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Language & Linguistics Unit V

Language Theories, Methods of Language Teaching

Language Theories

Behaviorist Theory:

Supported by BF skinner, which says that we acquire knowledge including

language through the repetition and negative and positive reinforcement.

This theory asserts that humans are born with blank state of mind. And we learn
all the necessary structures to learn a language through the external stimulus.

Verbal Behavior is a 1957 book by psychologist & Behaviorist B. F. Skinner

Noam Chomsky’s Theory of Universal Grammar (Nativist approach)it says

humans are born with innate ability to learn the language.

This theory asserts that all the languages share the similar grammatical
structures. And these structures are hard wired in human brain, to strengthen his
argument he has propounded below given concepts.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD) The LAD says there is a device in our
brain which enables us or infant to acquire and produce language
follows nativist theory of language This theory asserts that humans are born
with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language.

poverty of the stimulus says that unless children have significant innate
knowledge of grammar, they would not be able to learn language as quickly as
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they do, Because external info we are exposed to is not enough to learn the
structure of language and its conceptual meaning.Language cannot be simply
learned by imitation. Chomsky coined the term "poverty of the stimulus" in 1980.
This idea is closely related to what Chomsky calls "Plato's Problem".

Generative grammar: it says that human brain has the innate capacity to form
the the combination of words which is syntactically correct

Transformational-generative grammar
its principal objective the formulation of a finite set of basic and transformational
rules that explain how the native speaker of a language can generate and
comprehend all its possible grammatical sentences, it focuses mostly
on syntax and not on phonology or morphology, as structuralism does"

Chomsky's theory asserts that language consists of both deep structures and
surface structures: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic rules into
sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and conceptual
meaning.

1957 textbook Syntactic Structures ( It contains his famous sentence "Colorless

green ideas sleep furiously which Chomsky offered as an example of a
grammatically correct sentence that has no discernible meaning. Thus, Chomsky
argued for the independence of syntax (the study of sentence structures)
from semantics (the study of meaning)

This sentence show the lack of bringing the exact meaning in models of
grammar, and the need for more structured models.

Polysemy is the capacity for a word or phrase to have multiple meanings,

Aspects of the Theory of Syntax 1965

concerned with the psychological reality of language and the philosophy of

language research
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"The Responsibility of Intellectuals" 1967

Books on Linguistics , question can be formed for arranging them in

chronological manner.

 Syntactic Structures (1957)

 Current Issues in Linguistic Theory (1964)
 Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)
 Cartesian Linguistics (1965)
 Language and Mind (1968)
 The Sound Pattern of English with Morris Halle (1968)
 Reflections on Language (1975)
 Lectures on Government and Binding (1981)
 The Minimalist Program (1995)

Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical

rules, and does not require tedious drill.
Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural
communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their
utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding.
... 'comprehensible input' is the crucial and necessary ingredient for the
acquisition of language.
The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low
anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These
methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students
to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from
supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and
correcting production.
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In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing
to help the acquirer understand are very helpful.

The 5 hypotheses of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main
hypotheses:

 the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis;

 the Monitor hypothesis;
 the Input hypothesis;
 and the Affective Filter hypothesis;
 the Natural Order hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of the five

hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and
language teachers. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of
foreign language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'.
The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process
very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first
language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural
communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their
utterances, but in the communicative act.

The "learned system" or "learning" is the product of formal instruction and it

comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the
language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. A deductive approach in a
teacher-centered setting produces "learning", while an inductive approach in a
student-centered setting leads to "acquisition".

According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.

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The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and
learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring
function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the
acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs
the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and
correcting function when three specific conditions are met:

 The second language learner has sufficient time at their disposal.

 They focus on form or think about correctness.
 They know the rule.
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second
language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is minor,
being used only to correct deviations from "normal" speech and to give speech a
more 'polished' appearance.

Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-
users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the
"monitor".

The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a
second language – how second language acquisition takes place. The Input
hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this
hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when
he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current
stage of linguistic competence. .

The Affective Filter hypothesis embodies Krashen's view that a number of

'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language
acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence, anxiety and
personality traits. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-
confidence, a good self-image, a low level of anxiety and extroversion are better
equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-
esteem, anxiety, introversion and inhibition can raise the affective filter and form
a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for
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acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition.
On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for
acquisition to take place.

Finally, the less important Natural Order hypothesis : Here he says that
grammar must be taught in natural order. We should not force child to learn all
the rules of grammar to teach him second language.

John schumann’s acculturation model Theory

Here schumann asserts that to learn the target language, learner needs to adopt
the culture of the language he or she wants to learn. Inability of the learner to
learn the new language is due to the social and psychological distance between
the two cultures. But if the second language learners adopt the culture of target
language they can easily understand the language, ex. visiting the country and
hanging out with the people of second language.

Methods of Language Pedagogy

The Grammar-Translation Method

This method grew from the traditional method of teaching Latin and Greek. The
method is based on analysis of the written language using translation exercises,
reading comprehension and written imitation of texts. Learning mainly involves
the mastery of grammatical rules and memorization of vocabulary lists.

The Audio-Lingual Method

This self-teaching method is also known as the Aural-Oral method. The learning
is based on repetition of dialogues and phrases about every day situations.
These phrases are imitated, repeated, and drilled to make the response
automatic. Reading and writing are both reinforcements of what the learner
practices.
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The Direct Method : also known as the Oral or Natural method. It’s based on
the active involvement of the student in both speaking and listening to the new
language in realistic everyday situations. The process consists of a gradual
acquisition of grammatical structure and vocabulary. The learner is encouraged
to think in the target language rather than translate. He or she hears and uses
the language before seeing it written.

Communicative method: encourages teaching without published textbooks

and instead focusing on conversational communication.

Language immersion method, is a technique used in bilingual language education in

which two languages (native language and second language are used for instruction in
a variety of topics

The Silent Way method emphasizes learner autonomy and active student
participation. Silence is used as a tool to achieve this goal; the teacher uses a
mixture of silence and gestures to focus students' attention, to elicit responses
from them, and to encourage them to correct their own errors. Pronunciation is
seen as fundamental to the method, with a great deal of time spent on it each
lesson.
Community language learning Method focused on group-interest learning.
It is based on the counselling-approach in which the teacher acts as a counselor and
a paraphraser, while the learner is seen as a client and collaborator.

Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian

psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is used mostly to learn foreign languages.

Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital factors to make
sure that "the students feel comfortable and confident", and various techniques,
including art and music, are used by the trained teachers. The lesson of
Suggestopedia consisted of three phases at first: deciphering, concert session
(memorization séance), and elaboration

The natural approach is a method of language teaching developed by Stephen

Krashen and Tracy Terrell. It aims to foster naturalistic language acquisition in a
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classroom setting, and to this end it emphasises communication, and places
decreased importance on conscious grammar study and explicit correction of
student errors. Efforts are also made to make the learning environment as stress-
free as possible. In the natural approach, language output is not forced, but
allowed to emerge spontaneously after students have attended to large amounts
of comprehensible language input.

The Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching is based on a structural

view of language. Speech, structures and a focus on a set of basic vocabulary items
are seen as the basis of language teaching. This was a view similar to that held by
American structuralists, such as Fries. However, what distinguishes the Situational
Language Teaching approach is its emphasis on the presentation of structures in
situations.

Directed practice method is that part of learning that occurs immediately

after instruction. Basics of Linguistics:
 Phonetics - the study of speech sounds in their physical aspects
 Phonology - the study of speech sounds in their cognitive aspects
 Morphology - the study of the formation of words (there are two kinds of
morphemes , independent (has a complete meaning) and dependent
(dependent on independent morpheme to be meaningful) for example:
furiously , furious is independent and ly dependent
 Syntax - the study of the formation of sentences
 Semantics - the study of meaning
 Pragmatics - the study of language use
 Semiotics, the study of signs

Topics Discovered with PYQPS analysis

In grammar, a derivational morpheme is an affix—a group of letters added

before the beginning (prefix) or after the end (suffix)—of a root or base word to
create a new word or a new form of an existing word
Methods – Usages
In the word rapidly, ‘ly’ is an adverbial suffix indicating manner while rapid
is a free morpheme, ly is a bound morpheme.
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bound morpheme is a morpheme (the elementary unit of morphosyntax) that

can appear only as part of a larger expression;
a free morpheme (or unbound morpheme) is one that can stand alone

The Grammar -Translation Method - strategic use of mother tongue

The Direct Method - shuns mother tongue
Total Physical Response - oral input
The Natural Approach - comprehensible input
The Grammar Translation Method was historically used in teaching : Greek and
Latin

Direct Method in English Language Teaching is also known as Natural Method.

In the mechanical drill method of second language acquisition :

The learner’s response is totally controlled.
Comprehension of the item by the learner is not required.

the implied personification of an inanimate or abstract noun, is also called

a transferred epithet

Cognate : Words with a common ancestor

Pragmatics : Rules governing the social use of language

Etymon : Etymological source of a word

Code switching : Changing from one language variety to another in discourse

Bilingual method of foreign language teaching was developed by C.J. Dodson

as a counterpart of the audiovisual method.

A. S. Hornby
In 1948 his dictionary was reissued by Oxford University Press as A Learner's
Dictionary of Current English.

Daniel Jones
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Known for: The cardinal vowel diagram

Simplified vowel system ,Presence of voiced aspirated consonants combinations

correctly defines the phonological system of Indian English in relation to
Standard English.

Works:
Probal Dasgupta is an Indian Linguist
The otherness of English

Rita Kothari: Translating India

Braj b. kachru: The indianization of English

Baljinder k. mahal: The queen’s hinglish

Charles Sanders Peirce

the father of pragmatism

Semiotics originated mainly in the works of two theorists:

Charles Sanders Peirce ,Ferdinand de Saussure

lingua Franca a language that is adopted as a common language between

speakers whose native languages are different.

Functional Communicative Approach in English Language Teaching is in

opposition to Structural Approach

The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis was proposed by Merrill Swain

In tradition ELT methods and materials, the native speaker is elevated and
idealized against stereotyped non-native speakers. This tendency is dubbed
Native speakerism by Adrian Holliday.

The en-ending to denote the plural nous (as is oxen, children, brethren) has
survived from the
Old English practice of making plural nouns

Yamuna Kachru
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 An Introduction to Hindi Syntax" (1967)
 "Aspects of Hindi Grammar" (1980)

Richard Ohmann: “The Function of English at the Present Time

Braj Bihari Kachru : The Alchemy of English (1986)

Coined the term "World English" and also published studies on the Kashmiri
language.

Capital letters, exclamation marks, phrases in German : CaIylese

The earliest activities in the documentation and description of language have

been attributed to the 6th-century-BC Indian grammarian Pāṇini who wrote a
formal description of the Sanskrit language in his Aṣṭādhyāyī.

phonology (the organisation of phonetic sound systems), morphology (the

formation and composition of words), and syntax (the formation and composition
of phrases and sentences). Many modern theories that deal with the principles of
grammar are based on Noam Chomsky's framework of generative linguistics.

competence is an individual's innate capacity and potential for language (like in

Saussure's langue), while performance is the specific way in which it is used by
individuals, groups, and communities (i.e., parole, in Saussurean terms).

Palaeography is therefore the discipline that studies the evolution of written

scripts (as signs and symbols) in language.

Semantics in this conception is concerned with core meanings and pragmatics

concerned with meaning in context.

Phonetics is largely concerned with the physical aspects of sounds such as their
acoustics, production, and perception.

Phonology is concerned with the linguistic abstractions and categorizations of

sounds.
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Michael Hugh Long introduced the concept of focus on form, which entails
bringing linguistic elements (e.g., vocabulary, grammatical
structures, collocations)
Long is also usually credited for introducing the Interaction Hypothesis, a theory
of second language acquisition which places importance on face-to-face
interaction.

David Nunan is an Australian linguist who has focused on the teaching of

English. He is the author of the ELT textbook series "Go For It!"

Relativity:

As constructed popularly through the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, relativists believe

that the structure of a particular language is capable of influencing the cognitive
patterns through which a person shapes his or her world view.

American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, it was Sapir's
student Harry Hoijer who termed it thus

Structures

Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form. Any particular pairing of
meaning and form is a Saussurean sign.

The creation and addition of new words (into the lexicon) is called coining or
neologization, and the new words are called neologisms.

Descriptor Proponent Explication

Langue/Parole Ferdinand Language is a system of
de signs. Langue describes the
Saussure social consensus of how
(1916)[7] signs are
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applied. Parole describes the
physical manifestation
of langue. Emphasizes
revealing the structure of
langue through the study of
parole.
Competence/Performance Noam Introduced in generative
Chomsky grammar theory, competence
(1965)[8] describes the unconscious
and innate knowledge of
linguistic
rules. Performance describes
the observable use of
language. Emphasizes the
study of competence
over performance.
I-Language/E-Language Noam Similar to the
Chomsky performance/competence
(1986)[9] distinction, I-Language is the
internalized innate knowledge
of language; E-Language is
the externalized observable
output. Emphasizes the study
of I-Language over E-
Language.

Humanism term was coined by theologian Friedrich Niethammer at the

beginning of the 19th century to refer to a system of education based on the
study of classical literature ("classical humanism").
Comparative philology
In the 18th century, the first use of the comparative method by William
Jones sparked the rise of comparative linguistics. Bloomfield attributes "the first
great scientific linguistic work of the world" to Jacob Grimm, who wrote Deutsche
Grammatik.

The word "dictionary" was invented by an Englishman called John of Garland in

1220 — he had written a book Dictionarius to help with Latin "diction"
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The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was A Table Alphabeticall, written
by English schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604. The only surviving copy is
found at the Bodleian Library in Oxford.
It was not until Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English
Language (1755) creating the first "modern" dictionary
Oxford University Press began writing and releasing the Oxford English
Dictionary in short fascicles from 1884 onwards.
A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, published in 1985
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language in 1969)
In 1806, American Noah Webster published his first dictionary, A Compendious
Dictionary of the English Language
Edward Sapir

Known for:
 Classification of Native American languages
 Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
 Anthropological linguistics

An annotation is extra information associated with a particular point in

a document or other piece of information. It can be a note that includes a
comment or explanation.[1] Annotations are sometimes presented in the margin of
book pages.

In linguistics, a corpus (plural corpora) or text corpus is a large and structured

set of texts (nowadays usually electronically stored and processed). In corpus
linguistics, they are used to do statistical analysis and hypothesis testing,
checking occurrences or validating linguistic rules within a specific language
territory.
Applied linguists actually focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for
real-world linguistic problems.

Historically, Edward Sapir and Ferdinand De Saussure's structuralist theories

influenced the study of signs extensively until the late part of the 20th century,
but later, post-modern and post-structural thought, through language
philosophers including Jacques Derrida, Mikhail Bakhtin, Michel Foucault,

Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry (into the history and

culture of language) with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages and
their grammars. Lexicography involves the documentation of words that form a
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vocabulary. Such a documentation of a linguistic vocabulary from a particular
language is usually compiled in a dictionary. Computational linguistics is
concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a
computational perspective.

Forensic linguistics investigates the style, language, lexical use, and other
linguistic and grammatical features used in the legal context to provide evidence
in courts of law. Forensic linguists have also used their expertise in the
framework of criminal cases.
Ferdinand de Saussure (26 November 1857 – 22 February 1913) was
a Swiss linguist and semiotician. His ideas laid a foundation for many significant
developments in both linguistics and semiology in the 20th century.He is widely
considered one of the founders of 20th-century linguistics and one of two major
founders (together with Charles Sanders Peirce) of semiotics/semiology.

Notable Ideas

 Signified and signifier

 Synchrony and diachrony
 Linguistic sign
 Semiotic arbitrariness
 Laryngeal theory

Saussure's most influential work, Course in General Linguistics (Cours de

linguistique générale), was published posthumously in 1916 by former
students Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, on the basis of notes taken from
Saussure's lectures in Geneva.
American scholar Dell Hymes cites his 1962 paper, "The Ethnography of
Speaking," as the formal introduction of Prague functionalism to American
linguistic anthropology.
An ostensive definition conveys the meaning of a term by pointing out
examples. This type of definition is often used where the term is difficult to define
verbally,
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"Behaviourist Psychology and Bloomfieldian Structural
Linguistics"provided theoretical basis for Audio-Lingual Method of Language
Teaching

Sources

linguistics.ucsc.edu

: https://www.sk.com.br

www.thoughtco.com

simple.wikipedia.org