EE330: Power Systems

Module 1 Lecture 1
Basic circuit principles: single phase

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The instructor of this course (Dr. Abheejeet Mohapatra) owns the copyright of all the course materials. This
lecture material was distributed only to the students attending the course EE330 of IIT Kanpur, and should not be
distributed in print or through electronic media without the consent of the instructor. Students can make their
own copies of the course materials for their use.

EE330 1
 Previous module/ lecture
➢ Power systems – general introduction

EE330 2
 Basic principles
➢ Power system is an interconnected circuit of large number
of electrical components
• Generators
• Step up transformers
• Transmission lines and devices
• Step down transformers
• Distribution lines
• Loads, etc.
➢ Basic circuit principles (circuit laws) and power calculations
are also applicable in explaining the behavior of power
network

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 AC Sinusoidal Signals
➢ AC voltages and currents are sinusoidal periodic signals
i (t ) = 2I sin(t +  ) = 2I cos(t +  −  / 2)
i (t ) = 2I cos(t +  ) = 2I sin(t +  +  / 2)
2I is peak or amplitude
ω = 2πf is angular frequency (rad / s )
1
f = is frequency of signal (50 Hz for Indian system)
T
T is time period of signal ( s )
 is phase angle in radians (rad )
➢ This is due to natural form of AC generation

EE330 4
 Root Mean Square (RMS) & Average value
➢ RMS is an alternate DC equivalent representation of
amplitude of AC signal
➢ Average value of an AC current or voltage is always zero

T
1 2
RMS value I = 
T 0
i (t )dt

T
1
Average value =  i (t )dt
T 0
RMS of 2I sin(t +  ), 2I cos(t +  ) is I irrespective of 
Ave. of 2I sin(t +  ), 2I cos(t +  ) is 0 irrespective of 

EE330 5
 Phasor

➢ AC signal is characterized by RMS value and phase angle

at a given frequency
➢ Phasor is frequency domain representation of AC signals
➢ In time domain representation, time is reference
➢ In frequency domain representation, fundamental
frequency sinusoid is reference i.e. sin(t ) or cos(t )
➢ Phasor magnitude is the RMS value of periodic signal
➢ Phasor phase is the phase angle of the sinusoid

Reference is very important in Phasor notation

EE330 6
 Phasor contd.
I<α
i (t ) = 2I sin(t +  )
I = I = I (cos  + j sin  )
when sin (t) is reference α
1sin(wt)

I = I( −  / 2) when cos (t) is reference

➢ Phasors can be added, subtracted, α

1cos(wt)
multiplied, divided on lines similar
to vector addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division

I<(α-π/2)
EE330 7
 Phasor relationship
➢ Let AC current through a resistor R be
i (t ) = 2I cos(t ) or I = I0
➢ By Ohm’s law
V = IR = IR0 = V0

➢ The current and voltage phasor have no phase difference

i.e. they are in phase
I<0 V<0

Phasor diagram for a Resistor

EE330 8
 Phasor relationship contd.
➢ Let AC current through a capacitor C be
i (t ) = 2I cos(t ) or I = I0
➢ By property of capacitance
dv(t ) 1 2I
i (t ) = C  v(t ) =  i (t )dt = sin(t )
dt C C
I
I = I0  V =  − 90 = V − 90
C
➢ Current leads voltage 90 degrees

I<0 I<90°
Phasor diagram for a Capacitor
V<0
V<-90°
EE330 9
 Phasor relationship contd.
➢ Let AC current through a inductor L be
i (t ) = 2I cos(t ) or I = I0
➢ By property of inductance
di (t )
v(t ) = L  v(t ) = 2IL cos(t + 90 )
dt
I = I0  V = IL90 = V90
➢ Current lags voltage by 90 degrees
V<90° V<0
Phasor diagram for Inductor
I<0 I<-90°

EE330 10
 V,I specification in single phase AC circuit

➢ Generally, the voltage & current specifications in single

phase AC circuits are stated in terms of their RMS values
➢ Analog voltmeter and ammeter measure the RMS values
of voltages and currents, respectively
➢ For example,
• A 110V voltage source at 50Hz frequency states an AC
voltage source with 110V RMS and ω=100π rad/s.
• A 10A current source at 10Hz frequency states an AC
current source with 14.142A maximum amplitude and
ω=20π rad/s.

EE330 11
 Instantaneous Power
➢ Instantaneous power absorbed by an element is product
of instantaneous voltage across the element and
instantaneous current through it
p (t ) = v(t )i (t )
Let v(t ) = 2V cos(t +  v ) and i (t ) = 2I cos(t +  i )
p (t ) = 2VI cos(t +  v ) cos(t +  i )
 p (t ) = VI cos( v −  i ) + VI cos(2t +  v +  i )
➢ First part is constant
➢ Second part is periodic with half time period and twice
frequency of that of current/ voltage 1 
T= =
2f 

EE330 12
 Average/ Real Power
➢ Average Power is average of instantaneous power over
T
one time period T 1
P =  p (t )dt = VI cos( v −  i )
T 0
➢ Also known as Real power with units being Watts (W)
➢ An analog wattmeter measures the average power
➢ For purely resistive loads
V2
 v −  i = 0, P = VI = = I2R
R
➢ For purely reactive loads

 v −  i = 90, P = 0

EE330 13
 Apparent Power and Power Factor
➢ Apparent Power is the product of RMS values of product
and current
S = VI
➢ It is measured in Volt-Ampere (VA)
➢ Power Factor (pf) is ratio of average power and apparent
power (leading or lagging information also necessary)
P
pf = = cos( v −  i )
S
➢ The difference between phases of voltage phasor and
current phasor is called the power factor angle

EE330 14
 Power Factor contd.
➢ pf varies between 0 and 1
➢ For pure resistive loads pf = 1 as  v =  i
➢ For pure reactive loads pf = 0 as  v −  i = 90
➢ For inductive loads 0   v −  i  90, pf is positive and lagging
➢ For capacitive loads − 90   v −  i  0, pf is positive and leading
➢ Power factor angle is same as phase of load impedance
V V V
Z = = ( v −  i ) = Z , Z = ,  =  v −  i
I I I
➢ pf for a given system or load is stated as a +ve number
along with it being leading or lagging
pf = 0.5 (lagging)

EE330 15
 Complex Power
➢ Complex power absorbed by a load is the product of
voltage phasor and complex conjugate of current phasor
S = VI *
 S = V v  I −  i
 S = VI( v −  i )
 S = S{cos( v −  i ) + j sin( v −  i )}
P = S cos( v −  i ) = Re( S )
➢ This is so because average real power is time invariant!
➢ It is stated in terms of VA. Alternatively,
VV * V 2
S = VI = * = * = I 2 Z
*

Z Z

EE330 16
 Reactive Power
➢ Reactive power is a measure of energy exchange between
source and capacitors/ inductors in the circuit
Q = S sin( v −  i ) = Im(S )
➢ It is stated in terms of Volt-Ampere Reactive (VAR)
➢ For a given load Z L = RL + jX L
2 2
V R V X
P = I 2 RL = 2 L 2 , Q = I 2 X L = 2 L 2
RL + X L RL + X L
➢ For pure resistive loads Q=0
➢ For pure inductive loads Q  0 (reactive power is absorbed)
➢ For pure capacitive loads Q  0 (reactive power is supplied)

EE330 17
 Power in AC circuits
➢ Complex power
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 𝐕𝐈∠(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
➢ Apparent power
𝐒 = 𝐕𝐈 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2
➢ Average/ real power
𝑃 = Re( 𝑆) = 𝐒 cos( 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ) = 𝑄 cot( 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
➢ Reactive power
𝑄 = Im( 𝑆) = 𝐒 sin( 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ) = 𝑃 tan( 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
➢ Power factor
𝑃
𝑝𝑓 = = cos( 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
𝐒

EE330 18
 Power/ Impedance Triangle
➢ Standard practice to represent S, P, Q in form of a triangle
➢ For an inductive load
Power Triangle
S Q I2Z I2X

≡
Φ Φ
X  0 (lagging)
P I2R Q  0 (reactive power is absorbed)
≡

X IX
Z V  0
≡
Φ Φ
R IR
Impedance Triangle

EE330 19
 Power/ Impedance Triangle contd.
➢ For a capacitive load
Power Triangle
P I2R
Φ Φ
≡
S I2Z X  0 (leading)
Q I2X
Q  0 (reactive power is supplied)
≡

R IR
Φ Φ  0
≡
Z V
X IX
Impedance Triangle

EE330 20
 Complex Power Flow
Z=(R+jXl)=Z<Φ Ω

I12 I21

V1<θ1 V2<θ2

V11 − V2  2
I12 = = − I 21
Z
1  V1V2 (1 −  2 +  )
2
V
S12 = V1 I12 =
*
− = P12 + jQ12
Z Z
2  V1V2 ( 2 − 1 +  )
2
V
S 21 = V2 I 21 =
*
− = P21 + jQ21
Z Z
EE330 21
 Complex Power Flow contd.
Z=(R+jXl)=Z<Φ Ω

I12 I21

V1<θ1 V2<θ2

V12 V1V2
P12 = cos  − cos(1 −  2 +  )
Z Z
V12 V1V2
Q12 = sin  − sin(1 −  2 +  )
Z Z
P12 + P21 = I12 R = I 21 R → Copper loss in line
2 2

Q12 + Q21 = I12 X = I 21 X → Reactive power absorbed in line

2 2

EE330 22
 Three phase AC circuit

➢ A standard practice is to generate, transmit and distribute

power in three phase form due to following advantages
over single phase form
• Less conductor material required as no extra return
conductor is needed for each phase
• Instantaneous power is constant (in balanced situation),
hence less mechanical vibrations in rotating machines
• Three phase currents inherently produce rotating magnetic
field which aids in constant torque for rotating machines
➢ An alternator produces three phase balanced voltages by
design

EE330 23
 Specifications in three phase AC circuit

➢ Voltage & current specifications in three phase AC circuits

refer to the RMS line to line values
➢ Power specification in three phase circuits is generally in
terms of the three phase apparent power
➢ For example,
• A 110V three phase voltage source at 50Hz frequency
states that the line to line RMS voltage is 110V.
• A 30VA machine supplying a balanced load implies that the
machine can deliver a maximum of 10VA apparent power
on each phase

EE330 24
 Next module/ lecture
➢ Basic circuit principles – three phase

EE330 25