Table of contents:

Abhijit Paul

Special Functions - map(), filter(), reduce(), sorted(), iter() —

Iterators, Generators

What is Python
1. It is a high-level, general-purpose programming language
2. It is used for: web development (server-side), software
development, mathematics, data science, system scripting.
3. It’s design philosophy is to enhance code-readability with the
use of indentation
4. It is dynamically typed & auto garbage-collected language
5. It works on diferent operating system

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 6. It runs on an interpreter system, which means each line of
code can be executed as soon as its written, i.e. supports
quick prototyping
7. It is a multi-paradigm programming language, which means
python supports Object Oriented Programming, Procedural
Programming and Structured Programming

Python Packages
1. Package in Python is a folder & Module is a python file.
2. Python Package that can contains single or multiple sub-
folders called as sub-modules, single or multiple python files.
3. Python module can contains several classes, functions,
variables, etc.
4. On installation of a package it resides in the system and only
when we import it, it gets loaded in RAM to avoid wastage of
RAM.
5. Advantages of using packages are it reduces coding and
increases code re-usability.

# Here 'math' is a module name

from math import sqrt # Here we are importing the specific method
print(sqrt(81))

import math # Here we are importing the math module itself. And t
print(math.sqrt(81))9.0
9.0

Keywords in Python
1. Keywords are special reserved words in Python that have

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 specific meanings and purposes
2. They can’t be used for anything but its own defined purpose
only.
3. They are in-built and need not to be imported.
4. There are 36 keywords in Python3.9

# One way to get Python Keywords is using 'keyword' package

import keyword
kw = keyword.kwlist # its an attribute and and not a function
print(kw)
print(f"Total numbers of Keywords are {len(kw)}")

# Another way to get Python Keywords is by using 'help()' function

help("keywords")['False', 'None', 'True', '__peg_parser__', 'and',
Total numbers of Keywords are 36

Here is a list of the Python keywords. Enter any keyword to get m

False break for not

None class from or
True continue global pass
__peg_parser__ def if raise
and del import return
as elif in try
assert else is while
async except lambda with
await finally nonlocal yield

Case sensitive
Python is a case sensitive language that means captial & small
letters are treated differently

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 #None = 10 # cannot assign to None is the syntax error
none = 10
print(none)10marks1 = 80
Marks1 = 90

# total = marks1 + marks1

sum1 = marks1 + Marks1

print(sum1)170

Identifiers
1. Its the name we give to identify a variable, function, class,
module or other object.
2. That means, whenever we want to give an entity a name, that’s
called ‘identifier’
3. It can start with Alphanumeric character & underscore
4. It cannot start with a Digit or Any special characters
5. It cannot be a reserved keyword

# Identifiers

_age = 10 # You can start identifier/variable name with underscor

Age = 10 # You can start identifier/variable name with Captial Al
age = 10 # You can start identifier/variable name with small Alph
_123age = 10 # You can start identifier/variable name with unders
#123age = 10 # invalid syntax as it started with numeric value
#@123age = 10 # invalid syntax as it started with numeric value

Variables
1. Definition: In Python, a variable is a named location used to

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 store data in memory.
2. Declaration and Assignment: Variables are declared by
writing the variable name and assigning it a value using the
equals sign (=). For example:

a = 5 # 'a' is a variable name

st = "hello" # 'st' is a variable name

Comments
1. Definition: A comment in Python is a piece of text un your
vode that is not executed. Its typically used to explain what the
code is doing or leave notes fort developers who will be
reading ot maintaing the code
2. Single Line Comments: Python uses a has symbol (#) to
denote a comment. Anything written after Hash will be ignored
by Python interpreter
3. Multi-Line Comments: Multi-Line strings using triple
quotes(‘’’ or “””) can be used as multi-line comments, as any
strings written within will be ignored by Python interpreter

# Add to numbers
a=4 # value of a is 4
b=5 # value of b is 5
c = a+b # sum is in c
print(c)9def add_number(a,b):
"""
Parameters:
a (int): First variable
b (int): Second variable

Return:

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 int: sum of variables a & b
"""
return a+bprint(add_number.__doc__) # to print the doc string
a (int): First variable
b (int): Second variable

Return:
int: sum of variables a & b# Multi Line Comment: We use Triple

text = """Jose Marcial Portilla has a BS and MS in Mechanical Engi

years of experience as a professional instructor and trainer for D
Python Programming. He has publications and patents in various fie
materials science, and data science."""

print(text)Jose Marcial Portilla has a BS and MS in Mechanical Eng

years of experience as a professional instructor and trainer for D
Python Programming. He has publications and patents in various fie
materials science, and data science.

Indentation
1. Importance: In Python, identation is not just for readability. Its
part of the syntax and is used to indicate a block of code
2. Space Usage: Python uses identation to define the scope of
loops, functions, classes, etc. Its Four Spaces or a Tab
3. Colon: Usually, a colon(:) at the end of a line is followed by an
intended block of code.
4. Without properly indenting the Python code, you will end up
seeing ‘IndentationError’ and the code will not get compiled.
5. Python Indentation is a way of telling a Python interpreter that
the group of statements belongs to a particular block of code

if True:

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 #print("This is True") # IndentationError: expected an indented b
print("This is True")This is True

Statements
1. Definition: A statement in Python is a logical instruction that
the Python interpreter can read and execute.
2. In general, Any instruction written in the source code and
executed by the Python interpreter is called a statement.
3. Types: Python includes several types of statements viz,
assignment statements, conditional statement, looping
statement, etc

# Conditional statement

x = 2
if x > 0:
print("{} is a positive number".format(x))

# Looping Statement

for i in range(3):
print("I am {}".format(i+1))2 is a positive number
I am 1
I am 2
I am 3

Multi-Line Statement
In Python, end of statement is identified by a newline character i.e
‘\n’. But we can make a statement extend over multiple line.

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 1. continuation character ‘\’
2. paranthetis ()
3. brackets []
4. braces {}
5. semi-colon “;”

# continuation character.
g = "Geeks \
for \
Geeks"
print(g)Geeks for Geeks# Paranthesis

X = (1+2+4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6+7+
1+2+4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6+7+1+
2+4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6+7+1+2+
4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6)
print(X)

Y = {1+2+4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6+7+
1+2+4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6+7+1+
2+4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6+7+1+2+
4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6}
print(Y)

Z = [1+2+4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6+7+
1+2+4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6+7+1+
2+4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6+7+1+2+
4+5+6+7+1+2+4+5+6]
print(Z)193
{193}
[193]

Dynamic Typing

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 Python is dynamically typed, which means that you dont have to
declare the type of a variable when you create one. You can chage
the type of data held by a variable at any time throughout the life of
program

#Dynamic Typing

a = 2 # 'a' contains integer

print("Datatype of 'a' ", type(a))
a = 'Abhi' # now 'a' contains string and overrides previously sto
print("Datatype of 'a' ", type(a))
a = 4.34 # now 'a' contains float and overrides previously stored
print("Datatype of 'a' ", type(a))Datatype of 'a' <class 'int'>
Datatype of 'a' <class 'str'>
Datatype of 'a' <class 'float'>

Data Types
Primitive Data Types:

1. Integers: Integers are whole numbers, without a fractional

component. They can be positive or negative.
2. Floats: Floats represent real numbers and are written with a
decimal point.
3. Complex: Complex data type consists of two values, the first
one is the real part and the second is imaginary part. Its
denoted as `3 + 7j`
4. Strings: Strings in Python are sequences of character data.
They are created by enclosing characters in quotes.
5. Boolean: Boolean in Python is used to represent the truth
value of an expression. True & False are the two types of it

Advanced Data Types:

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 1. List: Ordered collection, Mutuable, Hetergoenous data,
supports Indexing & Slicing
2. Tuple: Ordered collection, Immutuable, Hetergoenous data,
supports Indexing & Slicing
3. Dictionary: Ordered collection, Mutable, Key-Value pair,
Values can be Hetergoenous data, Keys are immutable
4. Set: Unordered collection, Mutable, Contains Unique value
only, Hetergoenous data

a = 10 #'int' datatype
print(f"Data Type is {type(a)}")

b = 10.10 #'float' datatype

print(f"Data Type is {type(b)}")

c = "Hello 123" #'str' datatype

print(f"Data Type is {type(c)}")

d = True #'bool' datatype

print(f"Data Type is {type(d)}")Data Type is <class 'int'>
Data Type is <class 'float'>
Data Type is <class 'str'>
Data Type is <class 'bool'>

Lists

Definition: A list in Python is an ordered collection (also known as a

sequence) of items. Its Heterogenous in nature.

Mutable: Lists are mutable, which means their elements can be

changed (added, modified, or deleted) after they are created.

Creation: A list is created by placing items (elements) inside square

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 brackets [], separated by commas.

Indexing and Slicing: Lists support indexing and slicing to access

and modify their elements. Python list indices start at 0.

d = [1, 2.2, "data", [3, "data1"]] # Here 'd' is of 'list' datatyp

print(type(d))
print("List: ", d)

print("Indexing: Data in list at position 1 is ", d[1])

print("Slicing: Data in list at between position 1 to 4 is ", d[1:
List: [1, 2.2, 'data', [3, 'data1']]
Indexing: Data in list at position 1 is 2.2
Slicing: Data in list at between position 1 to 4 is [2.2, 'data',

Tuples

Definition: A tuple in Python is similar to a list. It’s an ordered

collection of items. Heterogenous in nature

Immutable: The major difference from lists is that tuples are

immutable, which means their elements cannot be changed (no
addition, modification, or deletion) after they are created.

Creation: A tuple is created by placing items (elements) inside

parentheses (), separated by commas.

Indexing and Slicing: Lists support indexing and slicing to access

and modify their elements. Python list indices start at 0.

e = (1, 2.2, "data", [3, "data1"]) # Here 'e' is of 'tuple' dataty

print(type(e))
print("Tuple: ", e)

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 print("Indexing: Data in list at position 1 is ", e[1])
print("Slicing: Data in list at between position 1 to 4 is ", e[1:
Tuple: (1, 2.2, 'data', [3, 'data1'])
Indexing: Data in list at position 1 is 2.2
Slicing: Data in list at between position 1 to 4 is (2.2, 'data',

Dictionaries

Definition: A dictionary in Python is an unordered collection of

items. (from 3.7+, its a ordered collection of items) Each item stored
in a dictionary has a key and value, making it a key-value pair.

Mutable: Dictionaries are mutable, which means you can change

their elements. You can add, modify, or delete key-value pairs from
a dictionary.

Creation: A dictionary is created by placing items (key-value pairs)

inside curly braces {}, separated by commas. Each item is a pair
made up of a key and a value, separated by a colon :

Ordered | Immutable Keys | Mutable Values | Heterogenous in

nature

Unique Keys: Each key in a dictionary should be unique. If a

dictionary is created with duplicate keys, the last assignment will
overwrite the previous ones.

Accessing Values: You can access a value in a dictionary by

providing the corresponding key inside square brackets [].

Updating Values: You can update the value for a particular key by
using the assignment operator =.

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 Adding and Deleting Key-Value Pairs: You can add a new key-
value pair simply by assigning a value to a new key. You can delete
a key-value pair using the del keyword.

# Here 'f' is of 'dictionary' datatype | Key-Value pair | Unordere

f = {1: "data1", 2.2: 3.4, "key1": "value1",(4,5): [6, 7, 8]}
print(type(f))
print("Dictionary: ", f)

t = {'fruit1': 'apple', 'fruit2': 'guava', 'fruit3': 'banana', 'fr

print("Dictionary keys should be unique. If not, the last assignme

print("Accessing dictionary using key 'fruit1', who's value is: ",

t['fruit3'] = 'papaya'
print("Updated dictionary: ", t)

t['fruit4'] = "sugarcane"
print("Added new key-value to dictionary: ", t)
t['fruit5'] = "kiwi"
print("Added new key-value to dictionary: ", t)

# Deleting key-value pair from the dictionary

del t['fruit4']
print("Dicitonary: ", t)<class 'dict'>
Dictionary: {1: 'data1', 2.2: 3.4, 'key1': 'value1', (4, 5): [6,
Dictionary keys should be unique. If not, the last assignment will
Accessing dictionary using key 'fruit1', who's value is: apple
Updated dictionary: {'fruit1': 'apple', 'fruit2': 'pineapple', 'f
Added new key-value to dictionary: {'fruit1': 'apple', 'fruit2':
Added new key-value to dictionary: {'fruit1': 'apple', 'fruit2':
Dicitonary: {'fruit1': 'apple', 'fruit2': 'pineapple', 'fruit3':

Sets: A set is an unordered collection of items where every element

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 is unique.

g = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 4, 3, 9, 1, "abc", "gef", "abc"} # Here 'g' i

print(type(g))
print("Set: ", g)<class 'set'>
Set: {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 'abc', 'gef', 9}

Advanced Set Operations

# difference
art = {"Bob", "Rolf", "Anne", "Charlie"}
science = {"Bob", "Jane", "Adam", "Anne"}

only_science = science.difference(art) # print(science - art)

print(only_science)

# union
all_science_art = science.union(art) # print(science | art)
print(all_science_art)

# intersection
both = science.intersection(art) # print(science & art)
print(both){'Adam', 'Jane'}
{'Bob', 'Rolf', 'Jane', 'Anne', 'Adam', 'Charlie'}
{'Anne', 'Bob'}

List Comprehension

l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
lc = [i**2 for i in l]
print(lc)[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36]

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 Dictionary Comprehension

d = {'A': 1, 'B': 2, 'C': 3, 'D': 4, 'E': 5, 'F': 6}

dc = {k: v**3 for k, v in d.items()}
print(dc){'A': 1, 'B': 8, 'C': 27, 'D': 64, 'E': 125, 'F': 216}

Standard Output
print() is a standard output function which displays anything passed
as an argument to the function

Standard Input
input() is a standard input function which accepts anything passed
as an argument to the function in string format

name = input("Enter your name ")

print("Datatype of input data ", type(name))
print(f"How are you, {name}")

Operators
Arthmetic / Mathametical operators
+, -, /, *, //, %, **

a = 10
b = 3

print("a + b: ", a+b)

print("a - b: ", a-b)

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 print("a * b: ", a*b)
print("a / b: ", a/b)
print("a // b: ", a//b)
print("a % b: ", a%b)
print("a ** b: ", a**b)a + b: 13
a - b: 7
a * b: 30
a / b: 3.3333333333333335
a // b: 3
a % b: 1
a ** b: 1000

Logical Operators
and, or, not

print("AND operator")
print(True and True)
print(True and False)
print(False and True)
print(False and False)

print("OR operator")
print(True or True)
print(True or False)
print(False or True)
print(False or False)

print("NOT operator")
print(not True)
print(not False)AND operator
True
False
False
False

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 OR operator
True
True
True
False
NOT operator
False
True

Bitwise Operator
&, |, ^, >>, <<

a = 10 # 1010
b = 4 # 0100

# Bitwise AND
print("a & b ", a&b) # 1010 and 0100 --> 0000 --> 0 (apply 'and'
# 10 = 1 0 1 0
# 4 = 0 1 0 0
# =============
# 0 0 0 0 = 0

# Bitwise OR
print("a | b ", a|b) # 1010 or 0100 --> 1110 --> 14(apply 'or' o
# 10 = 1 0 1 0
# 4 = 0 1 0 0
# =============
# 1 1 1 0 = 14

# Bitwise XOR --> compares each bit of 1st operand with the 2nd
# If one of the bit is 1 (but not both) , the corresponding result
print("a ^ b ", a^b)

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 # 10 = 1 0 1 0
# 4 = 0 1 0 0
# =============
# 1 1 1 0 = 14

# 10 = 1 0 1 0
# 4 = 1 1 0 0
# =============
# 0 1 1 0 = 6

# Bitwise Right Shift

a = 10
print("a >> 2 ", a >> 2)
# 10 = 1010
# >>= 0010 --> 2

# Bitwise Left Shift

a = 10
print("a << 2 ", a << 2)
# 10 = 1010
# <<= 101000 --> 40 i.e 32+0+8+0+0+0 i.e 2^5 + 2^4 + 2^3 + 2^2

a = 10
print("a << 3 ", a << 3)
# 10 = 010
# 80 = 1010000a & b 0
a | b 14
a ^ b 14
a >> 2 2
a << 2 40
a << 3 80

Trick: To get the binary value of an integer

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 bin(10)'0b1010'

Control Flow Statements

if-else
The if/else statement executes a block of code if a specified
condition is true. If the condition is false, another block of code will
be executed.

x = 2 # x is assigned a value of 2
y = 4 # y is assigned a value of 4
if x < y:
print(f"x: {x} is less than y: {y}")
else:
print(f"x: {x} is greater than y: {y}")x: 2 is less than y: 4

while loop
A while loop is used to execute a block of statements repeatedly
until a given condition is satisfied.

And when the condition becomes false, the line immediately after
the loop in the program is executed.

counter = 0

while counter < 5:

print(f"{counter}: I enjoy coding!")
counter += 1
else: # The else clause is only executed when your while conditio
print("While loop ended")0: I enjoy coding!
1: I enjoy coding!

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 2: I enjoy coding!
3: I enjoy coding!
4: I enjoy coding!
While loop ended

for loop
For loops are used for sequential traversal

for counter in range(5):

print(f"{counter}: I enjoy coding!")0: I enjoy coding!
1: I enjoy coding!
2: I enjoy coding!
3: I enjoy coding!
4: I enjoy coding!

USECASE of WHILE and FOR loops

Both for loop and while loop is used to execute the statements
repeatedly while the program runs.

The major difference between for loop and the while loop is that

for loop is used when the number of iterations is known, whereas

execution is done in the while loop until the statement in the
program is proved wrong.

break and continue

# break

for i in range(5):
print(f"Iteration count: {i}")

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 if i >= 3:
print("Breaking for loop")
breakIteration count: 0
Iteration count: 1
Iteration count: 2
Iteration count: 3
Breaking for loop# continue

for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
print("Continuing with next iteration")
continue # skips the current iteration
print(f"{i}: Some more operation...")0: Some more operation...
1: Some more operation...
2: Some more operation...
Continuing with next iteration
4: Some more operation...

Functions
Advantags of having functions:
1. Makes programming fast
2. Reusability

Built-In Functions

# len
l = len('abc') # 3

# print
print(l) # prints the given input3

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 User Defined Functions
Function with no arguments

def introduction():
print("Hello, this is my first function")

introduction()Hello, this is my first function

Function with positional arguments

def function1(firstname, lastname):

print(f"First Name: {firstname}")
print(f"Last Name: {lastname}")# function1("Abhijit") # TypeE
function1("Abhijit", "Paul")First Name: Abhijit
Last Name: Paul

Functions with *args

*args specifies the number of non-keyword arguments that can be
passed to the function.

During the function call, user can pass ’n’ number of arguments and
while perform the operations all of them will be considered

def calculate_sum(*args) -> int:

"""This function is capable to calculate sum of 'n' number of

Returns:
int: sum value
"""
print(f"Number of arguments: {len(args)}")

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 return f"Sum: {sum(args)}"

print(calculate_sum(2,3))
print(calculate_sum(2,3,5))Number of arguments: 2
Sum: 5
Number of arguments: 3
Sum: 10

Functions with **kwargs (Keyword

Arguments)
**kwargs allows us to pass any number of keyword arguments.

def makeSentence(**kwargs):
sentence=''
for word in kwargs.values():
sentence+=word
return sentence

print('Sentence:', makeSentence(a='Hi ',b='there!'))

print('Sentence:', makeSentence(a='Kwargs ',b='are ', c='awesome!'
print('Sentence:', makeSentence(**{'a': "Dictionaries ", "b": "can
Sentence: Kwargs are awesome!
Sentence: Dictionaries can also be used

Recursion Function
A function that calls itself is said to be recursive, and the technique
of employing a recursive function is called recursion.

When we call a function in Python, the interpreter creates a new

local namespace so that variables defined within that function don’t
collide with identical variable defined elsewhere.

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 The same holds true if multiple instances of the same function are
running concurrently.

def function():
x = 10
function()

When function() executes the first time, Python creates a

namespace and assigns x the value 10 in that namespace. Then
function() calls itself recursively.

The second time function() runs, the interpreter creates a second

namespace and assigns 10 to x there as well.

These two instances of the name x are distinct from each another
and can coexist without clashing because they are in separate
namespaces.

# But the main problem with recursion is that we need to set some
# else it will throw `RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exce

# Here on calling function(), it keep calling itself until the thr

function()--------------------------------------------------------

RecursionError Traceback (most recent c

Cell In[52], line 1

----> 1 function()

Cell In[48], line 3, in function()

1 def function():

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 2 x = 10
----> 3 function()

Cell In[48], line 3, in function()

1 def function():
2 x = 10
----> 3 function()

[... skipping similar frames: function at line 3 (2970 times)]

Cell In[48], line 3, in function()

1 def function():
2 x = 10
----> 3 function()

RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded# Decreasing Count

def countdown(n):
print(n)
if n == 0:
return
else:
countdown(n-1)

countdown(5)5
4
3
2
1
0# Factorial using recursion
def factorial(n: int):
if n < 2:
return 1

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 else:
return n * factorial(n-1)

print(factorial(4))24# Sum of Fibonacci series for a given 'n' pos

# 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...
def fibonacci(n: int):
if n <= 1:
return n
return fibonacci(n-1) + fibonacci(n-2) + 1

print(fibonacci(7))33

Get & Set Recursion Limit

from sys import getrecursionlimit

print(getrecursionlimit())3000from sys import setrecursionlimit
setrecursionlimit(2000)
print(getrecursionlimit())2000

Functional Programming
Functional programming is a programming paradigm in which
we try to bind everything in pure mathematical functions style.
It is a declarative type of programming style.
Its main focus is on “what to solve” in contrast to an imperative
style where the main focus is “how to solve“.
It uses expressions instead of statements. An expression is
evaluated to produce a value whereas a statement is executed
to assign variables.

To support functional programming, it’s useful if a function in a

given programming language has two abilities:

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 To take another function as an argument
To return another function to its caller

Different types of special functions

lambda
map
filter
reduce
sorted
Iterator
Generator

Lambda Function
is a small anonymous function which can take any number of
arguments, but can only have one expression. e.g. lambda
argument(s) : expression

Regular function can have more than one expressions whereas

Lambda function can have only one.
Regular function has a function name, whereas Lambda
function doesnt.

Lambda function can be useful when we need to create a function

which has only one expression irrespective of number of arguments
and has no requirement of repeatability

# lambda function with one argument

even_or_odd = lambda x: 'even' if x%2==0 else 'odd'
print(even_or_odd(4))
print(even_or_odd(11))even
odd# lambda function with two argument

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 max_num = lambda x,y: x if x>y else y
print(max_num(4,9))9

map()
It is a built-in function that allows us to process and transform
all the items in an iterable without using an explicit for loop.
This technique is known as mapping.
It is useful when we need to apply a transformation function to
each item in an iterable and transform them into a new iterable.
Two arguments: map(function, iterable)

def square(num):
return num ** 2

numbers = [2,4,6,8]
print(list(map(square, numbers)))[4, 16, 36, 64]

Using lambda with map

l1 = [1,2,3]
l2 = [9,6,5]
print(list(map(lambda x,y: x-y, l2, l1)))[8, 4, 2]

filter()
Its a built in function that yields the items of the input iterable
for which function returns True.
It means that filter() will check the truth value of each item in
iterable and filter out all of the items that are falsy
Two arguments: filter(function, iterable)

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 # Suppose we need to filter out (-ve) value from the list of mixed
import math

data = [49, 36, -9, 81]

# Here we are filtering out the (-ve) or unwanted values first

print(list(filter(lambda x: x>0, data)))

# As a next step we can now calculate the squared root using map()
print(list(map(math.sqrt, filter(lambda x: x>0, data))))[49, 36, 8
[7.0, 6.0, 9.0]numbers = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]

def even(a):
return a%2==0

result = filter(even, numbers)

print(list(result))

#alternative way
result = filter(lambda a: a%2==0, range(20))
print(list(result))[2, 4, 6, 8]
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18]

reduce()
It performs functional computation by taking a function and an
iterable (e.g., list, tuple, dictionary, etc.) as arguments
It doesn’t return multiple values or any iterator, it just returns a
single value as output which is the result of the whole iterable
getting reduced to only a single integer or string or boolean.

# importing functools for reduce()

import functools

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 # initializing list
l = [1, 3, 5, 6, 2]

# using reduce to compute sum of list

print("The sum of the list elements is : ", end="")
print(functools.reduce(lambda a, b: a+b, l))

# using reduce to compute maximum element from list

print("The maximum element of the list is : ", end="")
print(functools.reduce(lambda a, b: a if a > b else b, l))The sum
The maximum element of the list is : 6

sorted()
It returns a sorted list of the specified iterable object (e.g list,
tuple)

# Here you have a list of dictionaries,

# and you need to sort in reverse order the list on the basis of '
products = [{'name': 'Phone', 'price': 10000, 'location': 'Pune'},
{'name': 'Printer', 'price': 20000, 'location': 'Mumba
{'name': 'Laptop', 'price': 40000, 'location': 'Ahmeda
{'name': 'Headphone', 'price': 5000, 'location': 'Gujr

for item in (sorted(products, key = lambda x: x['price'], reverse=

print(item){'name': 'Laptop', 'price': 40000, 'location': 'Ahm
{'name': 'Printer', 'price': 20000, 'location': 'Mumbai'}
{'name': 'Phone', 'price': 10000, 'location': 'Pune'}
{'name': 'Headphone', 'price': 5000, 'location': 'Gujrat'}number =
print(list(filter(lambda x: x%2==0, number)))[2, 4, 6, 8]

iter() → Iterators

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 This method returns an iterator for the given argument which is
a iterable
One argument: iter(iterable)

numbers = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]

iteration = iter(numbers)

# Practical use case of iter()

for _ in range(100):
try:
print(next(iteration)) # using next() would give first av
except StopIteration: # Once all the values are read from ite
break1
2
3
4

Generator
Its an elegant and simple way to create custom iterators in
Python
A generator is a function that returns an iterator that produces
a sequence of values when iterated over.
It is useful when we want to produce a large sequence of
values, but we don’t want to store all of them in memory at
once. (Memory Efficient approach)
Its defined as a normal function with def, but instead of return
statement it has yield
The yield keyword is used to produce a value from the
generator and pause the generator function’s execution until
the next value is requested.

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 #Generating data stream upto maximum value without storing in memo
def even_generator(max=2):
n = 2
while n <= max:
yield n
n += 2
result = even_generator(4)

print(next(result)) # --> max=2 -> yields n=2 --> prints 2 and n=2
print(next(result)) # --> max=2 -> yields n=4 --> prints 4 and n=4
print(next(result)) # --> max=2 -> yields n=6 --> n <= max conditi
4

------------------------------------------------------------------

StopIteration Traceback (most recent c

Cell In[9], line 11

9 print(next(result)) # --> max=2 -> yields n=2 --> prints 2
10 print(next(result)) # --> max=2 -> yields n=4 --> prints 4
---> 11 print(next(result)) # --> max=2 -> yields n=6 --> n <= max

StopIteration:# Generating Fibonacci series with `generators`

def generate_fibonacci():
n1 = 0
n2 = 1
while True:
yield n1
n1 , n2 = n2, n1 + n2

seq = generate_fibonacci()
print(next(seq))

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 print(next(seq))
print(next(seq))
print(next(seq))
print(next(seq))0
1
1
2
3

Exception Handling
Some of the most common types of exceptions are:

ZeroDivisionError: Raised when the second argument of a

division or modulo operation is zero.
TypeError: Raised when an operation or function is applied to
an object of inappropriate type.
ValueError: Raised when a built-in operation or function
receives an argument that has the right type but an
inappropriate value.
IndexError: Raised when a sequence subscript is out of range.
KeyError: Raised when a dictionary key is not found.
FileNotFoundError: Raised when a file or directory is
requested but doesn’t exist.
IOError: Raised when an I/O operation (such as a print
statement, the built-in open() function or a method of a file
object) fails for an I/O-related reason.
ImportError: Raised when an import statement fails to find the
module definition or when a from ... import fails to find a
name that is to be imported.
MemoryError: Raised when an operation runs out of memory.

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 OverflowError: Raised when the result of an arithmetic
operation is too large to be expressed by the normal number
format.
AttributeError: Raised when an attribute reference or
assignment fails.
SyntaxError: Raised when the parser encounters a syntax
error.
IndentationError: Raised when there is incorrect indentation.
NameError: Raised when a local or global name is not found.

Role of Try and Except:

try block: The code within the try block contains the
statements that may potentially raise an exception. It allows
you to specify the section of code that you want to monitor for
exceptions.
except block: If an exception occurs within the try block, the
corresponding except block(s) are executed. The except block
allows you to define the actions or code that should be
executed when a specific exception is raised. You can have
multiple except blocks to handle different types of exceptions.
The else block allows you run code without errors.
The finally block executes code regardless of the try-and-
except blocks.
Use the raise keyword to throw (or raise) an exception.

# try raise an exception bec x is not defined

try:
print(x)
except:
print("Some issue with x")2"""You can use the "else" keyword to
of code that will be performed if no errors are raised:"""

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 try:
print("Good morning today is 17th June")
except:
print("Some issue")
else:
print("No issues")Good morning today is 17th June
No issues"""If the "finally" block is supplied,
it will be executed whether or not the try block raises an erro

try:
x = 2
print(x)
except:
print("There is no X")
finally:
print("The 'try except' executed")2
The 'try except' executed# Use the "raise" keyword to throw an exc

x = 2

if x < 10:
raise Exception("There is a problem: X is below zero")----------

Exception Traceback (most recent c

Cell In[2], line 6

3 x = 2

5 if x < 10:

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 ----> 6 raise Exception("There is a problem: X is below zero")

Exception: There is a problem: X is below zero

ZeroDivisionError

n = int(input("Please enter the numerator: "))

d = int(input("Please enter the denominator: "))

result = n / d
print("Result:", result)------------------------------------------

ZeroDivisionError Traceback (most recent c

Cell In[3], line 4

1 n = int(input("Please enter the numerator: "))

2 d = int(input("Please enter the denominator: "))

----> 4 result = n / d

5 print("Result:", result)

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 ZeroDivisionError: division by zerotry:
n = int(input("Please enter the numerator: "))
d = int(input("Please enter the denominator: "))

result = n / d
print("Result:", result)

except ZeroDivisionError:
print("There is an Error: Division by zero is not allowed.")Th

ValueError

"""Raised when a built-in operation or function receives an

argument that has the right type but an inappropriate value."""

n = int(input("Please enter the numerator: "))

d = int(input("Please enter the denominator: "))

result = n / d
print("Result:", result)Result: 3.0try:
n = int(input("Please enter the numerator: "))
d = int(input("Please enter the denominator: "))

result = n / d
print("Result:", result)

except ValueError:
print("Please enter valid integers for the numerator and denom

try:
n = int(input("Please enter the numerator: "))
d = int(input("Please enter the denominator: "))

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 result = n / d
print("Result:", result)

except ValueError:
print("Please enter valid integers for the numerator and denom

except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Division by zero is not allowed.")Please enter the nume
Please enter the denominator: 2
Result: 1.0

TypeError

try:
x = "10" # Assigning a string value to the variable x
y = 2

z = x + y # Attempt addition between a string and an integer

print("Result:", z)

except TypeError:
print("Error: TypeError occurred.")Error: TypeError occurred.

IndexError

try:
list1 = [1, 2, 3]

print(list1[3]) # Trying to reach an index that is out of ran

except IndexError:

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 print("IndexError error occurred.")IndexError error occurred.

KeyError

try:
my_dictionary = {"name": "John", "age": 30}

print(my_dictionary["city"]) # Accessing a KEY which does not

except KeyError:
print("KeyError error occurred.")KeyError error occurred.

FileNotFoundError

try:
file_location = "my_file.txt"

with open(file_location, "r") as file:

contents = file.read()

except FileNotFoundError:
print(f"File '{file_location}' not found.")File 'my_file.txt'

IOError

try:
file_location = "file123.txt"

with open(file_location, "r") as file:

file.write("This is my file")

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 except IOError:
print(f"Unable to write to file '{file_location}'.")Unable to

ImportError

try:
import library1234

except ImportError:
print("Unsuccessful to import module 'library1234'.")Unsuccess

MemoryError

# Creating a large list that consumes a significant amount of memo

try:
large_list = [1] * (10 ** 12)

"""The phrase [1] * (10 ** 12) generates a

list by repeatedly repeating the element [1]."""

except MemoryError:
print("Insufficient memory for the list.")Cannot execute code,

The Kernel crashed while executing code in the the current cell or

Cannot execute code, session has been disposed. Please try restart

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 The Kernel crashed while executing code in the the current cell or

OverflowError

"""Raised when the result of an arithmetic operation is too large

to be expressed by the normal number format."""
try:
result = 5000 ** 100 # Attempting to calculate an extremely l

except OverflowError:
print("Error: Calculation resulted in an overflow.")
except ValueError:
print("Exceeds the limit (4300) for integer string conversion;
else:
print(result)7888609052210118054117285652827862296732064351090

AttributeError

try:

age = 20

# Using append method

age.append(12)

except AttributeError:
print("'age' object has no attribute.")
else:
print(result)'age' object has no attribute.

SyntaxError

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 try:
print("John age is:"
age = 20

except SyntaxError:
print("Error: Invalid syntax.")Cell In[14], line 3

age = 20

SyntaxError: invalid syntax

IndentationError

try:
name = "John"
age = 50

except IndentationError:
print("There is an IndentationError")Cell In[15], line 3

age = 50

IndentationError: unexpected indent

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 NameError

try:
side = "4"
print(area) # Attempting to access an undefined variable

except NameError:
print("NameError is there")NameError is there

User-defined Exceptions
By deriving a new class from the default Exception class in
Python, we can define our own exception types.

class MyCustomError(Exception):
pass

In the above code, MyCustomError is derived from the built-in

Exception class. You can use this in your code by using the raise
statement.

raise MyCustomError("This is a custom error")---------------------

MyCustomError Traceback (most recent c

Cell In[3], line 1

----> 1 raise MyCustomError("This is a custom error")

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 MyCustomError: This is a custom error

Custom Exception

# define user-defined exceptions

class WrongAge(Exception):
"Raised when the input value is less than 100"
pass# you need to guess this number
n = 18

try:
input_num = 16
if input_num < n:
raise WrongAge # calling your custom exception
else:
print("You can work")
except WrongAge:
print("Invalid Age: You are not allowed to work")Invalid Age:

Logging
Logging is a technique for monitoring events that take place
when some software is in use.
For the creation, operation, and debugging of software,
logging is crucial.
There are very little odds that you would find the source of the
issue if your programme fails and you don’t have any logging
records.

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 Additionally, it will take a lot of time to identify the cause.

# first import the logging library

import logging

""" In the code above, we first import the logging module, then we
basicConfig method to configure the logging.

We set the level to DEBUG, which means that all logs of level
DEBUG and above will be tracked."""

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)

# Logging Level: severity of the event being logged

# Least severe to most severe DEBUG > INFO > WARNING > ERROR > CR
logging.debug('This is a debug message')
logging.info('This is an info message')
logging.warning('This is a warning message')
logging.error('This is an error message')
logging.critical('This is a critical message')DEBUG:root:This is a
INFO:root:This is an info message
WARNING:root:This is a warning message
ERROR:root:This is an error message
CRITICAL:root:This is a critical message

Some programmers utilise the idea of “Printing” the

statements to check whether they were correctly performed or
if an error had occurred.
However, printing is not a smart move. For basic scripts, it
might be the answer to your problems, however the printing
solution will fall short for complex programmes.
A built-in Python package called logging enables publishing
status messages to files or other output streams. The file may
provide details about which portion of the code is run and any

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 issues that have come up.
Here are the different log levels in increasing order of severity:
DEBUG: Detailed information, typically of interest only when
diagnosing problems.
INFO: Confirmation that things are working as expected.
WARNING: An indication that something unexpected
happened, or may happen in the future (e.g. ‘disk space low’).
The software is still working as expected.
ERROR: More serious problem that prevented the software
from performing a function.
CRITICAL: A very serious error, indicating that the program
itself may be unable to continue running.

Debug

import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)

def add(x, y):

logging.debug('Variables are %s and %s', x, y)
return x + y

add(1, 2)DEBUG:root:Variables are 1 and 2

Info

import logging

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 logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

def login(user):
logging.info('User %s logged in', user)

login('Admin User')INFO:root:User Admin User logged in

Warning

import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.WARNING)

def MyBalance(amount):
if amount < 40000:
logging.warning('Sorry you have Low balance: %s', amount)

MyBalance(10000)WARNING:root:Sorry you have Low balance: 10000

Error

import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.ERROR)

def LetUsDivide(n, d):

try:
result = n / d
except ZeroDivisionError:
logging.error('You are trying to divide by zero, which is
else:
return result

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 LetUsDivide(4, 0)ERROR:root:You are trying to divide by zero, whic

Critical Errors

import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.CRITICAL)

def LetUsCheckSystem(sys):
if sys != 'OK':
logging.critical('System failure: %s', sys)

LetUsCheckSystem('You need to handle the issue now')CRITICAL:root:

Save to a file | Working with Files

import os

# Specify the directory and file

dir_path = r'C:\Users\Dell\Desktop\June\Latest\iNeuron\Sessions\17
log_file = 'system.txt'
full_path = os.path.join(dir_path, log_file)

# Check if the directory exists and create it if necessary

os.makedirs(dir_path, exist_ok=True)

# Try writing a test message to the file

with open(full_path, 'w') as f:
f.write('This is a test message')import os
print(os.getcwd())C:\Users\Dell\Desktop\June\Latest\iNeuron\Sessio
from os.path import dirname, join
import logging

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 # Specify the directory and file
dir_path = "/Users/abhijitpaul/Documents/Personal/Learning/iNeuron
log_file = 'system.txt'
full_path = join(dir_path, log_file)

# Check if the directory exists and create it if necessary

os.makedirs(dir_path, exist_ok=True)

# Set up logging
# Get a logger instance (this will fetch the root logger)
logger = logging.getLogger()

# Set the level of the logger to CRITICAL

# This means it will handle events of level CRITICAL and above
logger.setLevel(logging.CRITICAL)

# Create a FileHandler instance to write logs to a file

handler = logging.FileHandler(full_path)

# Set the format of the logs using a Formatter

# This format includes the log timestamp, log level and log messag
handler.setFormatter(logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s:%(levelname)s:

# Add the handler to the logger

# This connects the logger to the handler so that logs get written
logger.addHandler(handler)

def LetUsCheckSystem(sys):
if sys != 'OK':
logging.critical('System failure: %s', sys)

LetUsCheckSystem('You need to handle the issue now')

handler.close()CRITICAL:root:System failure: You need to handle th

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 def addition(a, b):
pdb.set_trace() # Set a breakpoint here
result = a + b
return result

print(addition(5, 7))> [1;32m<ipython-input-39-7ea871499ca9> [0m(

[1;32m 3 [1;33m [1;32mdef [0m [0maddition [0m [1;33m( [0m
[0m [1;32m 4 [1;33m [0mpdb [0m [1;33m. [0m [0mset_trace
[0m [1;32m----> 5 [1;33m [0mresult [0m [1;33m= [0m [0ma [0
[0m [1;32m 6 [1;33m [1;32mreturn [0m [0mresult [0m [1;
[0m [1;32m 7 [1;33m [1;33m [0m [0m
[0m
ipdb> 2
2
ipdb> 2
2
ipdb> 2
2

OOPs — Object Oriented Programming

In Python, everything is an object. It is a programming paradigm
that uses objects and classes in programming.

CLASS
It is a blueprint of an object or you can say its the design of an
object

e.g Bank Account → Class

Attributes

Acct No.
Acct Holder Name

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 Balance
Account Type
IFSC
MObile No

Methods

Deposit()
Withdrawal()
Transfer()

OBJECT
Creating object of a class which will allocate memory in the
system to load the class members and utilize it

self --> it holds the memory reference of the object and is

initialized inside the init() method. Using the self, we can access
variables & methods written inside the class

# Empty Class definition

class Person:
pass

# Creating object of Person class which will allocate

# a memory in the system to load the class and utilize it
p = Person()

print(f"Type of object is {type(p)}")Type of object is <class '__m

p.name = "Johnny"
p.name'Johnny'

Dunder Method or Magic Methods

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 Dunder methods are methods that allow instances of a class to
interact with the built-in functions and operators of the class
itself provided by Python Language
In other words, all the operations we do on a Python object is
implemented using these dunder methods
The two underscores are there just to prevent name collision
with other methods implemented by unsuspecting
programmers.

dir(<class instance>): Prints out list of all dunder methods

available

Few of the useful dunder methods are described below

__init__

Its a constructor or initializer method provided in a class

Its called every time an object is created from a class
Its purpose it to initialize the object’s attributes
Its only used within class

self

Its denotes the current instance of the class.

It holds the memory reference of the object and is initialized
inside the __init__() method.
Using the self, we can access variables & methods written
inside the class

# Will redefine the class

class Person:
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name) -> None:
"""

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 "__init__ is the dunder method that INITialises the instan

To create a Person, we need to know the first name and the

so that will be passed as an argument later, e.g. with Per
To make sure the instance of the class when created knows
we save it with self.first_name = first_name & self.last_n

"""
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name

p = Person("Abhijit", "Paul") # These two arguments will be initi

print(f"First Name: {p.first_name}")
print(f"Last Name: {p.last_name}")First Name: Abhijit
Last Name: Paul

__repr__

Computes “official” string representation of class

class Person:
def __repr__(self) -> None:
return f"This is a Person class without customized represe

p = Person()
print(f"Print Person instance: {p}")Print Person instance: This is

__str__

When we print an object (class instance), it calls the __str__()

function and prints the contents written within

class Person:

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 def __str__(self) -> None:
return f"This is a Person class without customized represe

p = Person()
print(f"Print Person instance: {p}")Print Person instance: This is

__getattr__

Get value of the attribute defined in a class

class Person:
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name) -> None:
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name

p = Person("Abhijit", "Paul") # These two arguments will be initi

print(f"Get Attribute: {p.__getattribute__('first_name')}")Get Att

__setattr__

Set value of the attribute defined in a class

class Person:
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name) -> None:
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name

p = Person("Abhijit", "Paul") # These two arguments will be initi

p.__setattr__('first_name', 'Mohan') # Setting attribute on the r

print(f"Get Attribute: {p.__getattribute__('first_name')}")Get Att

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 We will create a Class called ‘ToDo’ which will keep a track of to-do
list

class ToDo:
def __init__(self, owner: str) -> None:
self.owner = owner
self.tasks = []

def add_task(self, task: str) -> None:

self.tasks.append(task)

def complete_task(self, task: str) -> None:

if task in self.tasks:
self.tasks.remove(task)
print(f"Task '{task}' completed")
else:
print(f"Task is not found")

def display_tasks(self) -> None:

print(f"The Todo task of {self.owner}:")
for task in self.tasks:
print(task)todo = ToDo("Abhijit")
todo.add_task("I will wake up at 8am")
todo.add_task("I will attend iNeuron Live Session")

todo.display_tasks()

todo.complete_task("I will wake up at 8am")

todo.display_tasks()The Todo task of Abhijit:

I will wake up at 8am
I will attend iNeuron Live Session
Task 'I will wake up at 8am' completed
The Todo task of Abhijit:
I will attend iNeuron Live Session

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 4-Pillars of Object-Oriented Programming
(OOPs)
1. Inheritance → Provides reusability
2. Encapsulation → Provides security | Binding data with methods
| No exposing data directly by allowing data accessibility by
using those methods
3. Abstraction → Hides the backend implementation
4. Polymorphism → Provides many forms

Inheritance
Inheritance is one of the characteristics of Object Oriented
Programming paradigm.
It facilitates the passing of attributes and methods of a class
(base) to another class (derived)
A child class acquires the properties and can access all the
data members and functions defined in the parent class.
Moreover, a child class can also provide its specific
implementation to the functions of the parent class.

Usages:

Its primary usage is code reusability because we can inherit all

attributes and methods related to a particular functionality
which is already written in a class instead of writing the
functionality from scratch.

Types:

Single Inheritance
Multilevel Inheritance
Multiple Inheritance

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 Single Inheritance
In Single Inheritance, one child inherits from one parent i.e. there
will be a single base class and a single derived class

# E.g. Single Inheritance

class Human: # Base Class
def __init__(self, name) -> None:
self.name = name

def info(self):
print(f"Name: {self.name}")

class Male(Human): # Derived Class from a Single Base Class

def __init__(self, name, gender) -> None:
super().__init__(name)
self.gender = gender

def info(self):
super().info() # Reusing the info() method of base class
print(f"Gender: {self.gender}")

male = Male("Akshay", "Male")

male.info()Name: Akshay
Gender: Male

Multilevel Inheritance
In Multilevel Inheritance, one child class inherits attributes and
methods from a parent class and subsequently becomes the parent
class of another child class.

class Parent:

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 def __init__(self,name):
self.name = name

def getName(self):
return self.name

class Child(Parent):
def __init__(self,name,age):
super().__init__(name)
self.age = age

def getAge(self):
return self.age

class Grandchild(Child):
def __init__(self,name,age,location):
super().__init__(name,age)
self.location=location

def getLocation(self):
return self.location

gc = Grandchild("Srinivas",24,"Assam")
print(gc.getName(), gc.getAge(), gc.getLocation())Srinivas 24 Assa

Multiple Inheritance
In Multiple Inheritance, one child class can inherit attributes and
methods from multiple parent classes i.e there will be multiple base
class and a single derived class

# E.g. Multiple Inheritance

class Person: # Base Class
def __init__(self, name, age) -> None:

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 self.name = name
self.age = age

def person_info(self):
print(f"Name: {self.name} & Age: {self.age}")

class Company: # Base Class

def __init__(self, name, domain) -> None:
self.name = name
self.domain = domain

def company_info(self):
print(f"Company Name: {self.name} & Domain: {self.domain}"

class Employee(Person, Company): # Derived Class from a Single Ba

def __init__(self, name, age, company_name, domain, salary):
Person.__init__(self, name, age)
Company.__init__(self, company_name, domain)
self.salary = salary

def employee_info(self):
super().person_info()
super().company_info()
print(f"Salary: {self.salary}")

person1 = Employee("Abhijit", 30, "TT", "Trading Platform", 10000)

person1.employee_info()Name: TT & Age: 30
Company Name: TT & Domain: Trading Platform
Salary: 10000

MRO (Method Resolution Order)

→ Its very important to under MRO to grasp Multiple Inheritance

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 It is the order in which Python looks for a method in a hierarchy
of classes.
It plays vital role in the context of multiple inheritance as a
single method may be found in multiple super classes
Python constructs the order in which it will look for a method in
the hierarchy of classes.
It uses this order, known as MRO, to determine which method it
actually calls.
It is possible to see MRO of a class using mro() method of the
class.

IMP RULE TO REMEMBER: A Parent/Base/Super Class cannot be

accessed before a Child/Derived/Subclass

#CASE1
class A:
def process(self):
print('A process()')

class B:
pass

class C(A, B):

pass

obj = C()
obj.process()
print(C.mro()) # C -> A -> B -> ObjectCLassA process()
[<class '__main__.C'>, <class '__main__.A'>, <class '__main__.B'>,

From MRO of class C, we get to know that Python looks for a

method first in class C. Then it goes to A and then to B.

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 So, first it goes to super class given first in the list then second
super class, from left to right order. Then finally Object class, which
is a super class for all classes.

#CASE2
class A:
def process(self):
print('A process()')

class B:
def process(self):
print('B process()')

class C(A, B):

def process(self):
print('C process()')

class D(C,B):
pass

obj = D()
obj.process()

print(D.mro()) # D -> C -> A -> B -> ObjectCLassC process()

[<class '__main__.D'>, <class '__main__.C'>, <class '__main__.A'>,
class A:
def process(self):
print('A process()')

class B(A):

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 def process(self):
print('B process()')

class C(A, B):

pass

obj = C()
obj.process() # C -> A -> B -> objectClass (A cannot be before B

TypeError Traceback (most recent c

Cell In[39], line 12

8 def process(self):
9 print('B process()')
---> 12 class C(A, B):
13 pass
16 obj = C()

TypeError: Cannot create a consistent method resolution

order (MRO) for bases A, B

The problem comes from the fact that class A is a super class for
both C and B. If you construct MRO then it should be like this: C ->
A -> B -> A

super() function & Multiple Inheritance

# Scenario 1
class A:
def __init__(self) -> None:
print("A")

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 class B:
def __init__(self) -> None:
print("B")

class C(A, B):

def __init__(self) -> None:
super().__init__()

obj = C() # Here as well MRO came into picture. super() method c

class A:
def __init__(self) -> None:
print(f"Inside A. Type of self: {type(self)}") # But this
print("A")

class B:
def __init__(self) -> None:
print(f"Inside B. Type of self: {type(self)}") # But this
print("B")

class C(A, B):

def __init__(self) -> None:
print(f"Inside C. Type of self: {type(self)}")
A.__init__(self) # In this scenario, we can not use super
B.__init__(self) # Here we need to call the constructor o
obj = C() # Here as well MRO came into picture. super() method c

# Above is a limitation of using Multiple Inheritance in Python an

Inside A. Type of self: <class '__main__.C'>
A
Inside B. Type of self: <class '__main__.C'>
B

Encapsulation:

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 It provides security by binding data with methods ensuring no
data is not exposed directly and allowing data accessibility by
using the methods only.
We bind the data with methods
Its bundling of data along with the methods that operates on
that data, into a single unit. e.g. Class, Containers
Its a way to restrict the direct access to both attributes and
methods of an object, so that unauthorised users cannot
access it.

Access Modifiers | Format Specifier

To implement encapsulation, we have different types of access
modifiers.

Public: Attributes and methods declared as Public are easily

accessible from any part of the program i.e. inside as well as
outside the class. All data members and member functions of a
class are public by default
Protected: Attributes and methods declared as Protected are
accessible to only subclass or derived class of it. (Denoted by
single underscore as prefix)
Private: Attributes and methods declared as Private are only
accessible within the class and not outside of it (Denoted by
double underscore as prefix)

# define parent class Company

class Company:
# constructor
def __init__(self, name, proj):
self.name = name # name(name of company) is public
self._proj = proj # proj(current project) is protected

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 # public function to show the details
def show(self):
print("The code of the company")

# define child class Emp

class Emp(Company):
# constructor
def __init__(self, eName, sal, cName, proj):
# calling parent class constructor
super().__init__(cName, proj)
self.name = eName # public member variable
self.__sal = sal # private member variable defined with

# public function to show salary details

def show_sal(self):
print(f"The salary of {self.name} is {self.__sal}")

# creating instance of Company class

c = Company("Stark Industries", "Mark 4")
# creating instance of Employee class
e = Emp("Steve", 9999999, c.name, c._proj)

print("Welcome to ", c.name)

print("Here ", e.name," is working on ",e._proj)

# only the instance itself can change the __sal variable

# and to show the value we have created a public function show_sal
e.show_sal()Welcome to Stark Industries
Here Steve is working on Mark 4
The salary of Steve is 9999999

Abstraction:
Its a process of handling complexity by hiding unnecessary

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 information from the user.
It enables the user to implement more complex logic on top of
the provided abstraction without understanding or even
thinking about all the hidden complexities

Achieving Abstraction in Python

1. Decorators
2. Abstract Method & Abstract Classes

In Python, abstraction can be achieved by using abstract classes

and abstract methods

Abstract Method: Its a method that is declared but doesn’t contain

the implementation.

An abstract method in a base class identifies the functionality that

should be implemented by all its subclasses. However, since the
implementation of an abstract method would differ from one
subclass to another, often the method body comprises just a pass
statement. Every subclass of the base class will override this
method with its implementation.

Abstract Class A class containing abstract methods (atleast one

abstract method) is called abstract class.

# Note:
# 1. A class is defined as an Abstract Class by inheriting from `A
# 2. A method is defined as an Abstract Method by preceding its de

from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

class Shape(ABC):

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 def __init__(self, shapeType) -> None:
self.shapeType = shapeType

@abstractmethod
def area(self):
pass

@abstractmethod
def perimeter(self):
pass

class Rectangle(Shape):
def __init__(self, length, breadth) -> None:
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth
super().__init__("Rectangle")

# If the abstract methods are not implement, then while instan

# `Can't instantiate abstract class Rectangle with abstract me

def area(self): # Implemented the abstract method from base c

return self.length * self.breadth

def perimeter(self): # Implemented the abstract method from b

return 2 * (self.length + self.breadth)

print(f"Is `Rectangle` a subclass of `Shape`?: {issubclass(Rectang

rectangle = Rectangle(30, 15)

print(f"Area of rectangle: {rectangle.area()}")
print(f"Perimeter of rectangle: {rectangle.perimeter()}")Is `Recta
Area of rectangle: 450
Perimeter of rectangle: 90

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 Polymorphism
Polymorphism means having different forms
In Python, polymorphism refers to a function having same
name but being used in different ways and different scenarios.

Types
There are two different ways we can achieve Polymorphism.

Compile Time Polymorphism (e.g. Method Overloading)

Run Time Polymorphism (e.g. Method Overriding)

Method Overloading
In this, more than one method in same class shares the same
method name but different signatures.

Note: Python doesn’t support method overloading, as the

interpreter only detects the last method and ignores the previous
ones.

Workaround: By Using Multiple Dispatch Decorator (Install pip3

install multipledispatch) we can implement the feature of
Method Overloading

from multipledispatch import dispatch

@dispatch(int, int)
def product(first: int, second: int):
return first * second

@dispatch(int, int, int)

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 def product(first: int, second: int, third: int):
return first * second * third

@dispatch(float, float, float)

def product(first: float, second: float, third: float):
return first * second * third

print(product(2,3))
print(product(3,4,5))
print(product(1.1,2.2, 3.3))6
60
7.986000000000001

Method Overriding
Its an OOPs concept and related to Inheritance.
When child class method overrides (inducing its own
implementation) its parent class method having same name,
parameters and return type, its called Method Overriding

# Single Inheritance

class Rectangle:
def area(self, length, breadth):
return length * breadth

class Triangle(Rectangle):
def area(self, base, height):
return 0.5 * base * height

rec = Rectangle()
tri = Triangle()

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 print(rec.area(4, 8))
print(tri.area(4, 8))32
16.0import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, filename='app.log', filemo

logging.debug("This is a debug message and should not be printed")
logging.info("Second Hello World!")

Operator Overloading

class Vegetables:
def __init__(self, carrot: int, beans: int) -> None:
self.carrot = carrot
self.beans = beans

def __add__(self, other): # So here we have implemented the c

carrot = self.carrot + other.carrot
beans = self.beans + other.beans
return Vegetables(carrot, beans)

v1 = Vegetables(4, 8)
v2 = Vegetables(9, 3)

# without operator (+) overloading, we get error `TypeError: unsup

v3 = v1 + v2
print("Sum of carrots of both object: ", v3.carrot)
print("Sum of beans of both object: ",v3.beans)Sum of carrots of b
Sum of beans of both object: 11

Class Variable vs Instance Variable

Comparison Basis|Class Variables|Instance Variables

Definition|Class variables are defined within the class but outside of

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 any class methods.|Instance variables are defined within class
methods, typically the constructor| Scope|Changes made to the
class variable affect all instances of that class.|Changes made to
the instance variable does not affect all instances.|
Initialization|Class variables can be initialized either inside the class
definition or outside the class definition.|Instance variables are
typically initialized in the constructor of the class.| Access|Class
variables are accessed using the class name, followed by the
variable name.|Instance variables are accessed using the instance
name, followed by the variable name.| Usage|Class variables are
useful for storing data that is shared among all instances of a class,
such as constants or default values.|Instance variables are used to
store data that is unique to each instance of a class, such as object
properties.|

class Employee:

company_name = "ABC Technologies" # Class Variable

def __init__(self, first_name, last_name):

self.first_name = first_name # Instance Variable
self.last_name = last_name # Instance Variable

def display(self):
print(f"First Name: {self.first_name} | Last Name: {self.l

emp1 = Employee("Abhijit", "Paul")

emp1.display()
print(emp1.company_name) # We can access class variable using the
print(Employee.company_name) # We can access class variable using

emp2 = Employee("Mousumi", "Paul")

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 emp2.display()
print(emp2.company_name) # We can access class variable using the
print(Employee.company_name) # We can access class variable using
ABC Technologies
ABC Technologies
First Name: Mousumi | Last Name: Paul
ABC Technologies
ABC Technologies

Local Variable vs Global Variable

Comparison Basis|Global Variable|Local Variable

Definition|Global variables are declared outside the functions|Local
variables are declared within the functions Lifetime|Global variables
are created as execution of the program begins and are lost when
the program is ended|Local variables are created when the function
starts its execution and are lost when the function ends Data
Sharing|Global Variables Offers Data Sharing|Local Variables
doesn’t offers Data Sharing Scope|Accessible throughout the
code|Accessible inside the function Storage|Global variables are
kept in a fixed location selected by the compiler|Local variables are
kept on the stack Parameter Passing|For global variables,
parameter passing is not necessary|For local variables, parameter
passing is necessary Changes in a variable value|Changes in a
global variable is reflected throughout the code|Changes in a local
variable doesn’t affect other functions of the program

NOTE

In Python programming, both local and global variables are crucial

when writing programs. However, many global variables could take
up a lot of memory. It gets harder to spot an undesireable change in

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 global variables.

As a result, it is wise to avoid declaring pointless global variables

and using local variables for passing and manipulating data. It is
generally good practice to make use of local variables in Python.

# Local Variable
a = 20
def func1():
a = 10 # This variable `a` is local variable and is scope ins
print(f"Local Variable value inside the function is {a}")

func1()
print(f"Variable value outside the function is {a}")

# Explanation of Global Variable

b = 10 # Global variable
def func2():
global b # Accessing global variable inside the function usin
b += 5
print(f"Global Variable value inside the function is {b}")
func2()
print(f"Global Variable value outside the function is {b}")Local V
Variable value outside the function is 20
Global Variable value inside the function is 15
Global Variable value outside the function is 15

Decorators
Decorators are functions (or classes) that provide enhanced
functionality to the original function (or class) without the
programmer having to modify their structure.

1. Function level decorator

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 2. Class level decorator
3. Property (Setter | Getter | Deleter)

1. Function Level Decorator

# Sequence of execution
def hello_decorator(func): #3 func = sum_two_numbers
def inner(a,b): #6
print("Before execution") #7
value = func(a,b) #8 Here sum_two_number function will be
print("After execution") #12
return f"Computed value: {value}" #13 End of execution
return inner #4 It returns the inner() function definition wh

@hello_decorator #2 Decorator function is called

def sum_two_number(a, b): #9 gets called after step 8
print("Inside the function") #10
return a+b #11 : 10+40 = 50 is returned

sum_two_number(10,40) #1 #5 It invokes inner() function and pass

Inside the function
After execution

'Computed value: 50'def grade_decorator(func):

def wrapper(score, total):
percent = func(score, total)

grades = {
5: 'A+',
4: 'A',
3: 'B',

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 2: 'C',
1: 'D'}
return percent, grades[percent // 20]
return wrapper

class Student:
def __init__(self, name, score, total):
self.name = name
self.__score = score
self.total = total

@staticmethod
@grade_decorator
def get_percent(score, total):
return score/total * 100

def get_record(self):
percent, grade = Student.get_percent(self.__score, self.to
return f"Name: {self.name} | Percentage scored: {percent}

def __str__(self):
return f"Name: {self.name} | Score: {self.__score} | Total

stu = Student("Abhijit", 25, 100)

stu.get_record()'Name: Abhijit | Percentage scored: 25.0 % | Grade

def make_secure(func):

@functools.wraps(func)
def secure_function():
if user["access_level"] == "admin":
return func()
else:
return f"No admin permission for {user['username']}"
return secure_function

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 @make_secure
def get_admin_password():
return "1234"

# user = {"username": "jose", "access_level": "guest"}

user = {"username": "jose", "access_level": "admin"}

print(get_admin_password())
print(get_admin_password.__name__) # It prints `secure_function`
get_admin_password# Decorators with parameters

import functools

def make_secure(func):

@functools.wraps(func)
def secure_function(*args, **kwargs):
if user["access_level"] == "admin":
return func(*args, **kwargs)
else:
return f"No admin permission for {user['username']}"
return secure_function

@make_secure
def get_password(panel):
if panel == "admin":
return "1234"
else:
return "super secret password"

# user = {"username": "jose", "access_level": "guest"}

user = {"username": "jose", "access_level": "admin"}

print(get_password("admin"))
print(get_password("billing"))1234
super secret password# Decorators with parameters

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 import functools

def make_secure(access_level): # this is a factory method which h

def decorator(func): # this is the decorator function
@functools.wraps(func)
def secure_function(*args, **kwargs):
if user["access_level"] >= 1: # guest = 0, user = 1,
return func(*args, **kwargs)
else:
return f"No {access_level} permission for {user['u
return secure_function
return decorator

@make_secure("admin")
def get_admin_password():
return "1234"

@make_secure("user")
def get_dashboard_password():
return "super secret password"

user = {"username": "jose", "access_level": 0}

print(get_admin_password())
print(get_dashboard_password())

user = {"username": "jose", "access_level": 2}

print(get_admin_password())
print(get_dashboard_password())No admin permission for jose
No user permission for jose
1234
super secret password

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 2. Class level decorator
Instance Method, Class Method, Static Method

Instance Method:

It is the method that takes the first parameter, self, which

points to an instance of the class when the method is called.
Through the self parameter, instance methods can freely
access attributes and other methods on the same object.
Not only can they modify object state, instance methods can
also access the class itself through the self.class attribute.
This means instance methods can also modify class state.

Class Method:

A class method is decorated with @classmethod decorator.

Instead of accepting a self parameter, class methods take a
cls parameter that points to the class—and not the object
instance—when the method is called.
Because the class method only has access to this cls
argument, it can’t modify object instance state. However, class
methods can still modify class state that applies across all
instances of the class.

Static Method:

A static method is decorated with @staticmethod decorator.

This type of method takes neither a self nor a cls parameter
(but of course it’s free to accept an arbitrary number of other
parameters).
Therefore a static method can neither modify object state nor
class state.

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 Static methods are restricted in what data they can access —
and they’re primarily a way to namespace your methods.

class MyClass:
data = 10 # class variable
def method(self):
# Instance methods can also access the class itself throug
return 'instance method called', self

@classmethod
def classmethod(cls):
return 'class method called', cls

@staticmethod
def staticmethod():
return 'static method called'

obj = MyClass()

# This confirms that the instance method has access to the object
print(obj.method())

# When the method is called, Python replaces the self argument wit
# We could ignore the syntactic sugar of the dot-call syntax (obj.
# print(MyClass.method(obj))

# Calling classmethod() showed us it doesn’t have access to the <M

print(obj.classmethod())

# Behind the scenes Python simply enforces the access restrictions

# This confirms that static methods can neither access the object
print(obj.staticmethod())('instance method called', <__main__.MyCl
('class method called', <class '__main__.MyClass'>)
static method called

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 We can call the classmethod & staticmethod methods on the class
itself - without creating an object instance beforehand

print(MyClass.classmethod())
print(MyClass.staticmethod())('class method called', <class '__mai
static method called# Class Methods are mostly used as Factory Met

class Book:
TYPES = ("Hardcover", "Paperback") # Class variable which sho

def __init__(self, name: str, book_type: str, weight: int):

self.name = name
self.book_type = book_type
self.weight = weight

def __repr__(self) -> str:

return f"<Book {self.name}, {self.book_type}, weighing {se

@classmethod
def hardcover(cls, name: str, page_weight: int) -> "Book":
return cls(name, cls.TYPES[0], page_weight+100)

@classmethod
def paperback(cls, name: str, page_weight: int) -> "Book":
return cls(name, cls.TYPES[1], page_weight)

book1 = Book.hardcover("Harry Potter", 1500)

book2 = Book.paperback("Python 101", 700)
print(book1)
print(book2)<Book Harry Potter, Hardcover, weighing 1600g>
<Book Python 101, Paperback, weighing 700g>

3. Property (getter | setter | deleter)

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 The property decorator is very useful when defining methods for
data validation, like when deciding if a value to be assigned is valid
and won’t lead to issues later in the code.

getter and setter methods are used to access and modify

(respectively) a private instance.
deleter method lets you delete a protected or private attribute
using the del function.

class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self.__name = name

@property
def name(self):
print('Getting name')
return self.__name

@name.setter
def name(self, value):
print('Setting name to ' + value)
self.__name = value

@name.deleter
def name(self):
print('Deleting name')
del self.__name

# Now, whenever we use p.name, it internally calls the appropriate

p = Person('Adam')
print('The name is:', p.name)
p.name = 'John'
del p.nameGetting name
The name is: Adam

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 Setting name to John
Deleting name

Constructors & Destructors

A Constructor is called when an class instance is created
A Destructor is called when an object is deleted or destroyed
The __del__ method is called for any object when the
reference count for that object becomes zero.
The reference count for that object becomes zero when the
application ends, or we delete all references manually using
the del keyword.
The destructor will not invoke when we delete object
reference. It will only invoke when all references to the objects
get deleted.

class Employee:

# constructor
def __init__(self, name):
print('Inside Constructor')
self.name = name
print('Object initialized')

def show(self):
print('Hello, my name is', self.name)

# destructor
def __del__(self):
print('Inside destructor')
print('Object destroyed')

# create object

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 s1 = Employee('Emma')Inside Constructor
Object initializeds1.show()Hello, my name is Emma# delete object
del s1Inside destructor
Object destroyedfrom typing import List, Optional

Optional[List[int]]typing.Optional[typing.List[int]]

Duck Typing
Duck Typing is a way of programming in which an object
passed into a function or method supports all method
signatures and attributes expected of that object at run time.
The object’s type itself is not important. Rather, the object
should support all methods/attributes called on it.

class Duck:
def sound(self):
print("quack quack")

class Dog:
def sound(self):
print("woof woof")

class Cat:
def __init__(self):
self.sound = "meow meow"

def all_sounds(obj):
if hasattr(obj, 'sound') and callable(obj.sound):
obj.sound()
du = Duck()
do = Dog()
ca = Cat()
for obj in [du, do, ca]:

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 all_sounds(obj)quack quack
woof woof

Multi-Threading
Process in Python
In computing, a process is an instance of a computer program that
is being executed. Any process has 3 basic components:

An executable program.
The associated data needed by the program (variables,
workspace, buffers, etc.)
The execution context of the program (State of the process)

Thread:
Entity within a process that can be scheduled for execution
Smallest unit of execution
Multiple threads can exist within one process where:
Each thread contains its own register set and local variables
(stored in the stack).
All threads of a process share global variables (stored in heap)
and the program code.
A thread is simply a subset of a process
A thread contains all this information in a Thread Control Block
(TCB)

Thread Control Block (TCB)

Thread Identifier: Unique id (TID) is assigned to every new
thread

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 Stack pointer: Points to the thread’s stack in the process. The
stack contains the local variables under the thread’s scope.
Program counter: a register that stores the address of the
instruction currently being executed by a thread.
Thread state: can be running, ready, waiting, starting, or done.
Thread’s register set: registers assigned to thread for
computations.
Parent process Pointer: A pointer to the Process control
block (PCB) of the process that the thread lives on.

Process Control Block (PCB)

Process Identifier (PID)
Process State (waiting, running, exiting, etc)
Process counter (gives the address of process in memory)
Process Registers
Memory Limits
List of open files

Multithreading in Python
Defined as the ability of a processor to execute multiple
threads concurrently.
In a simple, single-core CPU, it is achieved using frequent
switching between threads. This is termed context switching.
In context switching, the state of a thread is saved and the
state of another thread is loaded whenever any interrupt (due
to I/O or manually set) takes place.
Context switching takes place so frequently that all the threads
appear to be running parallelly (this is termed multitasking).

import threading

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 import os

def task1():
print("Task 1 assigned to thread: {}".format(threading.current
print("ID of process running task 1: {}".format(os.getpid()))

def task2():
print("Task 2 assigned to thread: {}".format(threading.current
print("ID of process running task 2: {}".format(os.getpid()))#
print("ID of process running main program: {}".format(os.getpid())

# print name of main thread

print("Main thread name: {}".format(threading.current_thread().nam

# creating threads
t1 = threading.Thread(target=task1, name='t1')
t2 = threading.Thread(target=task2, name='t2')

# starting threads
t1.start()
t2.start()

# wait until all threads finish

t1.join()
t2.join()ID of process running main program: 68450
Main thread name: MainThread
Task 1 assigned to thread: t1
ID of process running task 1: 68450
Task 2 assigned to thread: t2
ID of process running task 2: 68450

Resources:
Self made contents while practicing Python. Hence might be very
comprehensive and not with detailed explanations of related topics.

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 I will try to come up with further topics in future. Keep watching the
blog.

Summary
In this article, we talked about Python right from scratch to
intermediate level. There are more to learn in Python, however this
would be enough to jump into “Coding world of Python”

Happy coding!

In Plain English
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