes is result of this effect.

Evaporation:
The liquid molecules are always moving randomly at different speeds, when the molecules gain heat energy,
their average k.e increases. The molecules which are more energetic are able to overcome force of attraction of
liquid and escape from the surface of liquid into atmosphere. This effect is called evaporation.

Difference between boiling and evaporation:

Boiling Evaporation

1. Occurs at a fixed temperature 1. Occurs at any temperature

 2. Quick process 2. Slow process

3. Takes place within the liquid 3. Takes place only on the surface of the liquid

4. Bubbles are formed in the liquid 4. No bubbles are formed in the liquid

5. Temperature remains constant during 5. Temperature may change

boiling

6. Heat supplied by an energy source 6. Heat supplied from the surroundings

Factors effecting evaporation:

1. Increase of Temperature:

This makes the molecules more faster so that they have enough energy to escape from the liquid and rate of
evaporation increases.

2. Increase Surface area:

The rate of evaporation increases with the exposed surface area of the liquid. A large surface area means more
molecules can escape from the surface.

3. Decrease of humidity:

If there are water vapours present in the air, then rate of evaporation decreases. However draught above the
surface of liquid increases evaporation.

4. Increase of wind speed

When air moves across a liquid surface, it carries away escaped molecules above the liquid and reduces their
chances of returning back, so evaporation increases.

5. Decrease of atm. Pressure:

Decreasing the atm. Pressure increases the rate of evaporation, because more molecules escape the surface of
liquid, in the presence of less atm. Pressure.

6. Decrease the boiling point:

The lower the boiling point of a liquid, the higher the rate of evaporation. The volatile liquids evaporate faster
than non-volatile liquids.
Cooling effect of evaporation:

During the evaporation, molecules gain heat energy from surroundings. The more energetic molecules escape
and take a lot of energy with them. Hence the average k.e of the remaining molecules decreases and the temp
falls, causing the cooling effect,