Chapter 5: Metal-Casting Processes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 METAL CASTING PRINCIPLE

 LAMINAR VS TURBULENT FLOW
 FLUIDITY PARAMETERS
 SHRINKAGE
 EFFECT OF COOLING RATE
 DEFECTS
 POROSITY AND CHILLS
 CONTINUOUS CASTING

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 1

Definition of Metal Casting Processes
A metal-forming process whereby molten metal is poured into a cavity or mold and, when cooled,
solidifies, taking on the characteristic shape of the mold.

Metal casting processes can be classified based on the type of (1) mold materials and designs, (2)
processing conditions and filling mechanism, (3) castings geometry

FIGURE 5.10 Schematic illustration of a typical

sand mold showing various features.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 2

 Melt Flow Characteristics
The two main types of melt flow are “laminar” and
“turbulent” flows.

Laminar flow is smooth and has less tendency to trap air

bubbles in the mold. However, it is slow and may results in
premature solidification of the melt before it fills the mold
cavity entirely. Turbulent flow is the opposite.

The type of melt flow is determined by a calculated

parameter called “Reynolds Number”:

Re = v . D . ρ / η (Reynolds number)

Re < 2,000 ⇒ Laminar

2,000 < Re < 20,000 ⇒ Laminar + Turbulent
Re > 20,000 ⇒ Turbulent
Video: Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 3

 Fluidity of Molten Metal
Fluidity: Capability of the molten metal to fill the mold cavities. It describes the easiness of
the casting process. It depends on:

A. Molten metal characteristics:

A.1. Viscosity ↑ ⇒ fluidity ↓
A.2. Surface Tension ↑ ⇒ fluidity ↓
A.3. Inclusions ↑ ⇒ fluidity ↓
A.4. Solidification Pattern (eg.: freezing range ↑ ⇒ fluidity ↓ )

B. Casting process parameters:

B.1. Mold Design (Sprue, Runners, Gates)
B.2. Mold Material (ex.: Thermal Conductivity ↑ ⇒ fluidity ↓ )
B.3. Mold Finish (Roughness ↑ ⇒ fluidity ↓ )
B.4. Superheating ↑ ⇒ fluidity ↑
B.5. Rate of Pouring ↑ ⇒ fluidity ↑
B.6. Heat Transfer ↑ ⇒ fluidity ↓

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 4

 Solidification of Pure Metals

Video: Solidification of
Pure Metals and Alloys

FIGURE 5.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note that
freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time.

Shrinkage takes place during all three phases of solidification. It is expressed by the increase in
specific density (density/volume) of the material. The highest shrinkage rate (speed) occurs during
the second stage of solidification (i.e., transformation from liquid to solid states). The highest
amount of shrinkage occurs during the third stage of solidification (i.e., cooling of the solid casting
to room temperature).

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 5

 Solidification Time

Chvorinov’s Rule

FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the remaining molten metal is poured out at the times
indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process called slush
casting, which is based on this principle. Source: After H.F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M.C. Flemings.

C depends on the specific characteristics of the mold material, metal, and process.

For Example: solidification time for a Sphere > Cylinder > Cube

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 6

 Effect of cooling rate (K/s)

• Slow (102 °K/s)

–Coarse dendritic structure with large spacing between dendrite arms
• Intermediate (104 °K/s)
–Finer structure with small spacing between dendrite arms
• High (106 - 108 °K/s)
–Amorphous structure

• As the grain size decreases:

1. Strength and Hardness increase
2. Microporosity decreases
3. Low tendency to crack during solidification (hot tearing)
4. Isotropic properties

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 7

 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is caused by:

a. Contraction of molten metal during cooling

prior to solidification
b. Contraction of metal during solidification
(fastest shrinkage rate)
c. Contraction of solidified metal during cooling
to ambient temperature (largest amount of
shrinkage)

Note: Some metals expand during solidifications

such as Gray cast iron due to the high specific
volume of graphite which precipitates during TABLE 5.1 Volumetric solidification contraction or
solidification. expansion for various cast metals.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 8

 Defects in Castings

1. Metallic Projections: flash, fins, swells.

2. Cavities: blowholes, pinholes, shrinkage cavities.
3. Discontinuities: cracks, hot tearing, cold shuts.
4. Defective Surface: oxide scales, scars, scabs.
5. Incomplete Casting: misruns, runouts
6. Incorrect dimensions or shape: shrinkage, irregural contraction
7. Inclusions: chemical reaction among metal, mold, and environment elements. Reduce strength and
act as stress raisers, also cause chipping of cutting tools. Can be filtered out during processing or
removed by chemical reactions.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 9

 Porosity and Chills
Porosity is detrimental to the ductility and surface
finish.

Porosity is caused by:

a. Shrinkage: Porosity is angular and has rough
surfaces.
Can be reduced by chills (external or internal).

b. Trapped Gases: Porosity is spherical and has

smooth walls. Either dissolved during solidification,
or generated during chemical reactions. Can be
reduced by Vacuum Casting, Purging with inert gas,
or deoxidizing. FIGURE 5.35 Various types of (a) internal and
(b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used
c. both in castings to eliminate porosity caused by
shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where
there is a larger volume of metal, as shown in
(c).

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 10

Ingot and Continuous Casting
Ingot Casting is replaced by continuous casting:
1. improve the efficiency of the process (reduce time and cost)
2. improve quality and mechanical properties.
Continuous (strand) casting is integrated with other manufacturing
processes; such as rolling, forging, cutting, …etc.
Strip casting is a continuous casting process followed by rolling
operation to a final thickness of 2-6mm.

Video: Continuous Casting

FIGURE 5.15 (a) The continuous-casting

process for steel. Note that the platform
is about 20 m (65 ft) above ground level.
(b) Continuous strip casting of
nonferrous metal strip.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 11

Metal Casting Processes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 EXPENDABLE VERSUS PERMANENT MOLDS

 PRINCIPLE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF:
 SAND MOLD
 SHELL MOLD
 EXPENDABLE PATTERN
 PLASTER MOLD
 CERAMIC MOLD
 INVESTMENT CASTING
 VACUUM CASTING
 PERMANENT MOLD
 SLUSH CASTING
 PRESSURE CASTING
 DIE CASTING
 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
 SQUEEZE CASTING

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 12

 Metal Casting Processes

A. Expendable Molds: molds are used for one production cycle only
(a.1) Sand, (a.2) Shell, (a.3) Lost-Foam, (a.4) Plaster, (a.5) Ceramic, (a.6)
Investment, (a.7) Vacuum

B. Permanent Molds: molds are used in multiple production cycles

(b.1) Slush, (b.2) Pressure, (b.3) Die (Hot and Cold), (b.4) Centrifugal, (b.5)
Squeeze, (b.6) Semisolid

C. Composite Molds: expendable + permanent

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 13

 a.1. Sand Mold Casting
Principle: Sand casting consists of placing a pattern (having the shape of the
desired casting) in sand to make an imprint, incorporating a gating system,
filling the resulting cavity with molten metal, allowing the melt to cool until
solidifies, breaking away the sand mold, and removing the casting.

Typical Parts: machine-tool bases, engine blocks, cylinder heads, pumps

Two general types of sands:

1. Naturally Bonded 2. Synthetic: controlled more accurately
Important factors in selecting sand for molds:
1. Having fine and round grains to form smooth mold surface.
2. Good Permeability to allow gases and steam to escape the mold
3. Good collapsibility to avoid hot tearing and cracking during shrinkage

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 14

 Features of a Sand Mold

FIGURE 5.14 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

Video: Sand Casting I (preparing mold) Video: Sand Casting II (pouring melt)

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 15

Sand Casting Process
FIGURE 5.16 Schematic illustration of the sequence of
operations in sand casting.
(a) A mechanical drawing of the part, used to create
patterns. (b-c) Patterns mounted on plates equipped
with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints
designed to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes
produce core halves, which are pasted together. The
cores will be used to produce the hollow area of the part
shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled
by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with
aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue
and risers. (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the
plate and inserts are removed. (h) The drag half is
produced in a similar manner. (j) The core is set in place
within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing
the cope on top of the drag and securing the assembly
with pins. (l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is
removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut
off and recycled, and the casting is cleaned, inspected,
and heat treated (when necessary). Source: Courtesy of
Steel Founders' Society of America.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 16

Sand Conditioning (Mulling): mixing sand with additives prior to casting (eg. Clay: bonding agent,
Chromite: higher heat transfer)
Types of Sand Molds:
1. Green-Sand Molds:
- sand is moist or damp during metal pouring
- Sand + Clay + Water
- Least expensive molds
Two types of Green-Sand molds:
a. Skin-Dried Sand Molds: mold surfaces are dried with a torch: high strength, large castings
b. Baked Sand Molds: sand molds are oven dried: stronger, better dimensional accuracies, better
surface finish, lower collapsibility (causes )hot tearing, longer preparation time.
2. Cold-Box and No-Bake Sand Molds:
- Grains are bonded chemically (CO2 or liquid resin)
- Higher strength, accuracy, and cost
- mixture hardens at room temperature (no-bake)
Major components of sand molds:
1. Mold: supported by a Flask (COPE + DRAG), 2. Pouring Basin (Cup) , 3. Sprue, 4. Runner system:
channels and gates, 5. Risers (open or blind), 6. Cores (internal or external) , 7. Vents

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 17

-Sand can be compacted manually (hand hammering or ramming) or mechanically (jolting, squeezing,
impact)

Patterns
- can be made of plastic, wood, or metals depending on the casting process, shape, size, desired
accuracy, and quantity.
- can be cast, machined, or by rapid prototyping
- usually coated with parting agent for better removal.
- can be designed in: one piece (solid), two pieces (split), or several pieces (match plate)
- should be designed to allow for shrinkage, ease of removal, proper metal flow, and ventilation.

Cores
-made of sand aggregates with shell, no-bake, or cold-box
-Used to form interior surface of the casting
-Must posses: strength, permeability, collapsibility, heat stand
-Supported by core prints (recess in the mold) or chaplets (metal supports)

Characteristics of Sand-Mold Casting:

1. Fair dimensional accuracy, surface finish
2. Can make intricate shapes
3. Castings have generally rough grainy surfaces
4. Economical for low quantities
5. Low equipment cost

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 18

 a.2. Shell Mold Casting
Process:
1. A ferrous metal or aluminum pattern is heated to 175-350C
2. A pattern is coated with a parting agent (Silicone)
3. The pattern is coated with a fine sand containing thermosetting resin binder
4. The coated pattern is placed in an oven to cure the resin binder
5. The shell is removed from the pattern and clamped to a similar shell to complete the mold cavity (5-10 mm)

Properties of Shell Mold Casting:

• Close tolerances, good surface finish at low cost
• Requires complex mold ventilation due to low permeability of fine sand, and gas decomposition
from binder.
• Capable of producing castings with sharp corners, thinner sections, and smaller projections.
• Several castings can be made in the same mold
• Used for making molding cores
• Very economical for high precision and complex parts

Video: Shell Mold Casting

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 19

FIGURE 5.17 Schematic illustration of the shell-molding process, also called the dump-box technique.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 20

 a.3. Expendable Pattern (Lost Foam)
Also known as: Evaporative Pattern or Lost Pattern Casting
Process:
1. Raw expandable polystyrene (EPS) beads, containing 5-8% pentane, are placed in a preheated
metal die
2. Polystyrene expands and takes the shape of the die cavity, heat is applied to fuse the beads together.
3. The die is cooled and the pattern is removed
4. The pattern is coated with refractory slurry, dried, and placed in a flask
5. Sand is mixed with bonding agent and compacted around the pattern
6. Molten metal is poured into the mold without removing the pattern
7. The pattern immediately starts to vaporize and vents out of the mold

Properties of Lost-Foam casting

Advantages: Simple, inexpensive, complex shapes, minimum finishing, economical for long runs.
Disadvantages: High porosity, low fluidity, expensive metal dies for the pattern.
Video: Lost Foam Mold Casting
Applications: cylinder heads, crankshafts, brakes, small machine bases

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 21

FIGURE 5.20 Schematic illustration of the expendable-pattern casting process, also known as lost-
foam or evaporative-pattern casting.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 22

 a.4. Plaster Mold Casting

The mold is made of plaster with additives to control its strength and the time required for the plaster to set.

Process:
1. Plaster and additives are mixed with water to form a slurry
2. The slurry is poured over the pattern and left to set (15 min)
3. The pattern is removed and the mold is oven dried at 120-260 C
4. The mold halves are then assembled to form the mold cavity
5. The molten metal is then poured into the mold under vacuum

Properties:
1.Good surface finish, fine details, and uniform grain sizes
2.Low permeability (must be performed under vacuum)
3.Can be used for only low melting point metals (aluminum, copper)

Applications:
locks, gears, valves, fittings, tooling Video: Plaster Mold Casting

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 23

 a.5. Ceramic Mold Castings
Process is same as plaster-mold casting except that the slurry is made of ceramic fine grains (Zircon,
Aluminum Oxide, Silica) mixed with bonding agents and poured over the pattern.

Properties: can be used to melt high melting point metals (stainless steel, tool steel), good dimensional
accuracy and surface finish. Expensive

Applications: Impellers, cutters for machining, dies, and molds.

FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 24

 a.6. Investment Casting (Lost Wax)
Process:
1. Pattern is made of wax or polystyrene and dipped into slurry of fine grains
mixed with binders, then dried, then dipped again……until the shell reaches
the proper thickness.
2. The one-piece mold is dried in air and heated to melt out the wax and then
fired to drive off the moisture.
3. A number of pattern are joined together to form a tree with a common runner
system.
4. The molten metal is poured into all patterns.

Properties: suitable for high melting point metals. Good surface finish and close
tolerances for intricate shapes. Expensive.

Applications: Gears, Cams, Valves. Video: Investment Casting

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 25

Investment Casting

FIGURE 5.21 Schematic illustration of investment casting (lost wax process). Castings by this method can be
made with very fine detail and from a variety of metals.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 26

 a.7. Vacuum Casting
Process:
1. A mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded over metal dies and cured to form the mold cavity.
2. The mold is held with a cup under vacuum pressure and immersed into molten metal with the sprue at
the bottom
3. The molten metal is drawn into the mold cavity through the sprue and starts to solidify
4. The mold is withdrawn from the melt pool when full.

Properties: suitable for complex shapes

with uniform properties, parts with
thin walls, low porosity, high
production rate and low cost.

Video: Vacuum Casting

FIGURE 5.19 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a bottom gate. (a)
before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 27

 b.1. Permanent Mold Casting
- Also known as “hard-mold” casting
Process
1. Two halves of the mold are made from high-melting point metals/alloys with a machined mold cavity
and gating system.
2. Cores, made of metals or sand, are placed in the mold prior to casting.
3. The mold surface is sprayed with Graphite: thermal barrier, wear protector, parting agent, and
controls heat transfer.
4. Molds are preheated to (1) improve fluidity (2) prevent thermal shock
5. The melt is poured and is allowed to solidify before it is ejected

Properties:
- Used mainly for low melting point metals
- Good surface finish, close tolerances, uniform mechanical properties, high production rates
-Expensive dies, low labor cost (economical only for long runs)
-Not suitable for intricate shapes
Typical Parts: pistons, connecting rods, gear blanks. Video: Permanent Mold Casting

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 28

 b.2. Slush Casting
Used to make hollow castings with thin walls using permanent molds

Process
1. The melt is poured into the metal mold and is allowed to partially
solidify.
2. After the desired thickness is reached, the mold is inverted and the
remaining liquid is poured out.
3. The mold halves are opened and the casting is removed.

Properties: small production runs, low melting point metals

Typical parts: decorative parts, toys.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 29

 b.3. Pressure Casting
Process
1. The molten metal is FORCED into the mold by
positive gas pressure
2. The pressure is maintained until the metal has
completely solidified
3. Vacuum maybe used to force the molten metal
into the mold and removes dissolved gasses

Properties: high-quality castings, low porosity and

excellent dimensional accuracy

Typical Parts: steel railroad wheels (high dimensional

accuracy, low porosity)

FIGURE 5.23 The pressure casting process, utilizing

graphite molds for the production of steel railroad
Video: Pressure Casting wheels.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 30

 b.4. Die Casting
Process:
The molten metal is forced into the die (mold) cavity under piston
pressure. Two Types:
1. Hot-Chamber Process: piston operates on molten metal held in a hot pot
and forces it through a gooseneck pipe into the mold.
2. Cold-Chamber Process: piston operates on molten metal poured into the
injection cylinder (cold) and forces it into the mold

Dies can be made of single-cavity, multiple-cavities (identical),

combinational-cavities (different), or unit assembly of a master die.

Properties: very expensive equipment (larger equipment/hp for cold

chamber), low labor cost, economical for large production, similar casting
properties to permanent mold casting.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 31

 Die Casting in Hot-Chamber Process
Video: Hot Chamber
Die Casting

FIGURE 5.24 Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 32

 Die Casting in Cold-Chamber Process

Video: Cold Chamber

Die Casting

FIGURE 5.25 Schematic illustration of the

cold-chamber die-casting process. These
machines are large compared to the size
of the casting, because high forces are
required to keep the two halves of the die
closed under pressure.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 33

 b.5. Centrifugal Casting
Utilized centrifugal forces caused by rotation to distribute the molten-
metal into the mold cavity.

Types
1. True Centrifugal: molten metal is poured into horizontally-rotating
molds. Used to make hollow parts (pipes, posts) with shaped outer
surfaces.
2. Semicentrifugal: molten metal is poured into a vertically rotating mold
with symmetrical rotational shape (such as wheels with spokes).
3. Centrifuging: molten metal is poured in the center of a common
rotating runner system of which the mold cavities are placed at a
certain distance from the axis of rotation facing the gates. Castings of
various shapes can be made in one cycle.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 34

 Centrifugal Casting Process

FIGURE 5.26 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes,

cylinder liners, and similarly shaped hollow parts can be cast by this process.

Video: Centrifugal Casting

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 35

 Semicentrifugal Casting Process

Video: Semi-Centrifugal Casting

FIGURE 5.27 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes
can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed
at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal forces.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 36

 b.6. Squeeze Casting
Molten metal is poured into die cavity and allowed to solidify under high pressure applied by a punch
having the mold shape. The part is then ejected from the die by ejector pins.

Properties:
1. low porosity due to low gas dissolving under high pressure
2. Rapid heat transfer due to intimate contact, thus fine microstructure with good mechanical properties.
3. Suitable for complex shapes with fine surface details

Semisolid Forming: metals are formed by rolling, forging, drawing, …etc. while 30-40% liquid.
Reduces power and improves mechanical properties.

Video: Squeeze Casting

FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process

combines the advantages of casting and forging.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 37

 Casting Processes
PROCESS ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
Sand Almost any metal is cast; no limit to size, Some finishing required; somewhat
shape or weight; low tooling cost. coarse finishl wide tolerances.
Shell mold Good dimensional accuracy and surface Part size limited; expensive patterns
finish; high production rate. and equipment required.
Expendable pattern Most metals cast with no limit to size; Patterns have low strength and can
complex shapes be costly for low quantities.
Plaster mold Intricate shapes; good dimensional Limited to nonferrous metals; limited
accuracy and finish; low porosity. size and volume of production; mold
making time relatively long.
Ceramic mold Intricate shapes; close tolerance parts; Limited size.
good surface finish.
Investment Intricate shapes; excellent surface finish Part size limited; expensive patterns,
and accuracy; almost any metal cast. molds, and labor.
Permanent mold Good surface finish and dimensional High mold cost; limited shape and
accuracy; low porosity; high production intricacy; not suitable for high-melting-
rate. point metals.
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy and Die cost is high; part size limited;
surface finish; high production rate. usually limited to nonferrous metals;
long lead time.
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts with good qualit y; Equipment is expensive; part shape
high production rate. limited.

TABLE 5.8 Casting processes, and their advantages and limitations.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 38

 Design Modifications to Avoid
Defects in Castings

FIGURE 5.37 (a) Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Note that sharp corners
are avoided to reduce stress concentrations; (b, c, d) examples of designs showing the importance of
maintaining uniform cross-sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 39

 Costs
Comparison for
Different Casting
Processes

FIGURE 5.39 Economic comparison of making a part by two different casting processes. Note that because
of the high cost of equipment, die casting is economical mainly for large production runs. Source: The North
American Die Casting Association.

CHAPTER 5: METAL CASTING 40