Rural Water Supply Design Standards in

Lesotho. These standards are used by

Department of Rural Water Supply in
Lesotho(DRWS)
I, LEROTHOLI RABUKANA work as a Project Officer or Principal Technical Officer in
this Department.
Content
1 Design Criteria.............................................................................................................2
1.1 Design Period.......................................................................................................2
1.2 Water consumption rates.....................................................................................2
1.3 Water Quality.......................................................................................................2
2 Demand Calculation....................................................................................................2
3 Construction Materials.................................................................................................3
4 Spring Source...............................................................................................................4
4.1 Spring Catchment................................................................................................4
4.2 Source Pipeline....................................................................................................4
4.3 Silt Box................................................................................................................5
5 Gravity System............................................................................................................5
5.1 Main line..............................................................................................................5
6 Pumping Installation....................................................................................................6
6.1 Standard Pumps & Engines.................................................................................6
6.2 Pumping Hours....................................................................................................6
6.3 Feed Tank............................................................................................................7
6.4 Pumping Main.....................................................................................................7
7 Distribution System.....................................................................................................7
7.1 Storage Tank........................................................................................................7
7.2 Standpipes............................................................................................................8
7.3 Private connections..............................................................................................8
8 Pipe system General....................................................................................................8
8.1 Air release............................................................................................................8
8.2 Washout...............................................................................................................9
8.3 Pressure Break Tank (PBT).................................................................................9
8.4 Gate valves...........................................................................................................9
8.5 Globe valves........................................................................................................9
8.6 Donga Crossing...................................................................................................9
8.7 Maximum allowable pressure in the pipe line...................................................10
8.8 Design Guidelines for Water Hammer..............................................................11
9 Survey and Design Procedures..................................................................................11
9.1 Introductory Meeting.........................................................................................11
9.2 Survey................................................................................................................12
9.3 Presentation and approval of design by VWC...................................................12
9.4 Preparation of Design File.................................................................................12

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1 Design Criteria

Lesotho policy is to have flexible design standards and provide a service level depending
on the community’s need and ability to operate, maintain and manage the water system.

The basic service level is 30 liters per capita per day within a walking distance of 150m.
The maximum number of people to be served by one tap is 150. The systems shall be
designed for the projected maximum population within the design period.

1.1 Design Period

High growth area growth rate > 4% 15 years

Medium growth area 1% < growth rate < 4% 20 years
Low growth area growth rate < 1% 25 years

Pumping equipment shall be designed according to the maximum life span of the
equipment normally 15 years.

1.2 Water consumption rates

Public Standpipe 30 lpcd

Yard connection 45 lpcd
Private tap in the yard 60 lpcd
House connection without water borne sewerage 100 lpcd
House connection with water borne sewerage 200 lpcd
Institutions Clinic 100 l/bed/day
Ordinary School 2 l/ pupil/day
Boarding School 60 l/ student / day

An amount of 20 % water loss shall be added to the above figures.

1.3 Water Quality

Water quality in rural water systems shall fulfil the ‘Proposed Water Quality Guidelines
for Lesotho – Domestic (Drinking) Water Guidelines, Second Draft, dated 15th April
1998’ or any updated approved version of these guidelines.

2 Demand Calculation

The daily demand is calculated according to the water consumption rates for the
estimated maximum population within the design period.

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20% is added to the daily demand to cater for losses in the pipe system.

The population growth depends on the location of the project area and the socio-
economic situation in the community.

The projected future population (Pn) is the present population (P) multiplied with the
population growth factor for the design period:

Pn = P * (1 + r/100)n

n = number of years (design period according to 1.1)

r = population growth rate of the project area in %

The population growth rate has a considerable influence on the cost of the water system,
but it is difficult to estimate accurately. It depends on factors such as proximity to towns
and to main roads as well as facilities in the community e.g. schools, clinic, shops etc.

The growth rates per constituency listed in ‘Technical Guidelines – Volume 1 Manual of
Design and Construction Standards’, appendix 3 can be used as a guideline, but within
the constituency there can be substantial variations depending on weather the community
is a growth centre or not.

General guidelines for population growth:

Lowland community near main road, with school, clinic, shops etc. >5%
Lowland community with no of few facilities ~0–2%
Mountain or foothill community with school, clinic, shops etc. ~1–3%
Mountain or foothill community with no or few facilities ~0%

The yield of all the water sources during the dry season has to cover the future water
demand of the population. The spring monitoring might not have captured the minimum
yield and therefore as a safety factor the minimum measured yield has to be multiplied
with 0.9 to determine the safe yield (Qavailable).

3 Construction Materials

Construction materials shall be according to DRWS standards specified in ‘Technical

Guidelines – Volume 7 DRWS Construction Specification’. The pipe system shall be
constructed in High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) Pipes for diameters of 50 mm or
smaller and uPVC pipes for diameters larger than 50 mm. GI Pipes medium duty to
SABS 62 with cast iron fittings can be used where the ground conditions makes it
necessary to use pipes with high physical strength.

Structures shall be according to DRWS standard drawings as specified in ‘Technical

Guidelines – Volume 2 Standard Drawings’.

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Stone masonry shall be used for all structures, silt-boxes, storage tanks etc. The only
exception is pump houses, which are constructed in brick masonry. Use of brick masonry
for structures can only be approved in cases where it is not possible for the contractor to
provide stones of the right quality within a reasonable radius from the construction site.
This must be documented in the technical report.

4 Spring Source

4.1 Spring Catchment

The immediate area around the spring catchment shall be protected and fenced. The size
of the protection zone depends on the thickness and nature of the covering stratum, but as
a minimum the radius of the protected area must not be smaller than 10 m.

The excavation is done to the rock surface if possible so that the spring catchment can be
constructed on the rock. If this is not possible due to the depth of soil to the rock the
excavation shall be done so that the cover on top of the spring catchment is a minimum of
2 meters.

4.2 Source Pipeline

The pipeline from spring to the silt box is called source pipeline. The design principle is
that this pipe should never run under pressure in order to protect the spring from back
pressure.

The silt box shall be constructed as close as possible to the spring. The recommended
distance is 6 meter. The minimum size for the source pipe shall be 40 mm.

The size of the pipeline depends upon the maximum yield of the spring (Qmax), the
fluctuation factor (FF) and the slope from the spring catchment to the inlet of the silt box.

The fluctuation factor (FF) is a safety factor, which depends on the type of aquifer and
the quality of the monitoring data. The fluctuation factor is determined as follows:

Spring yield monitored monthly for two years or more FF = 5

Spring yield monitored monthly for minimum 1 year in sandstone FF = 5
Spring yield monitored monthly for minimum 1 year in basalt rocks FF = 10
Spring yield monitored quarterly for minimum 1 year in sandstone FF = 10
Spring yield monitored quarterly for minimum 1 year in basalt rocks FF = 20

The design flow for the source pipeline is Qdesign = Qmax * FF.

Calculate the slope from below the eye of the spring to the inlet of the silt box. If the
spring is not excavated or from rock, assume a level for the eye of the spring depending

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on the topography, normally 1m to 2m below the ground level. The minimum allowed
slope shall be 3%.

The Manning’s Equation for open channel flow shall be used to calculate the required
size of the pipe.

To avoid problems related to construction with larger diameter pipes, it is advisable to

use two or more pipes if the required pipe size is larger than 50 mm.

4.3 Silt Box

The capacity of a silt box in litres (C) can be calculated with the following equation:

C = Qmax * t

Qmax = The smallest of the maximum capacity of the mainline or the maximum
spring yield in l/s
t = Detention time in seconds

The detention time in a silt box shall be 20 minutes (1200 seconds). During this time
most of the suspended particles can sink down and settle on the bottom of the silt box.

5 Gravity System

5.1 Main line

The pipeline from silt box to the tank is termed as main line. There are no taps on this
line. The mainline is designed for a continuous average flow over 24 hours (86,400
seconds).

Calculate average required flow (Qreq.) to satisfy the design demand.

If Qreq. > Qavailable, the pipe size should be designed for Qreq

If Qreq < Qavailable, the pipe size should be designed for Qavailable to serve additional purposes
within a limit of 10% extra cost required over and above the cost to bring Qreq. In such a
condition provision should be made to divert the overflow water at the tank site.

The mainline shall be dimensioned using the ‘Hazen Williams Formula’ for calculation
of friction losses. 5% shall be added as an allowance for friction in fittings.

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6 Pumping Installation

6.1 DRWS Standard Pumps & Engines

Diesel Pumping systems:

Lister Diesel engines type LT, LV, TS and TR shall be used for all installations where
diesel engines are required.

Mono HD or Orbit power range positive displacement pumps shall be used for pumping
from a spring source.

Mono BP or Orbit borehole range pumps shall be used for pumping from a borehole
source.

Alternatively Lister Diesel generators can be used in combination with submersible

borehole pumps or electrical motor on horizontal pumps.

Electrical Pumping systems:

Mono HD or Orbit power range positive displacement pumps or Grundfos centrifugal

pumps shall be used for pumping from a spring source.

M&B or Grundfos Submersible borehole pumps or Mono BP or Orbit borehole range

pumps in combination with an electrical motor shall be used for pumping from a
borehole.

Solar Pumping Systems:

ALL POWER, Mono/Orbit or Grundfos pumps shall be used for solar pumping systems.

The belt drives for pumping systems shall be Wedge-Belt, section 16N (SPB) for diesel
and electrical driven pumps and 10N (SPZ) for solar driven pumps. The frame design
shall be for a standard centre distance of 400 mm for horizontal pumps and 1610 mm for
borehole pumps.

Any other types of pumps and engines can only be used when it is documented by the
designer that the alternative installation is more efficient and cost effective and that repair
services and spare parts will be available.

6.2 Pumping Hours

Diesel pumping systems shall normally be designed for 8 hours pumping time per day.
Pumping time between 4 and 12 hours is acceptable.

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Electrical pumping systems can be designed for 16 hours pumping time if the yield and
characteristics of the borehole allows.

Solar systems are designed for 6 hours pumping per day.

6.3 Feed Tank

The feed tank volume in spring fed pumping systems shall be calculated as:

Vft(m3) = Fs x daily demand (m3/day) – minimum spring yield (m3/h) * pumping time (h)

The daily demand is the required volume at the end of the design period for the water
system.

For diesel and electrical pumping systems, the safety factor Fs = 1.4 and is providing
safety against running dry if the pumping time is extended.

For solar pumping systems, Fs = 1.3 to take into account that on clear summer days, the
solar pump is pumping 130% of the average rate.

6.4 Pumping Main

The pipe size and the pumping hours shall normally be selected so that the friction loss in
the pump main is less than 10% of the total pumping head, in order to reduce the running
cost. The pumping main shall be dimensioned using the ‘Hazen Williams Formula’ for
calculation of friction losses. 5% shall be added as an allowance for friction in fittings.

7 Distribution System

7.1 Storage Tank

DRWS recommends the following storage capacity to store water during periods of low
demand for use during periods of high demand:

Gravity System: 66 % of the total demand.

Diesel/ Electrical Pumping System: 100% of the total demand.
Solar Pumping System: 200% of the total demand.

The location of a storage tank has to be considered very carefully. It should be located as
close to the consumers as possible. Two or more small storage tanks can in some cases be
preferable to one large tank. Where pressure break tanks are needed in the distribution
system, the volume of the pressure break tank shall be calculated as 66% of the demand
of the area served by the pressure break tank and be taken as part of the overall storage
requirement for the water system.

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7.2 Standpipes

DRWS recommends one public standpipe for 80 to 120 people, within 150m walking
distance, however the location of standpipes depends upon other factors like, group of
houses, drainage, high points, low points, etc.

The flow at the public standpipe should be able to meet the daily demand over a
collection period of 6 hours. This corresponds to the following recommended flow rates
for public standpipes:

0 – 80 Users per tap 0.10 l/s

80 – 150 Users per tap 0.20 l/s

7.3 Private connections

The flow for private connections shall be estimated as the flow, which can deliver the
daily demand at the consumer point in six hours. The number and location of private
connections shall be estimated from the WAP study results and a justified estimate of
future connections.

The quantities and the costing for a water system shall only include the fittings required
to provide the tee/ plug for private connections. All other pipes, fittings, water meter etc.
shall be provided by the private household.

A flow diagram shall be drawn to show the layout of the distribution system and the flow
in each pipe section. An individual pipe section would normally be limited by pipe
branches, public standpipes and connection points known at the time of the survey.

The cumulative flows for delivery points supplied through a particular pipeline are added
up. The flow in a particular pipe section shall be the sum of the known and the future
connections to that pipe section.

8 Pipe system General

8.1 Air release

Air releases must be installed on all high points in the pipe system. If the pressure allows
the air release shall be a tee with an open vent. If not a tee with a plug shall be used. In
the distribution system standpipes shall be placed at highpoints to function as air releases
where possible. Air release valves shall only be used on larger pipe systems.

8.2 Washout

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Washouts must be provided on all low points in the pipe system. Normally the washout
shall be a tee with a plug. Gate valves shall only be used on larger pipe systems. Where
possible in the distribution system standpipes shall be placed at low points to function as
washouts.

8.3 Pressure Break Tank (PBT)

The function of PBT is to reduce the static pressure in the pipe system. The size of a PBT
in a distribution system shall be the minimum size allowing storage adequate for the
consumption supplied from the PBT to be balanced with the inlet flow to the PBT,
calculated as 66% of the demand.

In addition to the normal storage tanks sizes there are two standard sizes for PBTs:

300 litre capacity: without float valve, normally used if a PBT is required on the
mainline.
500 litre capacity: normally used in the distribution system, where a float valve is
installed or if the inlet pipe size is more than 40mm.

For a PBT without a float valve, the maximum capacity of outlet pipe shall be more than
maximum capacity of inlet pipe.

8.4 Gate valves

Gate valves are used to control the flow by completely switching off the supply.
Generally they are located at the outlet of reservoir, at major branch points etc. They
should not be used in regulating flow (i.e. partially open).

8.5 Globe valves

Globe valves are used for regulating flow through the pipe system. They are best located
near the discharge points, so that it is easier to measure the flow through the valve. A
globe valve shall be installed at all standpipes where dynamic pressure head is greater
than 15m.

8.6 Donga Crossing

The donga crossings shall be designed in a manner that flow in the donga cannot disturb
the pipeline. There are two possible designs:

 the pipeline is suspended above the possible top water level with no pillars in the flow
channel.
 the pipeline is buried under the bed of the donga possibly protected by gabions

Future erosion must be considered when designing the donga crossing.

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8.7 Maximum allowable pressure in the pipe line

The static and dynamic pressure in the pipe is limited due to the strength of the pipe and
the fittings. The pressure limits for HDPE and uPVC pipes are given by the class of the
pipes. The table below shows the maximum pressure limits for GI pipes medium duty to
SABS 62 specifications:

Nominal Maximum working pressure

Class of pipe diameter With malleable cast iron Remarks
(mm) fittings (SABS 509 / 1974)
Medium Duty 20 to 25 1400 kPa 140 m 210m if steel fittings are used
32 to 40 1400 kPa 140 m 170m if steel fittings are used
50 to 80 1400 kPa 140 m
100 to 125 1050 kPa 105 m
150 850 kPa 85 m

A pressure break tank must be provided when the static pressure exceeds the above
allowable limits. If the pressure in the pipe system can not be contained within these
limits for medium duty pipes, the DRWS Head Office shall be consulted.

Maximum static pressure in the distribution line and at the standpipes and private
connections should not exceed 60m.

If a float valve is installed in a PBT or storage tank, the maximum pressure on the inlet
pipe should not exceed 60m.

The pipes in the distribution system shall be dimensioned using the ‘Hazen Williams
Formula’ for calculation of friction losses. 5% shall be added as an allowance for friction
in fittings.

Following residual heads are recommended.

Standpipes and private connections: Ideal: 5 to 10m

Acceptable: 10 to 15m
PBT and storage tanks: 5 to 20m

The hydraulic gradient level should generally be not less than 5 m above ground level.

No negative pressure is allowed in any section of pipeline.

The velocity of flow in a pipeline has to be considered as well. Too great a velocity can
cause excessive erosion of the pipe or increase the risk of the occurrence of water
hammers when a valve is closed suddenly. Too small a velocity can cause settlement of
suspended particles at low points in the pipeline. Therefore, the recommended velocity
limits are:

Maximum: v = 3.0 m/s

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 Minimum: v = 0.5 m/s

8.8 Design Guidelines for Water Hammer

Water hammer occurs in pipeline due to rapid changes in flow rates. In distribution
pipelines pressure waves and thereby water hammers are created by change of flow
caused by opening and closing of taps. In the design of a distribution system it is rarely
necessary to make any special allowance for water hammer pipe velocities are relatively
low, the numerous branches have a cushioning effect on pressure fluctuation, and the
valve operating mechanism precludes abrupt flow adjustment. The possibility of damage
in pipeline by water hammer is much higher in pumping mains where the pipeline is long
and the velocity is high.

The analysis of water hammer is a complex problem. However, in the design of rural
water supply projects, it is recommended to check the rise in pressure caused by water
hammer by using Joukosky equation (refer to ‘Technical Guidelines – Volume 1 Manual
of Design and Construction Standards’). The total pressure including the water hammer
pressure wave shall not exceed the maximum allowable pressure for the pipe or for the
fittings.

9 Survey and Design Procedures

9.1 Introductory Meeting

The procedure for design starts after a feasibility study has been completed and a formal
agreement has been signed with the community on the type of water system and the
service level required. The Designer shall be familiar with the villages covered by the
water supply system to be designed. Staff from the DRWS District Office shall introduce
the Designer to the village and participate in an introductory meeting with the Chief, the
VDC and VWC.

The Designer shall investigate the background material and the preliminary design agreed
with the village, e.g. feasibility study report, water source monitoring data, borehole yield
tests, willingness and ability to pay studies etc. If there are any inconsistencies with the
DRWS Standards or any mistakes in the preliminary design and the background material,
this shall be documented and discussed with DRWS.

The Designer shall confirm, with the Village Water Committee, the option of water
supply system and the preliminary design, which has been described in the feasibility
study. If the design is not to the satisfaction of the village, the changes shall be
documented if any and approval by DRWS before proceeding with a revised design.

The population for use in the design shall be confirmed. The population figures shall be
based on a record of all households in the village and the number of people in each
household. The population of the main village and all sub villages shall be listed in the
Technical Report. Any plans regarding extensions to the village shall also be noted and

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whether or not it is a growth area. If the village has a clinic, school or other institution,
the Consultant will record its population, location, and any other pertinent information of
the institution. The population growth factor shall be determined and reasons for the
estimate shall be documented in the technical report.

9.2 Survey

The survey shall cover all pipeline and structure locations for the proposed scheme, as
well as for any existing water supply features. Survey routes and structure locations shall
be marked by installing a concrete post (100x100x500mm) secured with cement mortar
300mm deep in the ground.

The Village Water Committee shall select the tap locations. Any conflict with structure
location and alignment of pipelines through sites and fields shall be resolved with the
village and the landowners. The Designer shall ensure that the ‘Acceptance Certificate’
has been signed by all concerned landowners before the design file will be approved.

The Designer shall obtain permission from Ministry of Works, Roads Department where
the pipeline needs to cross major roads. The Designer shall obtain estimates from LEC
for electricity connection where needed.

9.3 Presentation and approval of design by VWC

The Designer shall present the design and layout of the scheme on a pitso for the village
residents. The design shall be explained and the reasoning behind each structure shall be
understood by the committee.

The design shall be modified to include any reasonable changes requested by the village.
Every effort shall be made to construct a system the village will use and maintain. The
meeting shall be used to strengthen the village organisation and complete any remaining
items required from the village. The Designer shall deal with all village residents in a
professional and honest manner. The committee shall approve the design.

The Designer shall document the discussion and prepare minutes of the meeting and
ensure that an ‘Acceptance Certificate’ is signed by all concerned parties.

9.4 Preparation of Design File

The design file shall be prepared in accordance with the formats described in ‘DRWS
Manual of Standardisation’. The design file includes:

1. Project Location Map: copy of map of Lesotho in scale 1:250,000 with the location
of the project marked.
2. Project Area Map: copy of LSPP map in scale 1:20,000, 1:25,000 or 1:50,000
showing the location of water sources, position of major structures e.g. storage tanks
and the boundary of the supply area.

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3. Technical Report: with the following chapters:
 Introduction including description of the community, the population, institutions,
location, type of system
 Source Evaluation incl. water quality aspects
 Design details including demand, design of structures, pumping systems etc.
4. Site Plan in scale 1:5,000 or 1:2,000 produced by enlarging the maps available from
LSPP. The site plan shall be detailed enough to allow a contractor to construct the
system. It shall identify existing structures from those proposed and shall show
distances and types and sizes of structures. The map shall, at a minimum, show the
following items:
 Houses, roads, electricity lines, contours, streams and rivers
 The location and flow rate of all springs or boreholes,
 All other water sources the village uses,
 The structures proposed in the design including all pertinent information such as
size, length and elevation,
 North arrow, scale designator, title block to show the village information, and the
co-ordinates of the centre of the village or the area served by the project.
The site plan shall be produced onto a high-grade film with ink. The plan shall be
sufficiently large to allow for future expansion of the village. Pen size, lettering,
symbols etc. shall be in accordance with the formats described in the ‘DRWS Manual
of Standardisation’. A printed copy of the plan shall be included in the design file.
5. Acceptance Certificate: a certificate in the standard format signed by VWC/VDC
and all landowners who will be affected by the construction work.
6. Hydraulic Design: demand calculation, hydraulic calculation of pipe system and
source pipes and pumping system design using the DRWS/Excel Design sheet. Copy
of print of survey data from DRWS/Excel survey calculation sheet shall be included.
7. Bill of Quantities and Costing: calculation of materials and cost according to the
DRWS format for costing, BOQSTAND.
8. ‘Scope of Work’ contract or ‘Engineers Estimate’: ‘Scope of Work’ for labour
contracts shall be included if the system will be constructed as a labour only contract.
Engineers Estimate shall be included if the construction will be tendered and
constructed by a contractor.
9. DRWS/ Design File - Quality Control Checklist.

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