Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24JUL1385

Understanding Chichewa Noun Classes and

Morphological Structure
Liston Mpheza
Lecturer in Linguistics and Communication Studies,
The Catholic University of Malawi

Abstract: This paper explores the complex noun it essential for education and literacy (Malawi Institute of
classification system of Chichewa, a Bantu language Education, 2013).
primarily spoken in Malawi and surrounding regions,
with approximately 15 million speakers. This system, In addition to its local significance, Chichewa is also
which categorizes nouns based on both semantic and increasingly recognised internationally. With the growing
morphological criteria, profoundly impacts subject-verb interest in African languages and cultures, Chichewa has
agreement and concord usage, thereby shaping Chichewa gained attention as a language of study and research,
sentence structure. Nouns are divided into various classes, contributing to the global understanding of Bantu languages
each marked by specific prefixes that change with and linguistics.
singular and plural forms. For example, class 5 and 6
nouns typically begin with consonants such as b-, d-, and One of the distinctive features of Chichewa is its
dz-, with singular forms prefixed by "li-" and plural complex system of subject-verb agreement. According to
forms by "ma-". A distinctive feature of some class 6 Mchombo (2004), Chichewa exhibits a rich array of verb
nouns is their retention of the "ma-" prefix in both inflections that indicate agreement with the subject in terms
singular and plural contexts. The paper also discusses of person, number, and gender. This agreement system is
classes 7 and 8, which differentiate nouns starting with closely linked to the noun classification system in Chichewa,
"ch-" in singular and "z-" in plural, and classes 9 and 10, which divides nouns into various classes based on semantic
where nouns generally maintain the same form between and morphological criteria.
singular and plural, using "i-" for singular and "zi-" for
plural. Diminutive prefixes "ka-" and "ti-" classify nouns Chichewa employs a noun class system, a common
into classes 12 and 13, while nouns beginning with "u-" or feature among Bantu languages, whereby nouns are
forming plurals with "ma-" are assigned to classes 14 and categorised into different classes or categories (Steytler,
6, respectively. The study further explores locative 1989). Each noun class is associated with specific concords,
prefixes, with class 15 involving gerund forms with "ku- which are prefixes or particles that agree with the noun in
", class 16 using "pa-" for "on", class 17 using "ku-" for terms of class and are used in various grammatical contexts,
"at", and class 18 using "mu-" for "in". These including subject-verb agreement, possession, and agreement
classifications not only highlight the morphological with demonstratives and adjectives (Mjaya, 2002). The writer
complexity and systematic nature of Chichewa grammar acknowledges that it is important to master each class and the
and syntax but also provide a comprehensive framework concords—both subject markers and object markers—that
for understanding and effectively using the language, accompany each class. However, this paper is only interested
offering valuable insights for linguists, language learners, in identifying the Chichewa noun classes.
and educators.
Noun classes contribute to the richness and complexity
Keywords:- Chichewa Language, Noun Classification, of Chichewa grammar, making it an intriguing subject of
Prefixes, Concord, Singular, Plural. study for linguists and language enthusiasts alike.
Furthermore, they present both challenges and opportunities
I. INTRODUCTION for language learners, media presenters and educators seeking
to understand and effectively communicate in Chichewa.
Chichewa, also known as Chinyanja, spelled as
Cinyanja, is a Bantu language spoken predominantly in II. NOUN CLASSIFICATION IN CHICHEWA
Malawi, where it serves as the national and official language.
It is also spoken in parts of Zambia, Mozambique, and Chichewa, like many other Bantu languages, employs a
Zimbabwe, particularly in border regions (Paas, 2016; noun classification system whereby nouns are grouped into
Wills,1985). Chichewa holds significant cultural, social, and various classes based on shared semantic or grammatical
economic importance in Malawi and the surrounding regions. features. These noun classes serve as a framework for
As the national language of Malawi, it plays a crucial role in organising the lexicon and determining agreement patterns in
facilitating communication and fostering national unity the language. Noun classes in Chichewa are typically marked
among diverse ethnic groups within the country. Moreover, by prefixes attached to the noun stems, although there are also
Chichewa is one of the subjects in Malawian schools, making suffixal and internal modifications (Mjaya, 2002).

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Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24JUL1385

 NOUN CLASS 1 AND 2 (MU-, A-,) verb agreement. However, in the Malawian school
In the Chichewa language, nouns that utilise the prefix curriculum, these nouns are often grouped under the broader
"A_" to indicate plurality are categorised into two distinct category of Mu-, A-, class (Mangoche, and Loga, 1971). It is
noun classes based on their singular and plural forms. When noteworthy that while these nouns may begin with any initial
these nouns are used in their singular form, they are classified letter in their singular form, their plural marker consistently
into noun class 1. In contrast, when the same nouns are starts with the prefix "a_" or "wa", highlighting the regularity
pluralised, they belong to noun class 2. This distinction is and predictability of Chichewa noun morphology. The table
fundamental to Chichewa grammar and reflects the box below shows some of the Chichewa nouns that are in
language's intricate system of noun classification and subject- classes 1 and 2.

In Chichewa, concords play a crucial role in subject-  NOUN CLASS 3 AND 4 (MU-, MI-,)
verb agreement, possession, and agreement with In Chichewa, nouns utilising the prefix "mi-," to signify
demonstratives and adjectives. Concords are inflectional plurality undergo a reclassification depending on their
morphemes (aphatikitiri) that agree with nouns in terms of singular or plural form. When singular, they fall into noun
their class and are used to mark agreement between different class 3, but upon transitioning to plural, they shift to noun
elements within a sentence. Each noun class in Chichewa is class 4. This distinction is pivotal in Chichewa grammar,
associated with specific concords, which are used to modify showcasing its complex system of noun classification and
verbs, pronouns, and other elements of the sentence to reflect concord usage. Despite this grammatical complexity, the
agreement with the noun. Malawian school curriculum often simplifies these nouns,
grouping them under the broader category of "Mu-, mi-,
When the concord refers to a subject marker in class 1, class." This simplification aids learning by providing a
it utilises the prefix 'wa-' or ‘a-.’ When it refers to class 2, it standardised framework, regardless of the specific
utilises the prefix 'a-' for agreement, aligning with the morphological changes the nouns undergo. It's noteworthy
plurality marking of the noun classes. This consistency that while these nouns may vary in the prefix used in singular
ensures grammatical accuracy and coherence in sentence form, their consistent use of the "mi_" prefix for plural
structure. When the object marker belongs to class 1 or class markers underscores the regularity and predictability of
2 the prefix 'wa-' and ‘a-‘ are employed respectively. Chichewa noun morphology. Table box below exemplify this:

Agalu akupha kululu wakuda

Agalu a-ku-ph-a kululu wa-kuda

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Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24JUL1385

In Chichewa, while certain nouns are classified as class In Chichewa grammar, nouns classified into class 3
3, they do not change form when transitioning from singular utilise the prefix 'u-' as their concords when serving as subject
to plural. Despite this grammatical feature, some speakers markers or object markers within a sentence. Conversely,
erroneously utilise the prefix "mi-" when referring to these nouns categorised into class 4 employ the prefix 'i-' for
nouns in their plural form. This misuse is exemplified in text concords in similar grammatical roles. This distinction in
box 2b below, where nouns retain their singular form even in concord usage based on noun classification is a fundamental
plural contexts. Such misconceptions likely stem from the feature of Chichewa grammar.
general association of the "mi-" prefix with pluralisation in
Chichewa, leading speakers to apply it indiscriminately. Mwezi uno tikagulitsa mtedza uwu tigule mipando itatu.
Mwezi u-no ti-ka-gulits-a mtedza u-wu ti-gul-e mipando i-
tatu.

 Noun Class 5 and 6 (Li-, Ma-,)

Nouns in class 5 typically have a singular form starting
with the prefix "li-" and a plural form in class 6 that starts
with the prefix "ma-." However, there are only a few nouns
in class 5 that start with a consonant "l-" in their singular
form. Below are some examples to illustrate this pattern:

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Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24JUL1385

The examples above, show how the prefix "li-" in the In Chichewa, most nouns in class 5 start with
singular form changes to "ma-" in the plural form, indicating consonants such as b-, d-, dz-, f-, g-, gw-, h-, j-, kh-, p-, ph-,
that the nouns belong to classes 5 and 6 respectively. ts-, tch-, th-, and v-. The plural forms of these nouns belong
to class 6 and typically start with the prefix "ma-." This
morphological pattern is consistent and follows the guidelines
outlined by Nankwenya (1992). Below are some examples to
illustrate this:

These examples abovedemonstrate the typical pattern of  Singular: ma-dzi (water)

how singular nouns in class 5 with various consonant  Plural: ma-dzi (waters)
beginnings transform into their plural forms in class 6 with  Singular: ma-peto (end)
the prefix "ma-."  Plural: ma-peto (ends)
 Singular: manda (grave yard)
It should be noted that, in Chichewa, there are many  Plural: manda (grace yards)
nouns that start with the prefix "ma-" and belong to class 6,  Singular: mantha (fear)
which do not change their form to indicate singularity or
 Plural: mantha (fears)
plurality. These nouns retain the same form whether they are
used in singular or plural contexts. All Chichewa nouns that
These examples show how the prefix "ma-" is used
start with the prefix "ma-" and remain unchanged in both
consistently without changing the form of the noun,
singular and plural forms belong to this class. The following
regardless of whether it is singular or plural. This
examples illustrate this:
characteristic is a defining feature of nouns in class 6 that start
with the prefix "ma-."

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Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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 NOUN CLASS 7 AND 8 (CHI-, ZI-,) plural forms start with the consonant "z-" and belong to noun
In Chichewa, nouns that start with the consonant "ch-" class 8. For example:
belong to noun class 7 and are used in singular form. Their

From the text box above, Chichewa nouns that start with
"ch-" are singular and belong to class 7, while their plural
forms start with "z-" and belong to class 8.

In addition, some nouns that start with the consonant

"ch-" do not inherently show singular or plural distinctions.
Instead, they are classified into Chichewa noun class 7 when
used as singular in a sentence and into noun class 8 when used
as plural. Text box below illustrate this:

In both cases, whether to underrate or to emphasise size,

the nouns start with the prefix "chi-" and belong to class 7
when used in the singular form.

 NOUN CLASS 9 AND 10 (I-, ZI-,)

In Chichewa, classes 9 and 10 belong to the i-/zi- group,
which includes nouns that typically do not change their form
when used in both singular and plural.

Nouns in class 9 are identified when they are used in

their singular form in a sentence. They do not start with the
In Chichewa, some nouns that use the prefix "chi-" can
prefixes u- or ma-. The same nouns, when used in their plural
be employed to either underrate something or to emphasize
form within a sentence, belong to class 10. This is because
its hugeness. These nouns belong to noun class 7 when used
the plural form in Chichewa typically involves the use of the
in their singular form. The following text box illustrate this:
zi- prefix for nouns in this class.

In Chichewa, noun classes 9 and 10 include many nouns

that start with specific consonant clusters. These clusters are
indicative of nouns that often do not change form between
singular and plural, but their class membership changes based
on their usage (singular for class 9 and plural for class 10).
According to Nankwenya (1992), most nouns in these classes
begin with the following consonants:

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Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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In addition to nouns starting with specific consonant utilising the prefix "ma-" in the plural and forming diminutive
clusters, Chichewa noun classes 9 and 10 also include some plurals with "ti-" are appropriately classified within noun
nouns that begin with the vowel "i-." These nouns, like others class 13.
in classes 9 and 10, do not change form between singular and
plural. Instead, their classification depends on their usage in It is essential to note that while there are Chichewa
a sentence—singular forms belong to class 9, while plural nouns that begin with the syllable /ka/, not all of them
forms belong to class 10 as shown below: demonstrate diminutive forms. For instance, nouns like
"kalata" (letter) and "kapolo" (servant) commence with the
Example: imvi (grey hair) syllable /ka/ but do not exhibit diminutive qualities. As such,
these nouns should not be categorised in Class 12, which is
 Singular (Class 9) reserved for nouns showing diminutives in their singular form
 Plural (Class 10): with the prefix "ka-." Instead, they belong to other
appropriate noun classes based on their semantic or
Imvi yaikulu. (A large grey hair.) grammatical characteristics. This highlights the importance
Imvi zikulu. (Large grey hairs.) of distinguishing between nouns that genuinely display
diminutive forms and those that merely begin with the
The above examples illustrate that the word imvi does syllable /ka/ but do not indicate smallness or diminutiveness.
not change whether it is used in singular (class 9) or plural Therefore, while "kalata" and "kapolo" start with /ka/, they
(class 10) form. should not be erroneously classified as diminutive nouns in
Class 12, as they do not conform to the criteria for diminutive
III. NOUN CLASS 12 AND 13 (KA-, TI-,) formation in Chichewa.

Nouns demonstrating diminutive forms in the singular  Noun Class 14 (U-, Ma-,)
with the prefix "ka-" are classified in Class 12, while those In Chichewa, nouns that begin with the phoneme /u/
exhibiting diminutive forms in the plural with the prefix "ti-" categorised in Class 14 of Chichewa noun classification. As
belong to Class 13 of Chichewa noun classification. This outlined by Mchombo (2004), Class 14 consists of nouns that
classification is supported by Chadza (1980), who outlines retain the same form in both singular and plural, typically
the characteristics of these noun classes. For example, starting with the phoneme /u/. For instance, "udzu"
"kamwana" (little child) exemplifies a diminutive noun in the (grass/grasses), "udzudzu" (mosquito/mosquitoes),
singular form, where "ka-" signifies smallness. Conversely, exemplify this pattern, where the noun form in Chichewa
in the plural form, "tiwana" (little children) illustrates the remains unchanged despite being singular or plural.
diminutive, with "ti-" indicating smallness. Therefore, according to Mchombo (2004), Chichewa nouns
beginning with the phoneme /u/ and maintaining the same
It should be noted that nouns that lack singular or plural form in both singular and plural align with the characteristics
forms but begin with the syllable "ma-" utilise only their of Class 14 nouns, regardless of their usage in singular or
plural form in diminutive contexts. When these nouns exhibit plural contexts.
plural diminutive forms with the prefix "ti-," they are
appropriately classified within noun class 13. For instance, However, for all nouns that begin with the phoneme /u/
consider "timadzi" (small water) and "timafuta" (small oil), but form their plurals with the prefix "ma-", only the singular
where the prefix "ma-" denotes a collective plural form. nouns are in class 14 while the plural nouns are categorised
These nouns do not have singular counterparts, and their in Class 6 of Chichewa noun classification. According to
diminutive forms are expressed through the plural form with Mchombo (2004), Class 6 also comprises nouns that start
the prefix "ti-." Thus, according to Mchombo (2004), with the phoneme /u/ in the singular form but take the prefix
Chichewa nouns lacking singular or plural distinctions but "ma-" to form the plural. For instance, "uta" (arrow) is in class

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Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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14 while "mauta" (arrows) in the plural form is in class 6. IV. CONCLUSION

Similarly, "ulendo" (journey) is in class 14 while "maulendo"
(journeys) in the plural is in class 6. In conclusion, Chichewa is a Bantu language spoken
predominantly in Malawi and neighboring regions, it features
A. NOUN CLASS 15 (KU + MNENI / VERB) a complex system of noun classification that is integral to its
In Chichewa, gerund nouns formed by attaching the grammar and syntax. This system categorizes nouns based on
locative prefix "ku-" to the verb root are typically classified semantic and morphological criteria, influencing subject-verb
within Class 15 of Chichewa noun classification. According agreement and concord usage, and thereby shaping the
to Myers (2015), Class 15 comprises gerund nouns derived structure of Chichewa sentences.Nouns in Chichewa are
from verbs, often preceded by the prefix "ku-," which divided into various classes, each marked by specific prefixes
indicates the action or process denoted by the verb. For that change depending on whether the noun is singular or
instance, "kupita" means "going," where "ku-" signifies the plural. For example, class 5 nouns often start with consonants
action of going, and "pita" represents the verb "to go." like b-, d-, dz-, and others, with singular forms prefixed by
Similarly, "kukula" translates to "growing," where "ku-" "li-" and plural forms by "ma-". A unique feature of some
indicates the process of growing, and "kula" denotes the verb class 6 nouns is that they start with "ma-" and do not change
"to grow." Thus, these examples demonstrate how Chichewa form to indicate number, retaining the same form in both
gerund nouns formed with the prefix "ku-" conform to the singular and plural contexts.
characteristics of Class 15 nouns, as described by Nkhoma
(1999), indicating their classification within this specific Additionally, classes 7 and 8 include nouns that start
category. with "ch-" in singular and "z-" in plural. Classes 9 and 10
often feature nouns that do not change form between singular
B. NOUN CLASS 16 (LOCATIVE PA-) and plural, using the prefix "i-" for singular and "zi-" for
In the classification of Chichewa nouns, those indicating plural. Nouns with diminutive prefixes "ka-" and "ti-" belong
places and featuring the locative prefix "pa" (meaning "on") to classes 12 and 13, respectively. Those beginning with "u-"
are typically categorized into class 16. According to Kishindo or forming plurals with "ma-" fall into classes 14 and 6,
(2019), nouns denoting locations, such as "pampando" (on respectively. Further more, Chichewa's noun classes also
the chair) or "padenga" (on the roof), are examples of this include locative prefixes: class 15 involves gerund forms with
classification. These nouns exhibit the prefix "pa-" as a "ku-", class 16 uses "pa-" for locative meaning "on", class 17
marker of their locative function, indicating the position of an uses "ku-" for "at", and class 18 uses "mu-" for "in". These
object or entity about a particular place. This categorization classifications not only illustrate the linguistic richness of
into class 16 reflects the systematic organization of Chichewa Chichewa but also provide a structured framework for
nouns based on semantic and morphological criteria. understanding and using the language effectively.

C. NOUN CLASS 17 (LOCATIVE KU-) The noun classification system in Chichewa highlights
In the categorization of Chichewa nouns, places marked the language's morphological complexity and systematic
with the locative prefix "ku" (meaning "at") are commonly approach to grammar, offering linguists and language
placed in class 17. As noted by Phiri (2015), nouns that learners a fascinating area of study and practical application.
represent locations, like "kumsika" (at the market) or
"kumunda" (at the garden), serve as prime examples of this REFERENCES
grouping. These nouns employ the prefix "ku-" to signify
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D. NOUN CLASS 18 (LOCATIVE MU-,) [4]. Malawi Institute of Education. (2013). Silabasi ya
In Chichewa, nouns denoting places that incorporate the Chichewa ya Fomu 1 ndi 2. Malawi Institute of
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"mudzi" represents "village." Similarly, "m’nyumba" [7]. Mchombo, S. (2004). The Syntax of Chichewa.
translates to "in the house,". These examples also align with Cambridge University Press.
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locative prefix "mu-" fit within this specific classification. [9]. Nankwenya, I.A.J. (1992). Zofunika Mu Galamala ya
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Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24JUL1385

[10]. Nkhoma, W.A. (1999). Kuphunzira Chinyanja.

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