Ornamental Horticulture in India

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURALlRESEARCH
T >4*m. NEW.DELHI
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2018 with funding from
Public.Resource.Org
https://archive.org/details/ornamentalhorticOOunse
Ornamental Horticulture
in India
Commemorative Volume Released on the

Eightieth Birthday of Dr B.P. Pal
Technical Editors
K.L. CHADHA
B. CHOUDHURY
ICAR
Published by
Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
New Delhi
First Printed May 1986
First Reprint June 1992
Second Reprint October 1997
Third Reprint August 2004
Fourth Reprint February 2007
Fifth Reprint February 2011
Sixth Reprint September 2014
Project Director Dr Rameshwar Singh

Incharge, English Editorial Unit Dr Aruna T Kumar
Chief Production Officer Dr V K Bharti
Asstt. Chief Technical Officer Kul Bhushan Gupta
All rights reserved

©2014, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
ISBN : 81-7164-026-5
Price : ? 300
Published by Dr Rameshwar Singh, Project Director, Directorate of Knowledge Management

in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan-I, Pusa,
New Delhi 110 012. Printed at M/s Chandu Press, D-97, Shakarpur, Delhi 110 092.
DR B.P. Pal
Foreword
O RNAMENTAL Horticulture is of great antiquity. Eloquent references to

the aesthetics of ornamental plants, particularly flowers occur in our
scriptures as also in the works of Kalidasa and other ancient poets. Ornamental
plants also found patronage of Moghul emperors and some of the gardens
established by them are still unparalleled in their design. In fact, Lutyen
modelled the famous Moghul Gardens of the Rashtrapati Bhavan on the pattern
of the gardens established by the Moghul emperors. The Vrindavan Gardens of
the erstwhile princely State of Mysore (now Karnataka) is also a treat for the eyes.
Thanks to the diversity of climatic and soil conditions, the flora of our
country is extremely rich, ranging from temperate to tropical flowering plants. In
the earlier days, floriculture in India was more of an art than a science; however,
with the increasing application of scientific techniques in the field of plant
improvement, floriculture developed into a full-fledged scientific discipline.
Scientists in the Botanical Survey of India made extensive collections of flowering
plants and the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta is one of the monuments of these
early efforts. Later on, many Indian botanists, particularly Dr B.P. Pal made
significant contributions to floriculture. This subject is now included in the
curriculum of many institutions of higher learning in the country and a large
number of private firms are engaged in floriculture research and seed production.
In fact, there exists immense potential in our country to export orchids, roses,
gladioli and other distinctively Indian flowers.
Dr B.P. Pal has played a pioneering role in promoting ornamental

horticulture in India. His active professional interest in floriculture is spread over
almost four decades. Dr Pal has bred many varieties of roses and has been
responsible for popularizing the art and science of floriculture through several
societies. The ICAR is privileged to bring out this volume entitled ‘Ornamental
Horticulture in India’ on the occasion of his 80th birthday. I hope the lovers of
ornamental horticulture will find this topical publication informative and
interesting.
It gives me great pleasure in complimenting the authors for their

contributions to this volume at short notice. I am further grateful to the Technical
Editors Dr K.L. Chadha and Dr B. Choudhury and ICAR Editors Shri P.L. Jaiswal
and Dr (Mrs) A.M. Wadhwani and her team for-editing and giving shape to this
VI ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURE IN INDIA
publication and to Shri Krishan Kumar and his associates for bringing it out with a
fine get-up in a very short time.
N.S. RANDHAWA
19 May 1986 Director-General
New Delhi Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Preface
T HE Horticulture Society of India decided to bring out a commemorative

volume on the 80th birthday of Dr B.P. Pal. Keeping in view the
contributions of Dr Pal to the cause of horticulture in India, particularly
ornamental crops, it was felt that a volume on ‘Ornamental Horticulture in India’
would be most appropriate. Accordingly, all facets of ornamental horticulture
were considered and articles on major commercial crops, their propagation,
seed production, post-harvest technology, export and diverse aspects like
bonsai plants, essential oils wer§ invited by me. The ICAR also decided
to bring out another volume on ‘Growth and Development of Floriculture
in India’ simultaneously and requested Dr B. Choudhury to complete this
volume. However, since the subject matter of both these volumes seemed
identical, it was later decided to bring out only one volume on the subject.
Thus the articles received by Dr Choudhury were also included in this
publication.
The contributions of Dr Pal in the field of horticulture have been significant

and are well known. Dr Pal paid a great deal of attention to floriculture
which has been one of his principal hobbies. He has bred many varieties
of roses including ‘Dr Homi Bhabha’, ‘Raja of Nalagarh’, ‘Delhi Princess’
and ‘Banjaran’. He has also raised Bougainvillea varieties of which ‘Dr R.R. Pal’ is
the most popular. He is known not only in India but also abroad as a rosarian and
his book ‘The Rose in India’ has been very well received.
Dr Pal has been associated with several Horticulture Societies. He has

been the President of Horticulture Society of India, Delhi Agri-Horticultural
Society and Bougainvillea Society of India. He is also the President Emeritus
of the Rose Society of India. Dr Pal is a Fellow of the Royal Horticulture
Society of England and President of SATYA, the Delhi Chapter of the Friends
of the Trees. It is, therefore, hoped that in bringing out this volume
on the 80th birth anniversary of Dr Pal the subject of‘Ornamental Horticulture
in India’, which is so dear to his heart, will get its due importance.
It is my privilege to have been associated with the bringing out of this

volume. It is hoped that the semblage of articles on various aspects of
ornamental horticulture will provide useful information to the readers.
Thanks are due to the distinguished contributors who responded with

Vlll ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURE IN INDIA
articles at a short notice and made it possible to bring out this commemorative
volume. The authors also wish to record their thanks to Dr N.S. Randhawa,
DG, ICAR, for kindly agreeing to bring out this volume at a very short
notice.
K.L. CHADHA
15 May 1986 Commissioner for Horticulture
New Delhi Government of India
Contents
Foreword ... v
Preface ... vii
1. Research on Ornamental Crops at the IIHR ... 1
K. L. Chadha
2. Floriculture Research at the IARI ... 7
N.K. Dadlani, R.S. Malik and B. Choudhury
3. Floriculture Research at the NBRI ... 20
P. V Sane
4. Rose ... 38
M. S. Viraraghavan
5. Chrysanthemum ... 53
M.A. Kher
6. Dahlia ... 72
Swami Vinayananda
7. Gladiolus ... 86
S.S. Negi and S.P.S. Raghava
8. Bougainvillea ... 104
Brijendra Singh and N.K. Dadlani
9. Jasmine ... 113
S. Muthuswamy
10. Orchids ... 127
Foja Singh
11. Bonsai Culture ... 154
Leila Dhanda
12. Propagation of Ornamental Plants ... 163
Amitabha Mukhopadhyay
13. Physiology of Ornamental Flowers ... 181
H. Y. Mohan Ram, I. V. Ramanuja Rao and P. Pardha Saradhi
14. Essential Oils from Ornamentals ... 191
Akhtar Husain
15. Hybrid Seed Production in Flowers ... 198
Manmohan Attavar
X ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURE IN INDIA
16. Export Potentialities of Ornamental Plants ... 202

and Cut-Flowers from India
Vishnu Swarup
17. The Japanese Garden ... 208
M.S. Randhawa
18. My ‘Lumpyngnad’ Garden in Shillong ... 215
Pratibha P. Trivedi
1
Research on Ornamental Crops
at the IIHR
K.L. Chadha
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, Karnataka
T HE Indian Institute of Horticultural Research was established by the ICAR

to conduct research on all aspects of horticultural crops, such as fruits,
vegetables, ornamental, medicinal and aromatic crops, in order to improve their
productivity, quality and utility. It was the first institute to establish a separate
Division of Floriculture and Landscape Gardening in 1969. However, it was
renamed the Division of Ornamental Crops in 1982.
Of the five well-defined laboratories, four deal with ornamental crop
breeding—chrysanthemum, China aster and gladiolus; bougainvillea, roses,
crotons and hibiscus; bulbous crops like Hippeastrum, dahlia and Gloriosa; and
orchids and Anthurium. As such the research activities of the Division are mainly
concentrated on the improvement of ornamental plants by selection,
hybridization and mutation-breeding, and standardization of agro-techniques and
rootstocks; with emphasis on ornamentals possessing export potential.
GERMPLASM COLLECTION *
The germplasm collection, both from indigenous and exotic sources,

consists of 425 varieties and 5 species of roses; 163 cultivars of chrysanthemum,
104 cultivars and 5 species of Hibiscus; 105 cultivars of Bougainvillea, 12 cultivars
of China aster; 48 cultivars of Hippeastrum, 46 of gerbera, 4 of tuberose, 350 of
croton and 185 species and 169 exotic hybrids of orchids. A large number of
variety of shrubs, creepers and foliage plants have also been collected.
CROP IMPROVEMENT
Chrysanthemum
Germplasm of chrysanthemum was screened for growth and flower
1
2 ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURE IN INDIA
characteristics. Twenty cultivars were found suitable for various purposes.

‘Indira’, ‘Pink’, ‘Casket’, and ‘Sundari’ were found to be tolerant to Alternaria and
Septoria. From an evaluation of 347 hybrids, 100 open-pollinated seedlings, two
hybrids and one open-pollinated seedlings have been selected and released. One
mutant induced in ‘Red Gold’ with 3 Kr dose of gamma-rays was found to be
promising for flower colour and floriferousness.
‘Indira’. A hybrid between an open-pollinated seedling of‘Lord Doonex’(LD
114) and a hybrid seedling of‘Fli-rt’ x ‘Valentine’. Flowers double koreans, yellow
at bud and buttercup yellow at picking measure 6 cm across. Released in 1980.
‘Rakhee’. An open-pollinated seedling of cv ‘Lord Doonex’. Plants bushy,
compact with shining foliage. Flowers anemone, primrose-yellow with red stripes
on ray florets, measure 6 cm across. Released in 1980.
Red Gold’. Developed from a cross of ‘Flirt’ x ‘Valentine’. Flowers grey-
orange fading to golden yellow, double koreans and measure 6 cm across. Very
floriferous. Released in 1980.
In farmers’ fields ‘Red Gold’ and ‘Indira’ gave 163 and 88% higher income
than a commercial variety ‘Local Yellow’.
Gladiolus
Fourteen cultivars were found promising for cut-flower production, six were
tolerant to Fusarium wilt, one small-flower variety, ‘Mirage’, from USA was
superior in sprouting of corms, spike length, floret size and production of cormels.
Gladiolus callianthus and ‘Margaret Fulton’, a cultivar, proved tolerant to
Fusarium wilt. Six hybrids released in 1980 were evaluated from 1572 hybrids.
‘Apsara’. A cross between ‘Black Jack’ x ‘Friendship’. Spikes strong, 97 cm
long; florets ruby red with barium-yellow flecks in throat, 18 per spike measuring
11 cm across. Released in 1980.
‘Meera’. A cross between ‘G.P.I.’ x ‘Friendship’. Spikes 90 cm long; florets
snow white, 19 per spike, compact, measuring 12 cm across. Released in 1979.
‘Nazrana. A cross between ‘Black Jack’ x ‘Friendship’. Spikes very strong,
104 cm long; florets cardinal red with barium-yellow flesh in throat, 18 per spike
measuring 11.5 cm across. Released in 1979.
‘Poonam’. A cross between ‘Gelliber Herald’ x ‘R.N, 121’. Spikes 98 cm
long; florets dresden yellow with mimosa yellow blotch, 17 per spike measuring
11 cm across. Released in 1979.
‘Sapna’. A cross between ‘Queen Woodpecker’ x ‘Friendship’. Spikes 83 cm
long; florets barium-yellow with primrose yellow blotch and mandarin red tinge
on margins, 17 per spike, compact, measuring 12 cm across. Released in 1979.
‘Shobha’. A mutant of‘Wild Rose’. Spikes pleasing and 97 cm long; rachis 62
cm long; florets shell pink with empire yellow throat, 18 per spike, measuring 11.5
cm across. Released in 1980.
RESEARCH ON ORNAMENTAL CROPS AT HEIR 3
Bougainvillea
Six new cultivars of bougainvillea have been named and released. A
colchicine-induced mutant with bright magenta bracts has been isolated from
cv ‘Zakariana’. A number of promising seedlings and bud sprouts with
variegated leaves are under evaluation.
‘Chitravati’. A hybrid of ‘Lalbaugh’ x ‘Red Glory’. Plants drooping with
large thorns; leaves light green, pubescent, medium elliptic to cordate ovate;
bracts mandarin red, medium elliptic with acute tip, persistent. Released in 1979.
‘Dr H.B. Singh’. A hybrid of‘Trinidad’ x ‘Formosa’. Leaves dark-green,
glabrous, elliptic, with acute tip; bracts violet purple, medium to big, cordate.
Released in 1977.
‘Jawaharlal Nehru’. A spontaneous mutant of cv ‘Lalbaugh’. Plants
vigorous with compact growth habit; leaves variegated; moderately floriferous;
bracts claret rose fading to orange red. Released in 1975.
‘Purple Wonder’. A hybrid of ‘Formosa’ x ‘Trinidad’. Plants erect with
compact growth habit; leaves dark green pubescent, medium-size and elliptical;
bracts violet purple, medium, ovate to elliptic and persistent. Released in 1979.
‘Sholay’. A seedling selection of cv ‘Red Glory’. Plants moderately
vigorous; leaves dull-green, pubescent and of medium size; bracts delft rose,
medium-size, hairy and elliptical, borne all along the branches. Released in 1977.
‘Usha’. A seedling selection of cv ‘Lady Hope’. Plants moderately
vigorous, with erect habit; leaves dark-green, pubescent; flowering profuse,
bracts magenta fading to mandarin red, hairy, borne all along the branches.
Released in 1977.
Hibiscus
Rigorous screening of a large number of hybrid seedlings has resulted in
selection and release of 25 cultivars which are floriferous and bear attractive
flowers. Twelve important cultivars released between 1972 and 1979 are
described.
‘Aikta’. A cross between ‘Debby Ann’ x ‘H.S. 203’. Moderately floriferous.
Flowers single saucer-shaped, measuring 16-20 cm across, corolla red with deep
red border. Released in 1976.
‘Anuradha’. A hybrid of‘Debby Ann’ x ‘H.S. 48’. Very floriferous. Flowers
single, slightly cup-shaped, measuring 14-16 cm across, corolla golden buff with
reddish border. Released in 1978.
‘Ashirwad’. A cross between ‘H.S. 21’ x ‘Hombe Gowda’. Floriferous.
Flowers single, measure 18-21 cm across, corolla orange, petals with slightly
ruffled margin. Released in 1978.
‘Bharat Sundari’. A selection from ‘IIHR 1’. Floriferous. Flowers single,
saucer-shaped, measure 17-19 cm across* corolla deep rose with light border.
Released in 1976.
‘Chitralekha. A hybrid of‘Debby Ann’ x ‘H.S. 203’. Flowers single, corolla
China rose with frilled margin, white variegation in the centre of each petal.
Released in 1976.
‘Dilruba’. A hybrid of‘Debby Ann’ x ‘H.S. 203’. Very floriferous, flowers
single saucer-shaped, measure 16-18 cm across, corolla dark golden buff with
reddish brown margin. Released in 1976.
‘Geetanjali’. A hybrid of‘Debby Ann’ x ‘Rachiah’. Very floriferous. Flowers
single, measure 15-18 cm across, petals undulate incurved along the margin.
Released in 1972.
‘Ratna’. A hybrid of‘H.S. 127’ x ‘Ruffle’. Moderately floriferous. Flowers
single, saucer-shaped, measure 14-15 cm across, petals slightly frilled, corolla
yellow with almost white centre and orange red stripes. Released in 1979.
Red Saturn’. A hybrid of‘H.S. 182’ x ‘Red Double’. Floriferous. Flowers
double with ruffled petals, measure 10-12 cm across, corolla red without any
conspicuous centre. Released in 1978.
Rhulkari’. A hybrid of ‘H.S. 139’ x ‘H.S. 18’. Highly floriferous. Flower
single, measure 17-19 cm across, corolla rose-coloured with prominent light
purple rays and yellow border. Released in 1976.
‘Smt. Indira Gandhi’. A hybrid of ‘H.S. 182’ x ‘Ruffle’. Flowers single,
saucer-shaped, measure 22-25 cm across, petals slightly recurved, corolla yellow
with orange-red margin. Released in 1974.
‘Tribal Queen’. A hybrid of‘IIHR 1’ x ‘H.S. 481’. Flowers single, saucer¬
shaped, measure 16-20 cm across, petals slightly recurved, corolla red with dark
purple base. Released in 1972.
The other varieties released are ‘Arunodaya’ (Nasturtium orange), ‘Basant’
(sulphur yellow), ‘Benazeer’ (bright yellow), ‘Jogan’ (Azalea pink), ‘Nartaki’
(marigold orange), ‘Nazneen’ (tangerine orange), ‘Neelofer’ (magenta rose),
‘Pakeezah’ (carmine red), ‘Priya’ (rose Bengal), ‘Queen of Hessaraghatta’
(orange), ‘Red Gold’ (Dutch vermilion), ‘Shanti’ (primrose yellow), ‘Smt Kamla
Nehru’ (rose Bengal).
Orchids
Special emphasis has been given to the work on orchids. The laboratory
started in 1972 is now housed in a modem humidity-controlled orchidarium. Two
promising new inter-specific hybrids have been evolved and are being multiplied.
‘IIHR 164’. Vanda group (V. rothschildiana x D. superbiens). The hybrid is
strap-leaved with flower spike 35-40 cm long bearing 9-15 red-purple flowers
which stay for 60-75 days in perfect bloom.
IIHR 38’. Dendrobium Group (D. pompadour x D. superbiens). The hybrid
RESEARCH ON ORNAMENTAL CROPS AT IIHR 5
is robust, floriferous with 8-15purple-violet flowers on 25-32 cm-long spike. The
flowers last 2-3 months in full bloom.
China Aster
Evaluation of available germplasm led to selection of 25 pureline selections
developed by single plant selection. Of these ‘AST-1’ and ‘AST-2’ were found to
be very promising. Hybridization followed by repeated selections resulted in six
promising purelines. In Fj generation, heterotic effects were observed for
earliness in flowering, stalk length, number of flowers per plant and size of
flowers. ‘AST-1’ performed better than local varieties with regard to stalk length,
colour, size, shape and number of flowers.
Other Crops
In rose 9 hybrids and 3 open-pollinated seedlings were found promising.
One spontaneous mutant each isolated from ‘Kronenbourg’ and ‘Arianna’ are
under evaluation. A free-flowering mutant with regular bicoloured flowers
possessing white and red stripes was isolated in petunia after treating the seeds of
variety, ‘Resist Red’ with gamma-rays at 10 Kr.
Fifteen promising croton hybrids were named and released.
AGRO-TECHNIQUES
Rose
A new thornless rose rootstock has been identified which facilitates easy
budding. This rootstock is suitable for closer planting system. In a rootstock trial
maximum bud-take was observed when Rosa multiflora was used as a rootstock.
It was found that ‘Happiness’ budded on this rootstock produced significantly
more number of export-quality flowers than when it was budded on R. indica.
GA spray at 10-100 ppm increased flower yield in ‘Queen Elizabeth’. On its
own roots ‘Queen Elizabeth’ appeared promising for garden display.
Chrysanthemum
Suckers exposed to 16 hr continuous light daily for 2\ months produced
plants with longer and stiffer stalks, with larger and thick-petal flowers as
compared to plants raised under natural light (13-14 light hr).
Cycocel (50 ppm) and 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (200 ppm) were found to
be the best chemicals for prolonging the vase-life of chrysanthemum cut-flowers.
Tuberose
In a varietal trial with four cultivars, ‘Single’ produced highest number of
spikes. In an agronomical trial on ‘Double’ bulk size of 2-2.5 cm, planting depth
of 5 cm and spacing of 20 cm gave good growth, flowering and bulb production.

In a nutritional trial on ‘Single’ a dose of 20 g ofN and 40 g P205 per m2 was
found to be optimum. Potash was not found to be effective on growth and
flowering. The corm weight increased significantly with the application of 30 g of
P205.
Planting during April-May appeard to be optimum for ‘Single’. However,
pre-planting treatment of tuberose ‘Single’ bulb with GA3 significantly increased
the rachis length.
Carnation
Carnation could be sown between June and January with varying degrees of
success. However, sowings between October and December resulted in good
plant growth and in high yield of good-quality flowers. Also, a spacing of 40 cm
x 40 cm was optimum for higher yield and good-quality flowers.
Carnation should be punched between 80 and 90 days after sowing for better
plant growth, flower yield and good-quality flowers. Disbudding of axillary flower
buds should be done within 7 days of the appearance of axillary buds for better
quality flowers.
Nitrogen was more important for growth and flowering compared to P205 or
K20.
NAA at 500 ppm promoted branching and ethrel at 500 and 1000 ppm was
effective in reducing the plant height.
Jasmine
In Jasminum sambac, ‘Gundumalli’ pruned in the third week of November
gave maximum flower yield. Pruning to 28 and 24 branches was better. Pruning at
70 cm shoot length was best to get maximum flower yield.
Chemical defoliation with Boll’s eye at 3000 ppm proved best for getting
maximum flower yield and good flower quality along with 80-85% defoliation.
A plant density of 17,777/ha gave significantly higher flower yield (4,547 kg)
followed by plant density of 10,000/ha (2977.17 kg).
2
Floriculture Research
at the IARI
N.K. Dadlani, R.S. Malik and B. Choudhury

Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi
R ESEARCH on floriculture started at the Indian Agricultural Research

Institute, New Delhi (IARI), in the late fifties. This work was initiated in the
Division of Botany under an ICAR scheme entitled ‘Scheme on Cytological and
Physiological Studies in Relation to Floriculture’. However, the Division of
Horticulture was established in March 1956 to work on the improvement of fruits
and vegetables including post-harvest technology. Due to the keen interest and
efforts of Dr B.P. Pal, the then Director of the Institute, scientific research in
floriculture was initiated in the Division of Horticulture in 1958-59. A small unit
took up the work on ornamental gardening, with special attention on roses.
Research on floriculture was simultaneously started at the Regional Station of the
Institute at Katrain (Kulu Valley) and at Simla, primarily to undertake assessment
and improvement work under temperate climatic conditions. In 1959-60, a co¬
ordinated scheme on floriculture of the ICAR came in operation at various
centres including IARI, mainly for work on roses. A comprehensive collection of
rose varieties, called the National Rose Collection, was built up. Dr Pal very
generously gifted a large number of rose varieties from his personal collection
maintained in the garden attached to his official residence. The National
collection has by far remained the largest and the best in the country with over
two thousand rose varieties and Rosa species introduced from sources within and
outside the country. At about the same time, through the courtesy of Dr M.S.
Randhawa, the Vice-President of ICAR, a large number of ornamental flowering
trees and shrubs, were introduced.
The research work on floriculture in the Division of Horticulture was further
extended with bifurcation of the Division into the Division of Vegetable Crops of
Floriculture and the Division of Horticulture and Fruit Technology during 1971.
However, in 1983 the Division of Floriculture and Landscaping separated from
the Division of Vegetable Crops and Floriculture which gave an additional boost
to independent research on Horticulture.
7
For more than a quarter of a century, the work in ornamental horticulture at

the IARI, has proved to be the guiding force for floriculture research in the
country. Whereas initially, the work was taken up on a large number of
ornamental plants, the research efforts in the recent years have been
concentrated on the improvement of rose, gladiolus, bougainvilleas and a few
annuals to avoid duplication of research efforts at various agricultural universities
and the IIHR, Bangalore.
The co-ordinated scheme on floriculture initiated in 1960 on roses formed
the basis for strengthening of floriculture work under the Third Five-Year Plan.
During the latter part of the Fourth Plan, an All-India Co-ordinated Floriculture
Improvement Project was started by ICAR with IARI as the headquarters of the
Project Co-ordinator and also as one of the main centres of research on
floriculture.
In recognition of the meritorious work done by the Division it was
designated as the International Registration Authority for Bougainvillea and the
National Registration Centre for Roses by the International Society of
Horticultural Science. Therefore, the first check-list describing more than 300
cultivars of bougainvilleas was published (Choudhury and Singh 1981).
CROP IMPROVEMENT
Rose
Rose, the world’s favourite flower, is the most researched upon ornamental
flower at this Institute. The main thrust in the improvement has been on
breeding new varieties of roses, suited to the tropical Indian conditions for garden
display, as well as for cut flowers.
A comprehensive germplasm collection of over two thousand rose varieties
and species during the twenty five years, called the National Rose Collection,
provided the best material for rose breeding. This includes hybrid tea, floribunda,
polyanthas, miniature, climbing roses and several Rosa species introduced from
abroad through National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (formerly Division
of Plant Introduction at the IARI), and other sources within the country. The
experience gained with the assessment of the germplasm indicated that while
some of the famous roses, namely ‘Super Star’, ‘Queen Elizabeth’ and ‘First
Prize’ introduced from abroad, performed well under our conditions, there were
also instances of highly acclaimed exotic varieties like ‘Peace’ and ‘Uncle Walter’
proving a failure here.
The breeding of roses at the IARI started in the early sixties. Dr Pal
developed some hybrid seedlings and released his first rose vareity ‘Rose Sherbet’
in 1962. It was highly fragrant, with 0.033% oil content.
The main objectives of rose breeding are to evolve varieties with attractive
FLORICULTURE RESEARCH AT IARI 9
flower colour and form, fragrance, floriferousness, disease and insect-pest

resistance and their suitability for growing under sub-tropical conditions.
Experience gained through numerous basic studies conducted at IARI,
suggested the possibility of directed breeding for desired objectives. With the
approaches of genic manipulation, chromosome engineering using aneuploidy
and induced mutations, much success has been achieved in the improvement of
roses (Malik and Dadlani, 1980).
Shahare and Shastry (1963) studied the meiosis of 96 varieties of garden
roses. They observed that while euploid numbers are most frequent, in
exceptional cases, aneuploid numbers were also recorded. Inter-varietal variation
in chromosome pairing was reflected in varying degrees of expression of
univalents, heteromorphic bivalents, bivalents with double secondary
constrictions and multivalents. They also recorded supernumerary fragments in
addition to the euploid chromosome complement in three varieties and also
reported chromosomal numercial mosaics in three floribunda and one hybrid
polyantha varieties. Meenakshi (1977) developed a quick and less cumbersome
method for obtaining mitotic chromosomes from leaf tips. This was found
extremely useful, as the mitotic chromosomes could then be studied the year
round. Swarup et al. (1973) and Meenakshi (1977), observed most of the garden
rose varieties to be tetraploid (4x=28) while some were triploid (3x=21). Swarup
et al. (1973) found one of the varieties ‘Mohini’ to be an aneuploid with 22 (21+
1) chromosomes.
Mathew (1985) studied a few basic aspects like stigma receptivity, pollen
viability, method, time and season of pollination to exploit the limited favourable
period for better seed set and seed germination in rose. She observed that
maximum stigma receptivity was one to two days after anthesis.While the period
of receptivity was longer in winter than spring, the percentage of hips set during
winter was lower compared to spring. This was attributable to low mean
temperature during this period. Pollination done at 12 o’clock in the day gave the
highest hips set. Self-pollination gave higher percentage of hips set than those
observed in cross pollination. The best set was, however, found in open-
pollination. The hip formation was faster and better in spring than in winter. With
regard to germination of seed, the normally practised method of stratification for
three months did not prove effective and the best results were obtained when
seeds from green hips of ‘Delhi Princess’ stratified for one month, and in
‘Esperanza’ from settled seeds (unstratified) and washed seeds (stratified).
It was established that parents for hybridization, should be chosen from
varieties known to possess high female and high male fertility, such as ‘Pink
Parfait’, ‘Swati’, ‘Sweet Afton’, ‘Charles Mallerin’, ‘Crimson Glory’, ‘Golden
Splendor’, ‘Buccaneer’ (Swarup at el., 1973). Parents having two or more colour
combinations in their flowers, when crossed with parents having self-coloured
flowers showed that the segregation of flower colour was more variable than when
both parents are self-coloured. Crosses among whites or yellows thus produced
hybrids having flowers like those of parents only. A greenish-white flower variety
crossed with a pure white one showed greenish-white to be dominant. Deep
yellow was found to be recessive to the light yellow and dark red to shades of pink
(Swarup et al., 1973). Segregation for flower fragrance in hybrids was higher (75%)
where both parents, ‘Sweet Afton’ and ‘Avon’, were fragrant as compared to
crosses in which only one parent, ‘Sweet Afton’, ‘Avon’, ‘Charles Mallerin’,
‘Oklahoma’ or ‘Prelude’ was fragrant. However, they also observed some hybrid
seedlings with fragrant flowers even in crosses when none of the parents were
fragrant, ‘Message’ x‘Virgo’, ‘Western Sun’ x ‘Golden Splendor’ and
‘Buccaneer’ x ‘Golden Splendor’. A good rose flower must have sufficient
number of petals, the optimum number being 30-50 petals. On crossing two
double-flowered cultivars, there is a wide segregation of the number of petals in
the hybrid progenies. In almost all the crosses, the percentage of single and semi-
doubled flower seedlings was higher than the fully doubled ones (Swarup et a!.,
1973).
From several thousand crosses made each year and the critical evaluation of
the hybrids from at least three years, nearly 150 rose varieties have been
developed at this Institute since 1960, including those developed by Dr Pal. The
varieties developed in different classes of roses are:
Hybrid Tea. ‘Abhisarika’ (1975), ‘Akash Sundari’ (1982), ‘Anurag’ (1980),
‘Apsara’ (1982), ‘Arjun’ (1980), ‘Aruna’ (1968), ‘Ashirwad’, ‘Belle of Punjab’
(1965), ‘Bhim’ (1970), ‘Chambe Di Kali’ (1983), ‘Charugandha’ (1972),
‘Chitralekha’ (1972), ‘Chitwan’ (1971), ‘Dark Boy’ (1965), ‘Delhi Apricot’ (1964),
‘Delhi Debutante’ (1964),‘Delhi Pastel’(1964), ‘Delhi Sunshine’ (1963), ‘Dil-ki-
Rani’ (1985), ‘Dilruba’ (1984), ‘Diva Swapna’ (1981), ‘Dr B.P. Pal’ (1980), ‘Dr
Homi Bhabha’ (1968), ‘Dr R.R. Pal’ (1983), ‘Dulhan’ (1983), ‘Eastern Princess’
(1984), ‘Ganga’ (1970), ‘Golconda’ (1968), ‘Golden Afternoon’ (1984),
‘Gulbadan’ (1976), ‘Gulzar’ (1971), ‘Hans’ (1970), ‘Haseena’ (1979), ‘Indian
Princess’ (1980), ‘Jawani’ (1985), ‘Kanakangi’ (1968), ‘Kulu Belle’ (1972), ‘Lai
MakhmaP (1983), ‘Lalima’ (1978), ‘Madhosh’ (1975), ‘Madhumati’ (1973),
‘Madhushala’ (1973), ‘Mehak’ (1977), ‘Meghdoot’ (1972), ‘Mridula’ (1975),
‘Mrinalini’ (1972), ‘Nandini’ (1983), ‘Nayika’ (1975), ‘Nazneen’ (1969), ‘Nishada’
(1983), ‘Nurjehan’ (1980), ‘Pahadi Dhun’ (1981), ‘Patrani’ (1981), ‘Pale Hands’
(1965), ‘Pink Montezuma’ (1980), ‘Poornima’ (1971), ‘Priyadarshini’ (1986), ‘Pusa
Christina’ (1975), ‘Pusa Sonia’ (1986), ‘Raat-ki-Rani’ (1975), ‘Raja Surendra Singh
ofNalagarh’ (1975), ‘Raj Hans’ (1983), ‘Raj Kumari’ (1973), ‘Raktagandha’ (1975),
‘Rampa Pal’ (1975), ‘Rangshala’ (1969), ‘Ranjana’ (1975), ‘Ratnaar’ (1985), ‘Rosy
Evening’ (1985), ‘Sandeepini’ (1983), ‘Scented Bow’ (1965), ‘Soma’ (1980),
‘Sugandhini’ (1969), ‘Surkhab’ (1976), ‘Sweet Innocence’ (1980), ‘Sujata’ (1971),
‘Surabhi’ (1975), ‘Surekha’ (1969), ‘Uttam’ (1969), ‘Vasant’ (1980), and ‘White
Nun’ (1968).
Floribunda. ‘Akash Nartaki’ (1983), ‘Arunima’ (1976), ‘Azeez’ (1965),
‘Banjaran’ (1969), ‘Celestial Star’ (1965), ‘Chamba Princess’ (1967), ‘Chandrama’
(1980), ‘Chingari’ (1976), ‘Chitchor’ (1972), ‘Deepak’ (1977), ‘Deepika’ (1975),
‘Deepshikha’ (1975), ‘Delhi Brightness’ (1963), ‘Delhi Daintiness’ (1963), ‘Delhi
Maid’ (1963), ‘Delhi Pink Powderpuff (1965), ‘Delhi Prince’ (1963), ‘Delhi
Princess’ (1963), ‘Fugitive’ (1965), ‘Himangiri’ (1968), ‘Jantar Mantar’ (1982),
Fig. 1. Rose ‘Arunima’ (FI.)

Eig. 2. Rose ‘Chandrama’ (FI.)
‘Kavita’ (1972), ‘Kumkum’ (1971), ‘Loree’ (1969), ‘Madhura’ (1979), ‘Mohini’

(1970), ‘Nav Sadabahar’ (1980), ‘Navneet’ (1971), ‘Neelambari’ (1975), ‘Nutkhut’
(1969), ‘Orange Cup’ (1974), ‘Paharan’ (1971), ‘Panchu’ (1966), ‘Parwana’ (1974),
‘Prema’ (1970), ‘Ragini’ (1972), ‘Rajbala’ (1975), ‘Rose Sherbet’ (1962), ‘Rupali’
(1971), ‘Sadabahar’ (1969), ‘Sailoz Mookherjee’ (1974), ‘Sandhya Bela’ (1971),
‘Saroja’ (1984), ‘Shabnam’ (1975), ‘Shola’ (1969), ‘Shringar’ (1972), ‘Sindoor’
(1980), ‘Stanza’ (1967), ‘Suchitra’ (1972), ‘Suhashini’ (1972), ‘Surya Kiran’ (1979),
‘Suryodaya’ (1968), ‘Temple Flame’ (1965), ‘Usha’ (1975).
Miniature. ‘Delhi Starlet’ (1963)
Polyantha. ‘Swati’ (1979).
Climbers. ‘Clg. Dr Homi Bhabha’ (1975), ‘Delhi Pink Pearl’ (1962), ‘Delhi
White Pearl’ (1963).
A large number of these varieties have become very popular with the rose
Fig. 3. Rose ‘Prema’ (FI.)
growers in the country. Some of them have competed well with the exotic
varieties and many a times won prizes at various Rose/Flower Shows held in our
country. ‘Banjaran’ has won several prizes in the USA also. ‘Mohini’ with its
unusual chocolate colour, was considered for patenting by a reputed American
Rose Nursery (M/s Jackson & Perkins, California). Three of the varieties were
developed through the use of induced mutation. Induced mutants, ‘Abhisarika’
from ‘Kiss of Fire’, ‘Pusa Christina’ from ‘Christian Dior’ and ‘Madhosh’ from
‘Gulzar’ were developed from treatments, 5-10 Kr gamma-rays among the

physical mutagenic treatments and 0.2% NMU among chemical mutagens.
Samples of flowers from different varieties in collection, were analysed in as
early as 1962 and out of the varieties tested, ‘Rose Sherbat’ developed by Dr Pal
yielded the highest oil content (0.033%). Different clones of Rosa damascena, the
Damask Rose, were also collected from sources within the country and abroad.
Crosses were attempted to combine the free-flowering nature of the scented
damasks and winter flowering of various rose varieties. An assessment of various
damascena clones showed that while the Bulgarian material produced more
flowers, collections of Hasayan region (Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh) bear more petals
per flower. The attempts at combining the suitable characters of damasks and
modern roses, were mainly carried out at Shimla where R. damascena set fruits
freely. On the contrary no fruiting was observed at Delhi.
Attempts were also made to breed rose ramblers suitable for growing in
plains, since ramblers flower late in spring in the plains and fade quickly. The
crosses were made at Shimla and seedlings assessed in plains.
Gladiolus
Gladiolus breeding at the IARI started in the nineteen seventies and the
Institute released in 1980 three improved varieties, ‘Agnirekha’ (fire-red florets,
with scarlet stripes and saffron yellow eye), ‘Mayur’ (lilac-purple with dark-purple
throat) and ‘Suchitra’ (camellia-rose florets with vermilion blotch and dianthus-
purple eye) (Singh and Dohare, 1980).
In Gladiolus, it was previously believed that the dormant corms have to be
obtained from the hills for growing a successful crop in the plains of India. This
was due to the fact that the corms get spoiled during their resting period in the
heat of northern plains. Cold storage of corms and their treatment with
fungicide, both before storage and before planting, was standardized which made
it possible to grow a commercial crop of gladiolus.
‘Apple Blossom’, ‘Bis Bis’, ‘George Mazure’, ‘Melody’, ‘Oscar’, ‘Ratna’s
Butterfly’, ‘Snow Princess’, ‘Sylvia’ and ‘Vink’s Glory’ are recommended for
growing in the plains.
Misra and Choudhury (1976) evaluated more than 100 commercial gladiolus
cultivars and recommended 37 cultivars to be suitable for growing in the hills of
Himachal Pradesh. Misra (1983) and Misra and Choudhury (1977) reported a few
promising hybrids from the hybridization work attempted in gladiolus.
Bougainvillea
In Bougainvillea, five highly floriferous cultivars namely ‘Dr R.R. Pal’,
‘Sonnet’, ‘Spring Festival’, ‘Summer Time’ and ‘Stanza’ were evolved by Dr Pal.
Among these, ‘Dr R.R. Pal’ is very vigorous and also makes a good rootstock for
the budding of bougainvillea varieties difficult to propagate otherwise. ‘Vishakha’
was also developed at this Institute. Swarup and Singh (1964) recommended a key
for classification of Bougainvillea cultivars using pollen morphology and leaf
hairs.
Zinnia
Zinnia is a very popular annual flower during summer and monsoon.
Unfortunately, leaf-curl viral disease seriously hampers its cultivation in the
northern plains. By recurrent selection from the irradiated seeds of Zinnia
elegans, a mixed-coloured variety, a resistant variety, has been evolved (Swarup
and Raghava, 1974).
Marigold
Singh and Swarup (1971, 1973 a, b) studied in detail the inheritance of
various characters in African marigold. They observed appreciable heterosis for
the 8 characters studied. They reported that while dominance and epistasis
played a major role in the inheritance of days to first-flowering and flower weight;
additive gene effects and epistasis, were found to be predominant in number of
flowers. The dubleness of flowers was a monogenically dominant character.
However, the type of flowers and their colour was each governed by two genes.
Also there is a transgressive segregation for various characters in the F2
generation, which indicates the importance of such a segregation in the
improvement of various characters.
Antirrhinum
Malik (1979), in genetical studies with the diploid and tetraploid progenies
of snapdragon. Antirrhinum majus, observed appreciable heterosis in the F,
hybrids for all the characters studied, with the heterosis being more pronounced
in diploids than in tetraploids. Over-dominance was noticed in the inheritance of
all the characters; but, selection may be effective in improving a few characters
where complementary epistasis was observed. Dominance component of
variance was higher than the additive component of variance.
Balsam
Swarup et al. (1975) observed heterosis for all the characters studied in
diallel crosses made in balsam (Impatiens balsamina) and reported better
performance of F, hybrids than the top parent. Gene action was additive in nature
without any epistasis, for all the characters except, for flowers per plant, where
complementary epistasis was observed. However, in the absence of a convenient
and economical method of F, seed production, even though appreciable heterosis
was observed for all characters, it was better to fix the economic factors by
selection in F2 and further generations, and the pure-lines isolated with superior
economic characters may be further crossed to exploit the heterosis.
Other Crops
Induced mutation was studied in several annuals including annual
chrysanthemum, cosmos, pansy, cynoglossum. Bells of Ireland (Molucella laevis),
Tithonia rotundifolia and sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus) and interesting results
were obtained in some cases. In annual chrysanthemum, Jain and Mazumdar
(1957) and Jain et al. (1961) observed changes in flowers from single to double
of various types and from non-tubular to tubular cqrolla. In Bells of Ireland,
mutants for dwarf plant height and reduced branching were obtained with 15 Kr
gamma-rays treatment. In Tithonia 20 Kr gamma-rays induced mutations for leaf
chlorophyll, flower form and colour, consequently, mutants with yellow flowers,
striped ray petals and tubular petals were also obtained. In sweet pea, 0.25 and
0.5% BMS-treatment induced changes in flower form by producing flower with
1-2 additional ‘standard’ on an additional ‘keel’, giving the appearance of a large
double flower (Kaicker et al., 1972).
So far, enough attention has not been paid to flowering trees and
shrubs. Swarup and Singh (1965), while studying the morphological plant
characteristics of different ornamental flowering Cassia species, observed three
unusual trees which differed from the known Cassia species in several characters.
On a detailed study, these trees were found to be natural inter-specific hybrids
between the yellow-flower Cassia fistula and the pink-flower C. nodosa. One of
these hybrids, was outstanding in beauty and flowering as a new ornamental
flowering cassia. In fact Dr Pal had first noticed one of these hybrids and drew the
attention of the initiation of these studies.
Swarup et al. (1973) observed in hollyhock (Althea rosaea) that there is high
heterosis in the inter-varietal crosses for most of the characters studied (Swarup et
al., 1973). The estimates of heritability in broad sense were also high and genetic
advance was high for characters—flowers on side branches, flower weight and
flowers on main stem. Days-to-flowering had significant positive correlation with
flower size and flower weight.
Sharma and Swarup (1962) studied the chromosome numbers and the
meiosis in some wild ornamental shrubs found in the Kulu Valley. Swarup et al.
(1963) observed a few plants of Tulipa stellata having complete tetramerous
flowers and some intermediate types between trimerous and tetramerous
conditions, where otherwise trimerous character was the regular character.
At the IARI Regional Station, Katrain, assessment of a large collection of
various ornamental crops, yielded two new types of Coreopsis tinctoria, one with
tubular or fluted ray florets and another with star-shaped florets. A natural
mutant of calendula with ray florets of cactus type was also seen.
AGRO-TECHNIQUES
As mentioned earlier, major programmes of work on ornamental crops at the

IARI were related to crop improvement. Research efforts on agro-techniques
have been limited.
Rose
The product on technology for roses for cut-flower was studied in depth and
standardized. With regard to planting distance, it was observed that while the
commonly used spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm produced the highest number of
flowers per bush, maximum production from a unit area was recorded with the
closer spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm. Experiments to study the effect of time and
severity of pruning on flower production revealed that low pruning (10 cm) done
on 8 October produced the highest number of first-grade flowers in ‘Queen
Elizabeth’, ‘Super Star’ and ‘Happiness’. With regard to nutrition requirements, it
was concluded that higher dose of nitrogen application at 20 q/ha increased
production of cut-flowers significantly (Malik, 1980).
Blooms kept at 4.5-10°C for 6-8 hours had the best keeping and transport
qualities which helps in the export of the cut-flowers. Four-trial consignments of
cut blooms sent to Europe (Paris, Frankfurt and Rotterdam), through State
Trading Corporation of India, were very well received and appreciated by the
importing florists (Swarup et al., 1972).
The choice of rootstock in judging the potential of the genotype of the
seedling of a variety is an important consideration. The Institute, identified a new
rose rootstock R. indica var. odorata, which was superior to the commonly used
rootstock of the region, i.e. ‘Edouard Rose’ (R. bourboniana). This new rootstock
had better bud-take (80-100%) as well as high multiplication ability through
cuttings (89.78% success) than the other rootstocks tested (Swarup and Malik,
1974).
Gladiolus
Certain growth regulators and chemicals can be used to enhance corm and
cormel production in gladiolus (Sehgal, 1984). Benzyl adenine, Etherel and
Thiourea are generally suitable for normal crops raised from corms, while
isopropyl myristate and ascorbic acid are more effective when the crop is grown
from cormels or corm sections. Tissue-culture studies demonstrated that
gladiolus multiplication can be considerably speeded up by in vitro propagation,
starting with spike segments or cormel buds. Dormant cormels can be harvested
from culture-vessels, or after transplanting the cultured plantlets in pots. The
optimum treatments for desirable effects under field conditions as well as in
aseptic manipulation vary with the cultivar.
Bougainvillea
In the standardization of propagation technique for some ornamental crops,
Singh et al. (1976) found better rooting of bougainvillea cuttings under bottom
heat.
Hibiscus
Singh (1979) observed patch budding and veneer grafting to be successful
methods for propagation of the otherwise difficult-to-propagate Hawaiian hibiscus
varieties under Delhi conditions.
REFERENCES
Choudhury, B. and Singh, B. 1981. The International Bougainvillea Check List. IARI, New Delhi.
Jain, H.K. and Mazumdar, P.K. 1957. Indian J. Hort. 14:1.
Jain, H.K., Bose, A.K., Satpathy, D. and Sur, S.C. 1961. Indian J. Genet. 21: 68.
Kaicker, U.S. and Swamp, V. 1972. Indian J. Genet. PI. Breed. 32: 257.
Kaicker, U.S., Swarup, V., Singh, H.P. and Shukla, K.S. 1972. Third int. Symp. on Sub-tropical and Tropical Hort.,
Bangalore.
Malik, R.S. 1979. Study of Heterosis in Antirrhinum (Antirrhinum majus L.). Ph.D. Thesis, Agra University, Agra
(Unpublished).
Malik, R.S. 1980. Studies on production of rose for cut flowers. Natn. Semin, on Prodn. Tech, for Comm. Flower
Crops. TNAU, Coimbatore.
Malik, R.S. and Dadlani, N.K. 1980. IARI Res. Bull. No. 15 (New Delhi).
Malik, R.S. and Dadlani, N.K. 1984. Indian Hort. 29(2):27.
Malik, R.S. and Dadlani, N.K. 1986. Delhi Gdn Mag. 25:1.
Malik, R.S., Singh, B. and Dadlani, N.K. 1984. Indian Hort. 29(2):9.
Mathew, R.R. 1985. Studies on Pollination, Seed-set and Germination in Rose. M.Sc. Thesis. IARI, New Delhi
(Unpublished).
Meenakshi 1977. Curr. Sci. 46 (17):589.
Misra, R.L. 1983. Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 12 : 63.
Misra, R.L. and Choudhury, B. 1976. Indian Hort. 20 (4) : 25.
Misra, R.L. and Choudhury, B. 1977. Indian Hort. 22(2) : 9.
Pal, B.P. 1969. Indian J. Hort. 26 : 35.
Pal, B.P. 1972. The Rose in India, ICAR, New Delhi. Second Edition.
Sehgal, OP. 1984. Studies on Vegetative Propagation of Gladiolus. PhD. Thesis, IARI, New Delhi (Unpublished).
Shahare, M.L. and Shastry, S.V.S. 1963. Chromosoma (Bert.) 13 : 702.
Sharma, J.N. and Swarup, V. 1962. Curr. Sci. 31 : 26.
Singh, B. 1979. Indian Hort. 24.
Singh, B. and Dohare, S.R. 1980. Indian Hort.IS .
Singh, B. and Swarup, V. 1971. Heterosis and combining ability in African marigold. Indian J. Genet. PI. Breed.
31 : 407.
Singh, B. and Swarup, V. 1973a. Indian J. Genet. PI. Breed. 31 : 172.
Singh, B. and Swarup, V. 1973b. Indian J. Genet. PI. Breed. 33 : 373.
Singh, B., Majumdar, P.K. and Prasad, J. 1976. Delhi Gdn Mag. 15 : 13.
Singh, B., Malik, R.S., Yadav, L.P. and Choudhury, B. 1977. Indian Hort. 21(4) : 31.
Swarup, V. and Malik, R.S. 1974. Studies on the performance of rose. Indian. J. Hort. 31 : 268.
Swarup, V. and Raghava, S.P.S. 1974. Indian J. Genet. PI. Breed. 34 : 17.
Swarup, V. and Singh, B. 1964. Indian J. Hort. 32 : 155.

Swarup, V., Sharma, J.N. and Singh, D P. 1963. Curr. Sci. 32 : 419.
Swarup, V., Malik, R.S. and Yadav, B.S. 1972. Studies on production of roses for export. Third Int. Symp. on Sub¬
tropical and Tropical Hort., Bangalore.
Swarup, V., Raghava, S.P.S. and Balakrishnan, K.A. 1973. Indian J. Genet. PI. Breed. 33 (3) : 446.
Swarup, V., Raghava, S.O.S. and Balakrishnan, K.A. 1975, Indian J. Genet. PI. Breed. 35:69.
Swarup, V., Kaicker, U.S., Malik, R.S. and Singh, A.P. 1973. Indian J. Genet. PI. Breed. 33:43.
3
Floriculture Research
at the NBRI
P.V. Sane
National Botanical Research Institute
Lucknow, UP
F LORICULTURE has become a lucrative industry in many countries as a

result of science-based techniques and steady supply of improved plant
material. There is considerable trade of flowers in our country, spread
over 10 states covering more than 20,000 ha. The application of innovative
technologies can give impetus to its improvement. It is in this background
that multi-disciplinary research was carried out at the National Botanical
Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow, involving germplasm collection,
assessment, propagation, improvement, standardization of agro-techniques and
protection to serve the industry by finding solutions of the major problems of
growers, nurserymen and florists (Kher and Bhutani, 1979).
INTRODUCTION AND CONSERVATION
Introduction, collection, and long-term preservation of germplasm of

plant materials through conventional methods and long-term culture of
proliferating shoots or plantlets in vitro have made the institute a National
Repository of living collection of important ornamentals, viz., Amaranthus (300
accessions), Amaryllis (6 spp. and 56 cvs ), Bougainvillea (160 spp./cvs), Canna
(80 cvs), Chrysanthemum morifolium (400 cvs),Gladiolus (55 cvs) and Rosa (700
cvs). This formed a broad genetic base for further improvement and research.
Using tissue-culture techniques, preservation of ornamentals as ‘Tissue
Banks’ has been attempted. The protocorms and very young plantlets of
Vanda hybrid, Rhynchostylis retusa and Dendrobium• chrysotoxum have
proliferated in vitro for more than seven years. Millions of plantlets
with developed shoot and root systems could be produced for propagation
from such ‘Tissue Banks’. Growth requirements for different stages of
plantlet formation i.e., proliferating plantlets, individual growth of plantlets with
20
FLORICULTURE RESEARCH AT NBRI 21
promotion of shoot, promotion of rooting and transplantation of the in vitro-raised

plants to pots had been worked out. Similarly, Tissue Banks of different cultivars
of C. morifolium have been maintained in long-term culture for more than eight
years by periodic subculture of their shoot apices, which could be proliferated to
obtain the requisite number of cloned plants of particular cultivars at any time of
the year (Prasad et al., 1983). In both the cases, true-to-type plants were produced
since the regeneration was different from the explant without intervening-
callus formation.
IMPROVEMENT
Creation of new cultivars of ornamentals, especially of indigenous origin

suited for cultivation in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, was achieved by employing
selection, hybridization, polyploidy and mutation breeding. This should
provide a sound scientific base to the floriculture trade in India which
has so far mainly depended on import of quality seed material from abroad.
The imported material is mostly unsuitable for local conditions. If F,
hybrids are imported, they degenerate in subsequent generations, resulting
in an unending cycle of imports. For a sound scientific approach, it is
essential that basic genetic information is obtained through the study
of breeding systems, experimental hybridization and synthesis of autoploids
and amphiploids involving both the cultivated and the putative wild species.
Such studies have permitted us to chart out genetic-evolutionary race
histories for Antirrhinum, Amaranthus, Bougainvillea, Canna, Chrysanthemum,
Gladiolus, Amaryllis, Hibiscus, Lantana and Verbena (Khoshoo, 1979). The
information generated by these studies have helped in the circumscription
of ‘gene pools’ and their utilization in the creation of new and novel
cultivars of commercial importance suitable to Indian agro-climatic conditions.
Utilising the above approaches some of the significant results achieved
are as follows.
Selection
Chrysanthemum. Selection from seedlings raised from pollinated seeds
resulted in evolution and release of several outstanding cultivars which
have since been very well received by the industry, e.g., in chrysanthemum
‘Apsara’, ‘Birbal Sahni’, ‘Jayanthi’ and ‘Kundan’, have been recognized
as much superior to existing ones for cut flower owing to their attractive
blooms borne on erect stems and long-lasting quality. Similarly, in the
evolution at NBRI of the dwarf ‘no pinch no stake’ type cultivars, namely
‘Sharad Singar’, ‘Hemant Singar’, ‘Suhag Singar’ and ‘Guldasta’ (Fig. 1),
the growers of potted chrysanthemums have found an answer to their
Eig. 1. Chrysanthemum cv. ‘Guldasta’— a ‘no pinch no stake’ variety.
age-old problem of training the plant which called for a lot of skill,
time and labour. The evolution of summer, the rainy season and spring
blooming varieties on the other hand have solved the proverbial problems
of short blooming period in chrysanthemum specially in North India.
Gladiolus. A decade ago it was believed that Gladiolus could only
be grown commercially in hills. The success of G. psittacinus hybrid
at the NBRI inspired research on evolving different-coloured varieties suitable
for growing in the plains. Notable among these are ‘Jwala’, ‘Priyadarshini’
and ‘Gazaf all of which are open-pollinated seedling-selections whereas
‘Kohra’ is a cross between (G. psittacinus hybrid x ‘King Leaf). Corms
of these four varieties can be stored in ordinary room conditions in contrast
to the exotic hybrids which require cold storage during hot months.
Bougainvillea. The evolution of Bougainvillea ‘Shubhra’ has fulfilled
the long-felt desire of having white-bractate, free and perpetual blooming,
hardy and easy-to-multiply Bougainvillea cultivar (Sharma, 1969).
The following outstanding cultivars (Bud sports) of Bougainvillea have

been evolved:
‘Shubhra’. Bud sport of ‘Mary Palmer’; bracts parchment white, profuse
bloomer.
‘DrB.P. Pal’. Tetraploid of‘Shubhra’; bracts parchment white, seed bearing
due to induced fertility.
‘Tetra Mrs McClean’. Tetraploid of ‘Mrs. McClean’; Bracts brunt orange,
seed bearing due to induced fertility.
‘Begum Sikander’. Hybrid seedling of ‘Dr B.P. Pal’ x ‘Dr B.P. Pal’ x
‘Jennifer Femie’, aneuploid (2n=3x-2=49); bracts bicoloured with magenta
margin and parchment white centre/restricted growth.
‘Mary Palmer Special’. Hybrid seedling of‘Dr B.P. Pal’ x ‘Princess Margaret
Rose’, Triploid (2n= 3x=51); Bracts bicoloured magenta and white.
‘Chitra’. Hybrid seedling ‘Tetra Mrs McClean’ x Dr B.P. Pal’; bract
multicoloured magenta, parchment white and orange.
‘Archana’. Bud sport of ‘Roseville’s Delight’; Leaves variegated.
‘Wajid Ali Shah’. Hybrid of‘Dr B.P. Pal’ x ‘Mrs. Chico’ and is a triploid (2n
= 3x = 51), with irregular blotches of rose in purple and parchment white.
‘Shweta’. Bud sport of ‘Trinidad’; bracts reflexed, greenish white.
‘Parthasarthy’. Bud sport of ‘Partha’; Foliage variegated, variegation
irregular.
‘Surekha. Bud sport of‘Scarlet queen’; Leaves variegated with cream yellow
patches.
‘Nirmal’. Bud sport of‘Mrs. McClean’; leaves variegated green with yellow
patches.
Hybridization
Bougainvillea. Progress in bougainvillea breeding has been hampered
all over the world largely because of the extensive pollen and/or seed
sterility. The choice of female and male parents is limited only to the
few relatively fertile types which, more often are not good cultivars.
After detailed studies of the reasons for sterility, fertility was restored
by colchiploidy. This enabled immediate broad-basing of germplasms by
inclusion of such cultivars in breeding programme that were otherwise very
useful but so far out of reach of bougainvillea breeders all over the world.
Following the method outlined here, there are now available seeded counterparts
of several sterile but very popular varieties like ‘B.P. Pal’ from ‘Shubhra’
and ‘Tetra Mrs McClean’ from ‘Mrs McClean’. These have been used to raise
a number of very promising, colourful, and floriferous often bicoloured
hybrid varieties at triploid, tetraploid and aneuploid levels. Some of these are
ideal for pot culture. Special mention may be made of‘Begum Sikander’, ‘Wajid
Ali Shah’, and ‘Mary Palmer Special’. This work has also led to the development
of varieties with blotched bracts as in ‘Chitra’ resulting from 4x ‘Mrs Cleans’ (2n=
68) x ‘Dr B.P. Pal’ (2n=68) (Zadoo, 1974; Zadoo et al., 1975; Sharma and Ohri,
1982).
Snapdragons. F dwarf hybrid snapdragons were evolved using inbred
lines of the conventional snapdragons selected on the basis of their height,
compactness of inflorescence, number of flowering stems per plant, blooming
period, number of flowers opening at a time, number of flowers per inflorescence,
size, colour and duration of flowers and fertility. These lines were pollinated
with a dwarf species, Antirrhinum glutinosum. The resultant F, hybrids
are uniform with semi-dwarf habit and large number of tillers with prominently
held inflorescence bearing closely set reasonably large flowers. A desirable
attribute is their perfectly synchronous intershoot, intertiller and interplant
flowering (Mahal, 1972; Khoshoo, 1979).
Tetra-giant snapdragons. These were raised from some Fj hybrids giving
good performance under Indian conditions. The resultant tetraploids are
hardier, sturdier, stockier and shorter than the corresponding diploids.
They have generally a higher number of flowering stems with conspicuously
larger, deeper coloured flowers that are longer lasting compared to their
diploid counterparts. Fertility is about 80-90%.
An important attribute of the tetra-snapdragons is the strong ‘triploid
barrier’ (0.24% triploids after 4x x 2x crosses) and thus the diploid and tetraploid
types can be grown together. This property together with other useful attributes,
enables raising commercially exploitable fertile, true-breeding, vigorous
tropicalized tetra-snapdragons in different colours. Sufficient foundation seed has
been already raised (Mahal, 1972).
Verbenas. Four free flowering hybrid verbena cultivars have been evolved
by hybridizing V tenuisecta and V hybrida. The former is a hardy,
less-colourful, small-flowered species which grows almost throughout the
year and is used as ground cover. The latter is an annual highly showy,
large-flowered bedding species. The hybrid types obtained after repeated
back-crossing are summer-hardy, with genes that confer heat resistance.
They have matting habit with reasonably large but highly floriferous character.
The hybrids have genic male sterility and normally do not set seed rendering
them highly floriferous and free-flowering. It has been possible to extend
the blooming period because of male sterility. These verbenas are excellent
both as ground cover for rockeries and as bedding types. The hybrids can
be propagated vegetatively (Arora, 1972; Khoshoo, 1979).
Amaranthus. ‘Amar Shola’, a hybrid amaranth, is totally a new ornamental
with very appealing maroon-coloured beaded, erect inflorescence and represents
a selection from a segregating progeny from a cross within Amaranthus
caudatus complex involving a grain type and an ornamental type (Pal,

1970).
Involving the available ‘germplasm’ of Amaranthus tricolor complex
in a systematic hybridization and selection programme eight cultivars have been
developed namely, ‘Amar Kiran’, ‘Amar Poet’, ‘Amar Prithu’, ‘Amar Parvati’,
‘Amar Suikiran’, ‘Amar Tirang’, ‘Amar Raktabh’ and ‘Amar Mosaic’. These
represent various combinations of leaf shape and colour and are entirely new to
floriculture trade. Foundation seed of six of these has been sold to three well
known floriculture firms of India for multiplication and commercialization. A
tetraploid cultivar (‘Amar Tetra’) was evolved through colchiploidy. It is very
attractive with broader, thicker and brighter coloured leaves compared to the
corresponding diploid (Pal, unpublished).
Marigold. Marigold is one of the most important cut-flowers in India
being used both for religious and decorative purposes. Complete technology
for raising Fj triploid hybrid (including maintenance of male sterile line) through
the use of male sterile African diploid marigolds (Tegetes erecta) and male fertile
French tetraploid marigolds (T. patula) has been worked out up to pilot scale.
The F, hybrids developed are dwarf, highly floriferous and free flowering (due to
sterility) with golden yellow heads giving nearby 1.5 times more flowers by
weight per unit area (Jalil et al., 1974; Khoshoo, 1979).
Amaryllis. The most common cultivars of this important cut flower,
are diploids and some are tetraploids. To combine the heterotic effect
of hybridization and gigantism associated with polyploidy, a number of
triploid hybrids have been raised. These have given consistently excellent
performance because of higher number of larger, ruffled, intense coloured
and longer-lasting flowers per spike. The stock of these types, eg. cv.
‘Kiran’, has already been released. One tetraploid (‘Samarat’) and a semidouble
(‘Jyoti’) have also been released (Fig. 2) (Narain, 1972).
Gladiolus. While in world’s market a number of excellent gladiolus
varieties are available, these however are unsuitable for the North Indian
plains as the corms get damaged at higher temperature and humidity. Through
systematic hybridization involving Gladiolus ‘Friendship’ (2n=60) with G. tristis
(2n= 30) eight new triploid (2n = 45) cultivars namely ‘Manmohan’, ‘Manohar’,
‘Mukta’, ‘Manhar’, ‘Manisha’, ‘Mohini’, ‘Triloki’ and ‘Sanykta’, were evolved.
Two aneuploid cultivars ‘Archana’ (2n=60) and ‘Arun’ (2n=67) were evolved
through hybridization between G. psittacinus ‘Sylvia’ (2n=75) as the female
parent with gladiolus ‘Friendship’ (2n=60) and gladiolus ‘Fancy’ (2n=60)
as male parents respectively. All these cultivars have been released, and are
getting popular in the cut flower trade.
Erythrina resuparelii. It is new beautiful perennial shrubby type evolved
through hybridization between E. resupinata Roxb—an indigenous unique
Fig. 2. Amaryllis cv ‘Jyoti’
species of the genus growing in tarai regions of U.P. and Bihar, and E.
variegata Linn. var. orientalia (Jalil et al., 1982).
Mutations
Induced mutations. Mutation breeding has been used to produce novelties
in flower colour/type and foliage of vegetatively propagated ornamental
plants. Fifty five gamma-rays (1 to 5 Krl-induced somatic mutations in
Bougainvillea (2), Chrysanthemum (34), Lantana depressa (2), Perennial Portulaca
(6), Rosa (9), and Tuberose (2) have been established as new cultivars
and released. The details are as follows:
Ornamental Mutant Characters Parent
Bougainvillea ‘Arjuna’ Variegated leaves ‘Partha’

B. pallavi Variegated leaves ‘Rosevilles’
‘Delight’
Chrysanthemum ‘Alankar’ Spanish orange flower ‘D-5’
‘Anamika’ Light-reddish ‘E-13’
‘Basanthi’ Yellow ‘E-13’
‘Hemanti’ Chinese yellow ‘Megami’
‘Cosmonaut’ Anemone type flower ‘Nimrod’
‘Kapish’ Brownish flower ‘E-13’
‘Lohit’ Dark-reddish ‘E-13’
‘Man Bhawan’ Bicoloured (yellow and red) ‘Flirt’
‘Sheela’ Canary yellow ‘Himani’
‘Asha’ Creamish yellow ‘Hope’
‘Ashankit’ Bright mauve, semi-quilled Undaunted
fringed florets
‘Aruna’ Dark-reddish ‘Ashankit’
‘Basant’ Yellow heads ‘Paul’
‘Gairik’ Salmon-light, almost incurved'Belur Math’
florets
‘Kansyaa’ Bronze flowers-head ‘Rose Day’
‘Kunchita’ Incurved ray florets Undaunted
‘Jhalar’ Mauve, almost flat and Undaunted
fringed florets
‘Nirbhaya’ Lighter mauve flower Undaunted
‘Nirbhik’ Lighter mauve, almost flat, Undaunted
fringed ray florets
‘Pingal’ Lovely tetracotta flower ‘Pink casket’
‘Pitaka’ Yellow flower-heads ‘Kansya’
‘Pitamer’ Yellow flower-heads ‘Otome Zakura’
‘Pumima’ White flower-heads ‘Otome Zakura’
‘Rohit’ Rhodonite red flower ‘Kingsford Smith’
‘Shafali’ Light-reddish flower Undaunted
‘Shukla’ White flower ‘Mrs H. Gubby’
‘Shveta’ White, semi-quilled flower ‘Fishtail’
‘Svamim’ Light-brown flower Undaunted
‘Tamra’ Intense coppery red ‘Goldie’
‘Taruni’ Azalia pink flower ‘Kingsford’
‘Talike’ Paint brush type florets ‘M-24’
Lantana depressa L. depressa Variegated leaves L. depressa
variegata
‘Naharika’ Canary yellow flower L. depressa
Perennial Portulaca ‘Jhumka’ Dissected, obtuse petals ‘Karana Pali’
‘Karana Pali’ Acutely tipped, dissected P. Portulaca
petals
‘Lalita’ More petals, upper half of ‘Vibhuti’
petals turning white
‘Mukta’ Incurved petals with white tips P. Portulaca
‘Ratnam’ Profusely blooming, single P. Portulaca
flowers
‘Vibhuti’ Incurved flowers with white ‘Mukta’

margin when temperature and
humidity high
Rosa ‘Angara’ Dark-reddish flower ‘Montezuma’
‘Sharada’ Almost white flower ‘Queen Elizabeth’
‘Sukumari’ Almost white flower ‘America’s Junior Miss’
‘Tangerine Contempo’ Tangerine orange flower ‘Contempo’
‘Yellow Contempo’ Empire yellow ‘Contempo’
‘Pink Contempo’ Pink fower ‘Contempo’
‘Curio’ Muth-flowered curious ‘Imperator’
looking flower
‘Twinkle’ Stripped (pink and red) ‘Imperator’
flower
‘Light Pink Prize’ Light-pink flower ‘First Prize’
Tuberose ‘Rajat Rekha’ Silvery white streaks along ‘Single-flowered Tuberose’
the middle of the blade
‘Svarna Rekha’ Golden yellow streaks along ‘Double-flowered Tuberose’
the margins of blade.
Spontaneous mutations. Spontaneous mutations were detected in the rose

cultivars namely ‘Elizabeth of Glamis’, ‘Cri Cri’ and ‘Summer Holiday’,
Bud sports were isolated, multiplied and resulted in the following new
cultivars.
‘Salmon Beauty’ : Salmon coloured bud sport of ‘Elizabeth of Hlaims’
‘Clg. Cri Cri’ : Climbing bud sport of ‘Cri Cri’.
‘Winter Holiday’ : Rose pink bud sports of ‘Summer Holiday’.
Biochemical Studies
Biochemical analysis of bract mutations in bougainvilleas. Bougainvilleas
have a wide range of bract colours ranging from white to various shades
of yellow, orange, magenta, red, purple and violet and are considered
to have arisen as a result of mutations (spontaneous hybridization and/or
bud sports) among various forms of three basal species. An interesting
method for the biochemical analysis of bract pigments involving paper
electrophoresis was developed and bracts of more than 100 cultivars were
analysed so as to evaluate this character as a possible chemotaxonomic
parameter for the identification of cultivars on one hand and to study
the genetics of colour on the other. The results have indicated that:
(i) The bract colour in Bougainvillea is determined by the relative
qualitative and quantitative combination of betalain i.e. betacyanin, and
betaxanthin pigments and all the colour forms can be explained on this basis.
(ii) The basal species and the three hybrid groups have a definite pattern
of bract pigments and that can act as a chemotaxonomic marker for the
identification of basal species and hybrid groups. Interspecific hybridization
brings about an interaction of two disparate genomes by bringing them
together in an entirely different genetical environment. This is the basis
of different novel colour forms (Kochar and Ohri, 1977).
(iii) Mutations seem to bring about a partial or complete loss of betacyanins
and/or quantitative or qualitative increase in betaxanthin production.
(iv) A particular expression of bract pigments is also influenced by
the external and internal factors like light and temperature by which
the genes responsible for the synthesis of these pigments can be repressed
or derepressed. For example, light has been found to enhance the synthesis
of betacyanin and some bands of betacyanin disappeared when the newly
formed bracts were put in darkness. The nature of some of the cultivars
like ‘Mary Palmer’ can be explained on this basis (Kochar et al., 1979).
Studies on the action of light on the biosynthesis of betacyanin pigments in the
seedlings of Amaranthus caudatus. The action of light in the induction of
betacyanin pigments were studied; The induction experiments performed
with different light qualities showed that the inductive light operates
through phytochrome and through a blue/UV photoreceptor (Cryptochrome).
A phytochrome dependent ‘High Irradiance Reaction’ (HIR) or the light
absorption through photosynthetic pigments do not play any significant
role. There is a specific interaction between the light effect mediated
through phytochrome and cryptochrome in the sense that the degree of
reversibility increased with increasing Pfr level during the induction period. The
extent of the reversible response increased with the fluence rate during
the induction period. Such type of interaction has been reported for the
first time (Kochar et al., 1981).
Some of the hormones like kinetin increased the biosynthesis of these
pigments. Light and hormones behave independently in this respect (Kochar
et al, 1981).
PROPAGATION
Vegetative propagation (cutting and grafting) is the universal method of

multiplication of ornamentals. Intermittent water mist, with or without rings and
auxin treatments (Kher and Bhutani, 1979) has induced roots in cuttings of
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis cv ‘Alipore Beauty’, H. schizopetalus, Jasminum sambac,
Callistemon lanceolatus, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Lagerstroemia lancasteri, Nerium
indicum, Ficus decora, Dombeya natalensis, Juniperus chinensis and tip cutting of
Bougainvillea cv. ‘Garnet Glory’.
Gladiolus. Gladiolus is multiplied by corms. Sharga and Basario (1976)
observed that the potentiality of corm is directly proportional to its size in respect
of number of corm/cormels produced per plant besides quality of spike in case of
G. psittacinus ‘Sylvia’. They further observed that mechanical removal of sprouts

in succession during storage greatly helped in augmenting number of corms and
cormels produced per plant. However, the total weight of corms produced per
plant remained unaffected. Sharga et al. (1978) found that the variant clipping of
spikes at green bud, first bud, and last bud stage was most effective in restoring
regeneration capability of corms and the response was in ascending order. There
was qualitative improvement of smaller corms by way of many-fold increase in
corms weight and diameter and quantitative improvement of larger corms by
augmenting cormel production. Sharga et al. (1983) reported that clipping of
spikes together with differential number of leaves was detrimental to the
production of corm and cormlets beyond a reasonable limit. The corm diameter
remained unaffected by retaining half of the total number of leaves and corm
weight by retaining 2/3, whole and 3/4 number of leaves, in case of A (6-7 cm),
B (4-5 cm) and C (1-2 cm) grade corms respectively.
So far, tissue culture has been most successfully applied for
micropropagation of plants, particularly ornamentals. The morphogenetic studies
with the accent on developing method of rapid propagation of the following
ornamentals, ranging from herbaceous annuals to bulbous and woody perennials,
have been successfully pursued at the NBRI. Orchids, namely Vanda hybrida
(Vanda ‘TMA’ x V. teres Roxb.), Rhynchostylis retusa Bl., Dendrobium
chrysotoxum Lindl., D. transparents Wall., D. fimbriatum Hook., D. hybrid (D.
fimbriatum x D. densiflorum Wall.), D. chrysanthema Wall. ex Lindl., Cymbidium
D. Don, C. mastersii Griff. PaphiOpedillum fairieanum (Lindl.) Pfitz.,
Bougainvillea glabra Choisy ‘Magnifica’, B. x buttiana Holttum and Standley
‘Scarlet Queen Variegated’ and Bougainvillea hybrid (‘Tetra Mrs McCleans’ x ‘Dr
B.P. Pal’), Rosa hybrida L. ‘Super Star’; Petunia hybrida Hort. ex. Willd. double
and single; Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat, ‘Qtome Zakura’, ‘Pandhari Revdi’,
‘Turbulent’ and ‘Birbal Sahni’, Gaillardia pulchella Fouger, Amaryllis hybrid,
Gladiolus psittacinus hybrid; Polianthes tuberosa Linn., Lilium longiflorum
Thunb. and Peperomia obtusifolia A. Dieter. (Chaturvedi, 1979; Chaturvedi et al.,
1982) have been successfully propagated through tissue culture.
Orchids. Mericloning of orchids as propounded by Morel (1964) is not
practicable for monopodial orchids. Hence, an innovative method of mericloning
without sacrificing the mother plant, was developed by inducing protocorm
differentiation in excised tips of young roots and leaves of three commercially
important monopodial orchids, viz. Vanda hybrida, R. retusa and D. chrysotoxum
(Chaturvedi et a/., 1982). An enormous number of plantlets was produced from
the proliferation of such protocorms within a period of three to four months (Fig.
3). Besides, shoot buds present at the base of a flower stalk of P. fairieanum and
those at the nodes of D. chrysanthema were also used for mericloning. Seed
callus of D. chrysotoxum was made to differentiate in to multiple
plantlets simply by withdrawing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid from the

medium. Whereas, the regenerative potentiality + of seed callus of D. fimbriatum,
which was apparently lost during prolonged subculture over three years, could be
restored by incorporating the vitamin supplement in the basal medium. The in
vitro-raised plantlets of a number of orchids were grown in pots.
Bougainvillea. The report of multiplication of B. glabra ‘Magnifica’
by shoot tip proliferation (Chaturvedi et al., 1978) was the first for any woody
ornamental. Special mention may be made of luxuriant shoot proliferation
of B. x buttiana ‘Scar et Queen Variegated’ and 100 per cent rooting
of the in v/fro-regenerated shoots of this difficult-to-root cultivar (Fig. 4). The in
vitro-raised plants grew in soi and f owered normally.
Rose. A prolific multiplication of shoot apices and axillary buds of
R. hybrida ‘Super Star’ was obtained in vitro provided the cultures were incubated
at 20°C (Fig. 5). By a moderate estimation, about 2,500 potential plantlets could
be produced from explant in one year.
Chrysanthemum. Shoot apices of C. morifolium ‘Otome Zakura’, ‘Pandhari
Revdi’, and ‘Birbal Sahni’ were proliferated at a very fast rate, yielding
an average of about 900 million plants from a single explant in one year.
Fig. 3. Proliferation of protocorms. Fig. 4. Bougainvillea cv. ‘Scarlet Queen’

variegated in vitro.
Fig. 5. Rosa cv. ‘Super Star’ in vitro. Fig. 6. In vitro-raised flowering plants of
Chrysanthemum morifolium.
The in v/7ro-raised plants flowered true-to-type under field conditions (Fig. 6).
The season of collection of explants from the field-grown plants were
decisive for their proliferation in the case of ‘Birbal Salmi’ while other
cultivars were, more or less, ndifferent in this respect, thus, the shoot
apices of ‘Birbal Salmi’ could be induced to proliferate only if they
were collected from March to April and those obtained during rest of the
year produced only callus.
Bulbous Ornamentals. Amaryllis hybrid and L. longiflorum were multiplied
by using segments of bulb-scales, Gladiolus by segments of inflorescence
stalk and P. tuberosa by shoot apices. The bulb lets differentiated on
explants of bulb-scale and inflorescence stalk and off-shoots regenerated
from a shoot tip were subcultured, proliferated and made to grow into
planllets. The rate of multiplication improved during successive years of
subculture, which was remarkable particularly in the case of P. tuberosa.
The in v/Yro-raised plants of Amatyllis were grown in soil where they flowered true-
to-type after three years of their transplantation in soil. About 4,000 cloned plants
could be produced from a single bulb-scale in one year.
AGRO-TECHNIQUES
Agro-techniques have been standardized to extend the blooming period,

to improve the quality of flowers, multiplication of bulbs, miniculture and
dehydration of flowers.
Amaryllis blooms only for six weeks under natural conditions. Two
techniques were standardized to extend this period to eight months. One consists
of raising the temperature by using an incandescent bulb ‘ON’ for 4-5
weeks for forcing the blooms while the other technique is delaying blooming
by withholding water.
Slow multiplication or no natural multiplication of amaryllis bulbs
is another problem which was solved by standardizing ‘Notching’ (Fig.
7) technique (Gupta and Kher, 1983). This technique also solved the problem
of perpetuation of the highly improved ‘Dutch Hybrid’ cultivars which
used to perish after flowering due to non-proliferation of bulbs in plains.
The problem of short blooming period of chrysanthemum was taken up and
the photoperiodic response of 59 cultivars has been studied. The resultant
data is useful for having programmed blooming in these varieties for six
months instead of six weeks by manipulating photoperiod alone. Besides,
the use of newly developed ecotypes, as per schedule standardized at the NBRI,
enables one to obtain blooms all the year round without environment control.
The ‘Miniculture’ technique standardized at NBRI is yet another example
of how pot culture of chrysanthemum can be made cheaper, easier and
aesthetically rewarding and commercially more profitable. In Chrysanthemum
(Kher, 1975) and Gladiolus complete package of cultural practices have been
standardized for pot-culture cut flower and bulb production.
In India, pioneering work has been done at the NBRI on standardizing
dehydration technique for preservation of natural shape and colour of flowers and
foliage in several ornamental species (Kher and Bhutani, 1979).
PLANT PROTECTION
Several viruses infect ornamental plants (Singh and Srivastava, 1981;

Aslam, 1984). Investigations confirmed the presence of complex infections
(Hollyhock Yellow Mosaic Virus + Tobacco Leaf Curl) in Althea rosea (Srivastava
et al., 1977), Chrysanthemum Stunt and Chrysanthemum Mottle Viroids,
Chrysanthemum Mosaic and Tomato Aspermy Virus in Chrysanthemum
morifolium (Singh, 1970). Petunia Mosaic Virus in Petunia hybrida (Raizada et
al., 1984). Severe mosaic in Vaccaria pyramidata (Srivastava et al., 1981) and
Zinnia Yellow Net (Srivastava et al., 1977) and Yellow Vein Banding Viruses in
Zinnia elegans. Gladiolus Tip Necrosis and Gladiolus Mosaic Viruses in Gladiolus
Eig. 7. Amaryllis— rapid multiplication by notching.
psittacinus, Amaryllis Ring Spot and Amaryllis Mosaic Virus in Amaryllis

belladonna (Singh et al., 1983) and Periwinkle Chlorotic Stunt Virus in
Catharanthus roseus (Zaidi et al., 1978).
The investigations were mainly confined to identification and
characterization of viruses based on UV spectrum, electron microscopy,
serological and biological methods. The data confirmed that these viruses mainly
belong to liar, Nepo, Poty, Tobamo, Carla, Clostero, Rhabdo and Tomato Spotted
Wilt groups on the basis of particle morphology, ELISA tests and molecular
weight of protein subunits (Aslam, 1984).
Studies on host-virus interaction disclosed that virus mainly alters
proteins (amino acids) and nucleic acid metabolism.
Virus-free plantlets of gladiolus, narcissus and petunia were obtained
with the help of tissue-culture techniques combined with chemotherapy
especially with the use of virazole and dyes (Aminuddin et al., 1986).
Epidemiological studies were carried out to determine the key role of
weeds especially Datura metel, Nicotiana plumbaginifolia, Physalis minima,
Solanum nigrum and Solanum xanthocarpum in the occurrence of virus
in ornamental plants. Weeds are an excellent reservoir/alternate host of viruses
and vectors (Ram Krishna, 1980). Ageratum conyzoides plays an important role in
the infection cycle and spread of Zinnia Yellow-Net disease agent (Srivastava et
al, 1977).
Results have indicated that the integrated plan of management to check
weeds, vectors and alternate hosts will help to have virus-free plants
propagated from virus-clean propagules produced by manipulated techniques
coupled with heat therapy and use of chemotherapeutants in the case of
Zinnia, Gladiolus, Chrysanthemum, Petunia, Gerbera and Narcissus (Aminuddin
et al., 1985).
The various cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium are infected with
fungal pathogens showing ‘wilt’, ‘blight’, ‘leaf-spot’. The main causal agents are
Phyllosticta chrysanthemi, Cercospora chrysanthemi, Septoria obesa, Septoria
chrysanthemella and Fusarium oxysporum.
Dithane M-45 at 400 and 600 ppm causes 100% inhibition of Fusarium
oxysporum. Soil application of Dithane M-45 at 18.75 kg/ha can effectively control
the wilt disease in the nursery stage.
Besides Chrysanthemum, several important ornamental and economically
important plants were surveyed for the fungal diseases,viz. ferns, Araucaria
bidwilli, Agathis robusta and Simmondsia chinensis are infected with different
species of Septoria, Phyllosticta, Alternaria, Mycosphaerella, Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides, Botryodiploida theobromae and Alternaria respectively.
FLOWER SHOWS
For creating interest and raising the standard of floriculture, the NBRI
organises house plants, chrysanthemum and coleus, rose and gladiolus and
bougainvillea shows and exhibitions. Exhibitors from all over the country
bring their exhibits and compete in the flower shows. On these occasions the
Institute also displays R & D work of floriculture. The standard of the NBRI
flower shows had been very high. The interaction with the cross section
of the society had helped in the promotion of floriculture.
SUMMARY
The Institute has undertaken a major project on ornamentals. Using

different approaches new varieties of important ornamentals have been evolved.
The genetic base for subsequent directed-breeding programme has been
established and characterized. Tissue-culture techniques for the preservation and
multiplication of well-known varieties of ornamentals have been worked
out. The biochemical reasons for colouration in some have been identified.
A systematic study of viral and other pathogens has provided information
on control of diseases of ornamental plants. The efforts also include
introduction of new ornamentals after proper research and standardization
of agro-techniques that solve age-old problems in some ornamental crops.
REFERENCES
Aminuddin Aslam, M. and Singh, B.P. 1985. Indian Phytopath. 38(2) : 17.
Aminuddin, Aslam, M. and Singh, B.P. 1986. Indian J. expl Biol. 24(2) : 130-31.
Aminuddin Aslam, M. and Singh, B.P. 1986. Indian Phytopath. (Accepted).
Arora, O.P. 1972. Cytogenetical Studies of Some Ornamental Verbenas. Ph.D. Thesis, Kanpur University, Kanpur.
Aslam, M. 1984. Studies on Virus Diseases of Ornamental Plants. M.Phil. dissertation, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh.
Dwadash Shreni, V.C., Srivastava, K.M. and Singh, B.P. 1979. New Botanist 6(3) : 97-102.
Chaturvedi, H.C. 1979. Tissue culture of economic plants. In Progress in Plant Research. (Eds.) T.N. Khoshoo and
P.K.K. Nair. Today & Tomorrow Publishers, New Delhi, Vol. 1 : 265-88.
Chaturvedi, H.C. 1984. Some aspects of morphogenesis in rapid multiplication and germplasm preservation of
economic plants through tissue culture. In Applied Biotechnology of Medicinal, Aromatic and Timber
Yielding Plants. (Ed.) P.C. Datta, Calcutta Univ., Calcutta, pp. 179-88.
Chaturvedi, H.C., Sharma, A.K. and Prasad, R.N. 1978. Hort. Sci. 13 : 36.
Chaturvedi, H.C., Sharma, A.K., Sharma, M. and Prasad, R.N. 1982. Morphogenesis, micropropagation and
germplasm preservation of some economic plants by tissue culture. In Plant Tissue Culture (Ed.) a.
Fujiwora, Maruzon Co. Ltd, Tokyo, pp. 687-88.
Gupta, V.N. and Kher, M.A. 1983. Indian J. Hort. 40(1/2) : 98-101.
Jalil, R., Pal, M. and Khoshoo, T.N. 1974. Curr. Sci. 43 : 777-79.
Jalil, R., Pal, M., Srivastava, G.S. and Khoshoo, T.N. 1982. Allertomia 3(1) : 13-15.
Kher, M.A. 1975. Bull. natn. bot. Gdns, Lucknow 1 (New Series).
Kher, M.A. and Bhutani, J.C. 1979. Ext. Bull. 2 NBRI, Lucknow.
Kher, M.A. and Bhutani, J.C. 1979. Floriculture at the National Botanical Research Institute. Prog. PI. Res.
2 : 127-36.
Khoshoo, T.N. 1979. Cytogenetics in relation to plant evolution and improvement. Progress in Plant Research
Silver Jubilee Publication, NBRI 2 : 1-74. (Eds) T.N. Khoshoo and P.K.K. Nair.
Kochar, V.K., Kochar, S. and Mohr, H. 1981. Planta 151 : 81-87.
Kochar, V.K., Kochar, S. and Mohr, H. 1981. Ber. dt. bot. Ges. 94 : 27-34.
Kochar, V.K., Kochar, S. and Ohri, D. 1979. Curr. Sci. 48 : 163-64.
Kochar, V.K. and Ohri, D. 1977. Z. PfluZucht. 79 : 47-51.
Mahal, C. 1972. Cytogenetics of Antirrhinum and Lantana. Ph.D. Thesis, Kanpur University, Kanpur.
Morel, G.M. 1964. Am. Orchid Soc. Bull. 31 : 473-77.
Narain, P. 1972. Cytogenetical and Hybridization Studies on Some Species and Cultivars ofGloriosa and Amaryllis.
Ph.D. Thesis, Agra University, Agra.
Pal, M. 1970. Cytotaxonomical Studies in Some Indian Amaranthaceae. Ph.D. Thesis, Agra University, Agra.
Prasad, R.N., Sharma, A.K. and Chaturvedi, H.C. 1983. Clonal multiplication of Chrysanthemum morifolium
‘Otome Zakura’ in long-term culture.
Raizada, R.K., Srivastava, K.M. and Singh, B.P. 1984. lnt. J. Trop. PI. Dis. 2(2) : 105-16.
Ram Krishna 1980. Evaluation of Solanaceous Weeds as Carriers of Some Important Plant Viruses. Ph.D. Thesis,
Kanpur University, Kanpur.
Sharga, A.N. and Basario, K.K. 1976. NAGC Bull. Ill : 15-17.
Sharga, A.N. and Basario, K.K. 1976. NAGC Bull. 127 : 17-30.
Sharga, A.N., Basario, K.K. and Singh, R.P. 1978. NAGC Bull. 133 : 57-59.
Sharga, A.N., Basario, K.K. and Singh, R.P. 1983. Gladiolus A. 1983 : 65-67.
Sharma, S.C. and Ohri, D. 1982. Bougainvilleas. NBRI Newsl. Bougainvillea Society of India, March, 1982.
Singh, B.P. 1970. PI. Sci. 2 : 83-84.
Singh, B.P. and Srivastava, K.M. 1981. Glimpses in Plant Research 5 : 62-69.
Singh, B.P., Srivastava, K.M. and Raizada, R.K. 1983. Trop. PI. Sci. Res. 1(2) : 157-61.
Srivastava, K.M., Chandra, S. and Singh, B.P. 1981. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. India 51(B) : 349-55.
Srivastava, K.M., Gupta, R.P. and Singh, B.P. 1977. Curr. Sci. 46(18) : 644-46.
Srivastava, K.M., Singh, B.P., Dwadash Shreni, V.C. and Srivastava, B.N. 1977. PI. Dis. Reptr 61 : 550-54.
Zadoo, S.N. 1974. Cytogenetical Studies on Cultivated Bougainvillea and Hemerocallis. Ph.D. Thesis, Patna
University, Patna.
Zadoo, S.N., Roy, R.P. and Khoshoo, T.N. 1975. Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad. 41(B) : 498-502.
Zaidi, A.A., Singh, B.P. and Srivastava, K.M. 1978. Curr. Sci. 47(23) : 927-28.
4
Rose
M.S. Viraraghavan
Hill View, Terry Hill Road
Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu
“Oh no man knows

Through what wild centuries
Roves back the rose.”
Walter de la Mare
T HIS familiar quotation has a special relevance when we write of roses

in India. Dr B.P. Pal, quoting Bassity, refers to a charming Hindu legend,
according to which, when Vishnu came down to earth and was bathing in
a pool, a lotus blossom opened, out of which stepped Brahma, who, pointing
to the lotus, claimed it to be the most beautiful flower on earth. Vishnu,
while agreeing to its beauty, invited Brahma to his own Paradise, Vaikunth,
where he pointed to a rose bush in a beautiful bower—there was just one
flower, pale as the moon with perfume so sweet that Brahma bowed his head
and admitted, ‘This is the fairest flower that grows’. There can be no
doubt that roses would have been well known in ancient India as several
wild species are to be found in the Himalayas, and Vaikunth, at least
according to one version, is Mount Meru, a mountain to the north of the
Himalayas. The poets of ancient India, especially Kalidasa, circa ad 400
were undoubtedly fascinated by the scenery of the Himalayas and the beauty
of the wild rose would surely not have escaped notice.
But when did rose cultivation begin in the plains of India? To this there
is no clear answer. B.S. Bhatcharji, the pioneering Indian rose hybridizer
with more than a trace of patriotic fervour, says that Rosa chinensis
(or the China rose) should really be Rosa indica semperflorens, relying
on the observations in Dr Jules Hoffman’s work on roses published in Germany
(English translation, 1905). He also disputes the fairly common assertion
that the original name of Bengal rose or Rosa bengalensis, used for
the early rose introductions from China, was a mistake arising from the
fact that roses were brought to England and France by the ships of the
38
ROSE 39
East India Company, which passed through Calcutta. Quoting Dr Hoffman
further, he asks, ‘Where were the ships of the East India Company when
roses from India and Persia reached the Greek and Roman Empires? In other
words, Bhatcharji implies that roses from India had reached Europe much
before the days of the East India Company.
Without entering into this controversy, it is clear that certain types
of roses were cultivated in India for many centuries. Even an authority
like Firminger refers to the common China, ‘Musk’ and the ‘Bussorah’
(‘Damask’) rose as being cultivated in India prior to the introduction of various
types of Tea, Noisette, and Hybrid Perpetua1 roses from Europe towards
the end of nineteenth century. But, as Dr Pal points out, authentic information
on rose growing in India is available only from the days of the Mughals.
INDIAN SPECIES
Several rose species, as stated earlier, grow in the Himalayas. Among

these are R. webbiana, characteristic of the dry Kashmir and Western
Himalayan belt, and the moisture-loving R. gigantea, which is found in the
extreme eastern portion of the range, especially in Sikkim, Meghalaya,
Manipur and contiguous areas of Burma and South-West China. The beauty
^of R. gigantea is described in ecstatic terms by the well-known authority
Graham Thomas, who refers to the tremendous stature of the plant (12 m
or more), the strong shoots and the hooked prickles with large e'egant
drooping leaves and giant lemon-white silky flowers 12.5 cm across. This
rose is of great interest as it is one of the parents of the Tea rose,
probably contributing to that class the pale yellow flavonoid pigments
and the long elegant petals. In passing, we may note that this goes to
support Bhatchaiji’s contention referred to earlier that Tea roses are as much
Indian as they are Chinese. More recently the species was used to raise a series of
climbers adapted to the Australian climate by Alitair Clarke of Melbourne—
‘Nancy Hayward’, ‘Lorraine Lee’, etc.
Other interesting wild roses of the Himalayas are two members of the
Musk rose complex R. brunonii (is this the white rose of the Vishnu-Brahma
legend?) found in Nepal and the Garhwal areas of the Himalayas, and Rosa
longicuspis, found in the Khasia and Mishmi Hills of eastern India. Both of
these giant climbers have that most attractive characteristic of the Musk
rose—the capacity to waft fragrance in the air. The third member of the
Musk roses is the southern R. leschinaultiana (R. moschata leschinaultiana)
which is found in the Nilgiri and Palani Hills of south India. Other wild
roses found in the Himalayas include the pink R. macrophylla, the lilac-pink
R. webbiana, as well as the four-petal white-flower R. serica. Some historically
important roses are also semi-naturalized, R. foetida, the golden yellow rose of
Iran found in the similar climatic belt of Kashmir as also the Afghan R. ecae, with
bright yellow flowers apparently used as hedges around Kargil in Ladakh.
Perhaps the most important of India’s wild roses is the tropical R.
clinophylla (R. involucrata) which is described as growing throughout the Indian
plains, especially in the plains of Bengal, near streams and marshy places. If
crosses could be made w th this white-flower semi-climbing rose which is clearly
well adapted for warm climates we would have made a tremendous advance in
rose breeding in India.
No doubt the wild roses of the country are the most authentic of Indian
roses, but the following description will concentrate on roses hybridized
in India.
PIONEER HYBRIDIZERS AND THEIR ROSES
The most prominent of early Indian hybridizers is undoubtedly B.S.

Bhatcharji, owner of the rose nursery P. Bhatcharji & Sons; sadly no more in
existence. In fact it is difficult to exaggerate the importance of the work done
by B.S. Bhatcharji and his sons, S.M. Bhatcharji and A.M. Bhatcharji.
The Bhatcharjis were probably not India’s first hybridizers; that honour
belongs to one B.K. Roy Chowdhary, a nurseryman in the Santhal Parganas,
who in 1935 raised the variety ‘Dr S.D. Mookeiji’.
But during 1956-1966 to 1967, the Bhatcharjis raised several hundred
rose varieties (Hybrid Teas, Floribundas, and a few climbers) out of which
125 are listed in Dr B.P. Pal’s book entitled. The Rose in India. There
is, however, a certain discrepancy in the dates, as Shri B.S. Bhatcharji
in the Preface to the second edition of his book, Rose Growing in the
Tropics published in 1959, states that his attempts to raise new roses
suitable for the tropics are being continued for nearly a quarter century.
Undoubtedly, he must have been prominent at an earlier date for, as far
back as 1933 a rose ‘B.S. Bhatcharji’ was introduced by the famous firm,
A. Dickson & Sons of the U.K.
Numbers apart, what is most significant is that the elder Bhatcharji
was perhaps the first Indian to recognize that we require a separate line
for breeding in the warm tropical climate, and pursued this objective
with sustained vigour. Readers will be interested to know that roses raised
by Bhatcharjis were exhibited as ‘Roses from India’ at the 1958 International
Rose Conference in London; and one of their roses ‘Sister Nivedita’ was
catalogued by the English firm, Frank Cant & Sons in 1962 or 1963. In
fact he had the vision to send a large number of varieties for trial during
the late fifties to Frank Cant & Co., U.K., who placed quite a number
ROSE 41
of these varieties in the Royal National Rose Society Trial Grounds. Sadly,
but as could be expected, these roses selected for good performance in
the warm climate did not fare well under English conditions. In a way
confirming the validity of the concept that a rose selected for good performance
in the warmer areas, could hardly be expected to perform well in a cool
moist climate, though many appeared promising whenever the weather there
was favourable. The point is to this day of great relevance, for Indian
rose fanciers still feel that new rose varieties imported from the West
are virtually the only roses worth trying out, forgetting that the converse
is equally correct.
“Today the foreign researchers are creating winter hardy roses to cater
to the rose fanciers of the cold zones. Such varieties produce a wealth
of blooms in such a climate which is cooler in temperature” (during summer)
“than the winter in even most parts of North India, not to speak of South
India. The great majority of such winter hardy roses are very unhappy
in tropical warmth” write the Bhatcharjis in the introduction to their
1963 catalogue.
As Dr B.P. Pal points out in his recent book, ‘Survey on Rose Breeding
in India’, there is unfortunately not much information available on the
parentages of the Bhatcharji roses, nor the various types used by them
in their endeavour to breed warm climate roses. But, having grown a fairly
large number of their productions, we may speculate that judging by
appearances, many of the older Hybrid Perpetuals were used in their breeding
programme, in a search for fulness and stiff stems; some of the chinensis varieties,
including ‘Cecile Brunner’ (the influence of ‘Cecile Brunner’ is quite
evident in varieties like ‘Muktadhara’, a satin pink Floribunda, ‘Toohin’
white Floribunda); and some of the Tea roses. If we look at one of Bhatcharji’s
famous roses, the apricot Hybrid Tea ‘Raja Ram Mohan Roy’, and his later
production, ‘Tilottama’, in the same colour range, the influence of the
Tea roses of the ‘Lady Hillingdon’ type is apparent.
Among the well known Bhatcharji roses which are still available are the
red Hybrid Tea, ‘Heart Throb’, with huge but elegant blooms of the richest
crimson scarlet and fragrance to match, ‘Raja Ram Mohan Roy’, with blooms
in lovely shades of bronze apricot on a strong bush, and Floribunda, ‘Pandit-
Nehru’, with medium-size blooms in the orange scarlet range. Other popular
Bhatcharji roses include the very fragrant red Hybrid Tea, ‘Sugandha’ which is
pictured in the stamp released on the Rose Day recently by the Posts and
Telegraphs Department as also the dark black-red Hybrid Tea, ‘Kalima’.
In fact B.K. Roy Chowdary and A.K. Roy Chowdary are apparently the only
other two prominent rose-breeders who raised new roses in the period 1960 or
earlier.
ROSE BREEDING IN THE SIXTIES
With the decline of the Bhatcharjis by the beginning of 1960s a fresh

impetus was given to rose breeding on what may be called a three-pronged
front: by amateurs; by Government research institutions; and by professional
nurserymen.
Dr B.P. Pal, the then Director of IARI, decided to take up rose-breeding at
a personal level, towards the end of fifties. Because of which, apart
from his personal interests. Dr Pal was able to provide a very powerful
stimulus to the production of new rose varieties by the IARI. Rose-breeding
being what it is, partly science and partly art, readers can easily understand
what a difference it would make if the head of a government research institution
is himself an imaginative rose breeder.
About the same time work on rose breeding at the nurseryman level started
with the emergence of Sri G. Kasturirangan, owner of the renowned firm
of K.S.G. Sons, Bangalore. In nutshell, the decade saw great progress
on all three fronts.
In a series of five articles published in the Indian Rose Annuals of
1980, 1982, 1983 and 1985 (yet to be printed), Dr Pal has furnished a
full account of his work in rose breeding. In his latest article scheduled
for publication in the forthcoming Indian Rose Annual, he states that
his rose breeding has not been based on any long-term programme. “My modest
aim has been to try and evolve garden varieties suitable for climates
like Delhi with extreme variations in climate”. The latter statement (perhaps
understandably) hardly does justice to Dr Pal’s unique status as a rose
breeder. Here, may be for the first time in the history of rose breeding,
we have an eminent scientist with the highest qualifications in Genetics
and Plant Breeding, with decades of practical experience in wheat breeding,
and an equally long fascination with rose growing, involving himself with
breeding roses as an amateur. But. . . there is yet a third factor—the
artist’s sensitivity to form and colour which was simultaneously brought
to bear on his work.
In his earliest work, Dr Pal started with open-pollinated seeds of the
popular variety, ‘Gruss en Teplitz’ among the seedlings was a crimson
Floribunda with fragrant flowers which was released as ‘Rose Sherbet’.
A little later, in 1962, came the recognized pink Floribunda, ‘Delhi Princess’,
which exhibits exceptional vigour and bears cerise red to warm pink flowers
in great profusion. This variety has been extensively used by the IARI
in its plant-breeding programme; in raising the dark red ‘Bhim’ and the
Chinese yellow Hybrid Tea ‘Vasanth’.
One of the earliest Hybrid Teas raised by Dr Pal was the white ‘Dr Homi
ROSE 43
Bhabha’, a seedling of ‘Virgo’ (1967), and to this day it remains perhaps

the best white Indian-raised Hybrid Tea. Among the other Hybrid Teas raised
during the sixties may be mentioned the lovely ‘Kanakangi’, a seedling
of ‘Mme. Charles Sauvage’, which attracts the eye with its rich shades
of apricot yellow; the creamy yellow ‘Poornima’, a seedling of ‘Farnand Arles’,
with extra long buds of exquisite form came in 1971, and the lovely dark red
‘Mechak’, a seedling of‘Samurai’ in 1977. Other H.T. raised during the seventies
include the pink blend ‘Hasina’ (‘Youkisan’ x ‘Balinese’), the red ‘Lalima’
(‘Picture’ x ‘Jour d’ Ete’), the orange scarlet ‘Nayika’ (1975), ‘Raat Ki Rani’ dark
red, apparently a sister seedling of‘Mechak’; ‘Raja of Nalagarh’, orange scarlet
(‘Samurai’ x‘Montezuma’), the pink blend ‘Rampa PaP, and the orange scarlet
‘Ranjana’ (‘Sabine’ x unknown), as well as the bicolour ‘Surkhab’.
Among the Floribundas, apart from ‘Delhi Princess’, mentioned earlier,
pride of place should be given to the golden orange red ‘Banjaran’ (1969),
perhaps the most popular of Indian-raised roses and one which has performed
well in trials abroad. During the seventies, some of the outstanding Floribundas
raised include the orange scarlet ‘Sailoz Mookerji’ (1973), the pink blend
‘Chitchor’ (1972), the light yellow with pink ‘Madhura’ (‘Kiss of Fire’ x
‘Goudvlinder’), and the orange vermilion ‘Suryakiran’ (‘Orangeade’ seedling).
During the eighties there was in a way, a slight shift of emphasis from
pastel pinks to seedlings in shades of salmon, lilac, apricot orange, and dark red.
Among the varieties used by Dr Pal in this latest phase of his work have been the
reputed florist’s rose, ‘Sonia’, the lilac Hybrid Tea ‘Lady X’, the bicolour Hybrid
Tea, ‘Granada’, the apricot ‘Chantre’, as well as his favourite seed parents of
earlier years, ‘Sabine’, ‘Kiss of Fire’, and ‘Samurai’.
Among the ‘Sonia’ seedlings is ‘Divaswapna’ (1981), a shimmering blend
of silvery pink and white which has inherited the beautiful reflexing
form of the seed parent; and the elegant salmon ‘Apsara’, which may prove
suitable for cut flowers as the plants are vigorous and floriferous; and
the porcelain pink ‘Aravalli Princess’ (1983), with high-centred blooms
that unfurl slowly.
‘Granada’ has been used to produce the Hybrid Tea, ‘Indian Princess’
(1980) (‘Super Star’ x ‘Granada’) with a very interesting colour ranging
from light red on the outer petals to carmine with silvery edge on the
inside; as well as the lovely lilac pink ‘Akash Sundari’ (‘Granada’ x
‘Lady X’).
Using ‘Chantre’, has come the glorious ‘Golden Afternoon’ (1980), which is
rich coppery orange on the outside and golden apricot on the inside, with
a delicious spicy fragrance. Probably his latest Hybrid Tea in this colour
range, ‘Eastern Princess’ (1984), which is orange coral with a gold base,
also derives its colour from ‘Chantre’.
Seedlings of‘Sabine’ include the geranium lake ‘Nishada’ (1982) (‘Sabine’

x ‘Anvil Sparks’), bearing massive, shapely and intensely fragrant blooms,
and the glowing pink Hybrid Tea ‘Sandeepini’.
Using ‘Samurai’, Dr Pal has raised Dr R.R. Pal,a Hybrid Tea (1983) which
bears huge flowers on strong upright stems ranging in colour from deep
rose red to dark velvety red, ‘Lai makhmal’, a Hybrid Tea, again dark
velvet red, but this time with a hint of ebony. The latest in this series
of red roses is the blackish velvet crimson ‘Dilruba’, also a Hybrid Tea
(1984), with high centred very fragrant blooms, and ‘Ashirwad’, a Hybrid
Tea (1984), a bright red with golden based petals.
It is difficult to be exhaustive while dealing with the work of as prolific
a rose breeder as Dr Pal with many more to come. The spectrum of roses
already raised by him are his brain behind the scientist’s hand but selected
by the artist’s eye, will act as the building block for the rose breeders
of the future.
Taking up the work done at the IARI, we may note that the accent on
hybridization is on evolving new cultivars for export of cut-blooms; disease-
resistant garden roses, and cultivars with high essential oil content.
The earliest rose breeders at the IARI were V. Swarup, R.S. Malik, and
A.P. Singh. Thereafter, Dr B. Chaudhury headed the Division of Floriculture
followed by Dr U.S. Kaicker. Work at the Institute started in 1956, and
among the earliest varieties evolved were ‘Pusa Sonia’, a golden yellow
Hybrid Tea, seedling of ‘McGredy’s Yellow’; ‘Himangini’, an ivory white
Floribunda, seedling of ‘Saratoga’, and ‘Suryodaya’, an orange Floribunda
seedling of ‘Orangeade’, in 1968. Thereafter, considerable progress has
been made towards attaining the objectives of the Institute’s rose-breeding
programme.
In its rose-breeding programme the IARI has laid great emphasis on Dr
Pal’s Floribundas and Hybrid Teas, ‘Delhi Princess’ which appears in the
parentages of no less than five Hybrid Teas raised, ‘Bhim’ 1970 (‘Charles
Mallerin’ x ‘Delhi Princess’), with very full scarlet red blooms and is considered
to be one of the best red roses to be evolved in India; ‘Charugandha’
1972 (‘Delhi Princess’ x ‘Eiffel Tower’), another crimson red Hybrid Tea;
‘Raj Kumari’ 1975 (‘Charles Mallerin’ x ‘Delhi Princess’), Hybrid Tea
in fuschia pink, ‘Surabhi’ 1975 (‘Oklahoma’ x ‘Delhi Princess’), in shades of
phlox pink. Two of the latest Hybrid Teas arising from the use of‘Delhi Princess’
are the ‘Vasanth’ 1980 (‘Sweet Afton’ x ‘Delhi Princess’), which bears Chinese
yellow flowers edged with Neyron rose on a profuse blooming and vigorous bush,
and ‘Jawahar’ 1980 (‘Sweet Afton’ x ‘Delhi Princess’), one of the best white
roses raised in India so far and quite appropriately named after India’s first Prime
Minister.
ROSE 45
One of the most popular roses raised by the IARI is the phlox pink
‘Mrinalini’ 1972 (‘Pink Parfait’ x ‘Christian Dior’) with exceedingly well shaped
blooms of exhibition form. Indeed this may be the best exhibition Hybrid
Tea. In this colour created in India to date, another variety to be frequently
used in the breeding programme is ‘Sweet Afton’. Apart from ‘Jawahar’
and ‘Vasanth’, already mentioned, ‘Sweet Afton’ has been used in raising
‘Anurag’ 1980 (‘Sweet Afton’ x ‘Gulzar’), fragrant variety in shades of
pink. The porcelain rose ‘Arjun’, also a Hybrid Tea 1980 (‘Blithe Spirit’ x
‘Montezuma’) which bears beautifully shaped blooms on a very vigorous
bush characterized by the ability to throw very strong (up to 1 m length)
flowering shoots may prove suitable for cut-flowers. Mention should also
be made of the Solferino purple ‘Dr B.P. Pal’ 1980, which bears extremely
shapely blooms on a vigorous bush.
Several Floribunda roses have also been raised in the IARI. Here, ‘Sea
Pearl’ and ‘Orangeade’ have been the favourite parents. A very interesting
Floribunda is ‘Mohini’, 1970 (‘Sea Pearl’ x ‘Shola’), in unique shades
of chocolate, brown and orange. Other ‘Sea Pearl’ seedlings include ‘Prema’,
1970 (‘Sea Pearl’ x ‘Shola’) in soft pink; ‘Dipshika’ 1975, also with
the same parentage, in Dutch vermilion; and ‘Sindoor’ 1980 (‘Sea Pearl’
x ‘Suryodaya’) in geranium lake. Perhaps the most popular of the IARI
Floribundas is the purplish-mauve ‘Nilambari’, 1975 (‘Blue Moon’ x ‘Africa
Star’), a mass blooming of this variety in the Delhi winter is indeed
the most attractive sight.
Apart from conventional rose breeding, the IARI has conducted detailed
research on evolving new rose varieties by inducing mutations using gamma-ray
treatment and chemical mutagen, EMS (Ethyl methane sulfonate). ‘Abhisarika’,
1975, an induced mutant of ‘Kiss of Fire’ using gamma irradiation is one
of the five outstanding results. This rose has exquisitely shaped blooms
of yellow with gaily-striped red, and is deservedly the most popular.
Shri G. Kasturirangan of K.S.G. Sons, Bangalore, as the owner of one
of India’s larger rose nurseries, has been chiefly responsible for ensuring
that the tradition of rose breeding at the commercial rose nursery level,
initiated by the Bhatcharjis, was continued. Apart from having access
to a very large number of rose cultivars, Shri Kasturirangan had the most
invaluable advantage as his father, the late Shri K.S. Gopalaswamiengar,
India’s one of the most outstanding breeders of ornamental plants. His
bougainvilleas and crotons are still widely grown all over the country.
A feature of the hybridization work done by Shri Kasturirangan is that he
has contributed to all the rose types—Hybrid Teas, Floribundas, Polyanthas
and Miniatures, by a prolific output of varieties numbering almost a hundred
at present.
The better performing includes the bicolour, ‘Srinivasa’ 1969 (‘Columbus

Queen’ x ‘Charlotte Armstrong’ x unknown), bearing very full high-centred
blooms of red with white reverse. To this day it remains one of the best
Indian-raised roses and is a regular prize winner at the rose shows. Following
the same tradition is ‘City of Panjim’ 1972, Hybrid Tea (‘Altesse’ x
‘Traviata’); one of his newer Hybrid Tea is ‘Agnihotri’ 1981, named in
memory of a reputed Indian horticulturist, which bears massive blooms
of rose red with lighter overtones.
Coming to the cluster-flowered class, Floribundas, we should note
‘Devadasi’, 1967 (‘Lilli Marlene’ x unknown), with dark-red-scented flowers, and
the two uniquely-coloured Polyanthas, ‘Bharani’ and ‘Nartaki’. ‘Bharani’ bears
very deep magenta-purple with white eye flowers, and ‘Nartaki’, with dark
lavender blooms and its yellow stamens adding to the beauty. In fact,
‘Bharani’ has recently been introduced in the U.K. under the name ‘Baharmi’
by Gandy’s Roses.
Slightly later in the 1960s three more rose hybridizers made their
appearance on the Indian scene. They are the late Raja Surender Singh of
Nalagarh, Dr M.N. Hardikar, and myself.
Raja Surender Singh, in a short period between 1968 and 1971, hybridized
no less than 13 varieties, employing seed parents such as ‘Peace’, and
‘Clovelly’—his charming satin-pink ‘Nazr-e-Nazar’ a Hybrid Tea 1968 (‘Clovelly’
seedling) is perhaps the most prominent of these introductions, although
the lilac Hybrid Tea, ‘Yamini Krishnamurthy’ 1969, also attracted considerable
interest during its time.
Dr M.N. Hardikar, who started his work in 1967, is perhaps the pioneer
of rose breeding in Western India. He describes how he was initiated into
this activity by that great rosarian of Poona, R.S. Deshpande. Curiously,
there is no information on whether Deshpande himself raised any new roses.
Dr Hardikar’s main objectives in rose breeding are to raise a really good
crimson rose and a blend, both in the Hybrid Tea class. To this end he
has raised several hundreds of seedlings out of which seven, up to 1980,
were considered worthy of release. He has employed the varieties ‘Scarlet
Knight’ (‘Samurai’), ‘Kronenbourg’ and ‘Festival Beauty’ extensively in
his work. Among this roses which deserve mention are ‘First Rose Convention’
a Hybrid Tea, 1971 (‘Kronenbourg’ x ‘Helen Traubel’) is dark red; ‘Cynosure’,
also a Hybrid Tea, 1971 (‘Scarlet Knight’ x ‘Festival Beauty’) which is
a striped rose with purple-pink stripes on red petals and very vigorous;
and the fragrant pink ‘Swami’, a Hybrid Tea, 1971 also with the same parentage.
More recently, Dr Hardikar has released ‘Flying Tata’, a Hybrid Tea, of
bright crimson red with velvety sheen representing a further stage in
his search for the ideal red rose. A new bicolour, pink blend, Hybrid
ROSE 47
Tea, is proposed to be named by him in hofiour of Dr B.P. Pal.

My rose breeding work started in 1966. Probably because I was somewhat
younger than the other hybridizers, whose work has been described so far.
At the time of starting work, my objectives were comparatively more ambitious—
with an emphasis on evolving a new line of heat-resistant roses with good vigour
and long-lasting petal texture to cope with the scorching Indian sun.
To this end four of the older types were selected. These were, the Tea
roses; the Polyantha, ‘Cecile Brunner’; the fragrant Bourbon hybrid, ‘Rose
Edward’; and the vigorous fragrant bush rose, ‘Grass en Teplitz’. These
were used generally as seed parents and intercrossed with standard varieties,
both Hybrid Teas and Floribundas, with the objective of combining the
better qualities of each parent.
Using a pink Tea rose, probably ‘Catherine Mermet’, as the seed parent,
I was able to raise a vigorous and healthy dwarf red Floribunda called
‘First Offering’ (in 1966-67 but introduced in 1973); which not only fared
well in Hyderabad but performed outstandingly in the much more difficult
climate of the Madras City. The projected line with ‘Cecile Brunner’ led
nowhere in spite of more hundreds of crosses, though there are yet a few
seedlings with other polyanthas showing promise.
Work with ‘Rose Edward’ proved to be even more difficult than with ‘Cecile
Brunner’. Almost all the seedlings retained the bright pink colour, but
without’ any fragrance. Also, the proneness to mildew of ‘Rose Edward’,
was even more obvious in its progeny. Of a very large number of seedlings,
only a cross into the yellow climber ‘Golden Showers’ produced anything
worth notice. This was a giant climber with very full blooms of flesh
pink and a tint of apricot blessed with a strong fragrance, but, unfortunately
almost sterile. On one of the few occasions this seedling produced fertile
pollen, it was crossed with a lilac Hybrid Tea, ‘Sterling Silver’, from
*which have appeared several seedlings in lovely shades of lilac purple.
Work on this line is still in progress.
Work with ‘Grass en Teplitz’ proved much easier probably because it is
the only tetraploid rose of the four groups selected. An early success
was the bright orange-red Floribunda ‘Mahadev’ 1975, which to this day
is one of the brightest in this colour range. Another seedling with ‘Grass
en Teplitz’ intercrossed with the lilac roses ‘Lake Como’, ‘Angel Face’,
and ‘Lady X’, led to the orchid-lavender ‘Vanamali’ 1978, which has been
well received in various parts of India. Further work is now in progress
with ‘Vanamali’ inter-crossed with some of the purple lilac seedlings raised from
the ‘Rose Edward’ line described earlier. The ‘Grass en Teplitz’ line also resulted
in the pink-amber ‘Amrapali’, Floribunda 1979, and, the velvety magenta purple
Hybrid Tea, ‘Kanchi’ 1970. ‘Kanchi’ has been doing well in a variety of climates.
Meanwhile, as soon as McGredy’s first hand-painted-floribunda, ‘Picasso’

appeared in 1971, another objective was added to the list—to raise a good
Hybrid Tea in the hand-painted range. After considerable effort came
‘Priyatama’, 1975, raised from a cross between the familiar Hybrid Tea, ‘Inge
Horstman’ and ‘Picasso’. In this, perhaps the first Hybrid Tea in the hand-painted
strain, every flower is a different combination of white, pink and red.
Introduction of this variety had to wait till 1981, since it was being
tested in the US, where though the flower was almost always ‘outstanding’,
the plant growth did not prove reliable in the heat of the American summers.
A further cross with ‘Priyatama’ and the white Hybrid Tea ‘Honor’, has
produced a very vigorous and shapely white-edged pink which is scheduled
for release this year. Two of my other roses worth mention are the lilac
pink ‘Rajni’, a Hybrid Tea, 1983, raised from a cross between ‘Violaine’
and ‘Margaret Merrill’, and the Floribunda ‘Bhagmati’, 1977. (‘Charleston’
x ‘Roman Holiday’) x (‘Flamenco’ x ‘Gold Gleam’) in shades of anturium
scarlet with white reverse and golden eye. The latter combines unusual
heat resistance and good petal texture in spite of not being raised from
any of the four rose groups with which the search for heat-resistant roses
began.
At the beginning of the seventies two more hybridizers, viz. Braham Datt
of Nagpur, and Dr Y.K. Hande of Poona, started their work. Starting in
1970-71, Shri Braham Datt has been making several hundred cross-pollinations
every year, with a variety of seed and pollen parents. After rigorous
selection his first ‘K.K. Thakur’, a Hybrid Tea (‘Daily Sketch’ x ‘Grand
mere Jenny’), in shades of deep apricot was released only in 1980. Other
more recent roses from this hybridizer are ‘Don Nielsen’, a Hybrid Tea,
1983 (‘Inge Horstman’ x ‘Gold Topas’), a lovely pink and cream bicolour,
and ‘Pride of Nagpur’, a Hybrid Tea, 1983 (‘Grand Slam’ x ‘Tatjana’)
which bears very large dusky red flowers with good fragrance. Another of his
outstanding unreleased variety is appropriately called ‘Indian Festival’, a Hybrid
Tea (‘Beauty of Festival’ x ‘Timothy Eaton’ x ‘Miss Ireland’).
Almost simultaneously with Braham Datt, Dr Y.K. Hande, clearly brings
his knowledge of agricultural science to bear on his hybridization. He
has been concentrating on Hybrid Tea roses suitable for the climate of
western Maharashtra, and his work is marked with great attention to detail
an objective selection. Seed parents employed by him include ‘Christian
Dior’, ‘Swarthmore’, ‘Norita’, ‘Lady X’ and ‘Colorama’. Among the outstanding
roses raised by him are the lustrous pearly-pink exhibition Hybrid Tea
rose, ‘Indian Pearl’, 1983 (‘Christian Dior’ x ‘Pascali’); the very fragrant,
light-red Hybrid Tea ‘Perfumer’, 1983 (‘Swarthmore’ x ‘Blue Moon’), which
may fulfil the need for a fragrant cut-flower rose for western India;
ROSE 49
and, the highly decorative bicolour Hybrid Tea (‘Ajanta Caves’, 1983
(‘Coloramma’ x ‘Norita’), which bears eye-catching flowers of apricot-ivory-
blended scarlet-red on the petal edges.
Among commercial rose growers, Mrs P.L. Airun of Anand Roses, Jaipur,
J.P. Agarwal, the doyen of Indian rose nurserymen, Friends Rosery, Lucknow,
and Arpi Thakur of Doon Valley Roses, Dehradun, have each made a
contribution.
Mrs Airun’s very first introduction ‘Golden Days’, 1976, Floribunda/Hybrid
Tea type (‘Whisky Mac’ x ‘Duet’) which bears perfectly-shaped blooms of
golden yellow edged red, has proved very popular. One of her more recent
introductions is the Floribunda, ‘Mahak’, 1982 in shades of peach pink
and apricot, with the added bonus of fragrance.
The Hybrid Tea, ‘Kasturi Rangan’ bears blooms with exciting shades
of mauve with yellow base. To release a new rose at the age of 80 plus
is a singular achievement indeed.
Arpi Thakur’s ‘Ajanta’, a Hybrid Tea, 1978 (‘Lady X’ seedling x
‘Memoriam’), in shades of mauve with a hint of green, has also attracted
favourable notice.
The painstaking work on rose growing in the TISCO Nursery,
Jamshedpur, by R.R. Karnad et al. also deserves mention. Among the several
roses from this source are ‘Pioneering Pilot’, a Hybrid Tea, 1982, named to
commemorate the historic flight by Sir J.R.D. Tata, which bears lovely
flowers in deep purple red.
The pioneering work being done at the National Botanical Research
Institute, Lucknow, by Dr M.N. Gupta et al. on colchicine-induced mutation
should lead to some exciting introductions in the future.
Several other hybridizers, full details of whose work are not readily
available, have also introduced one or more varieties each.
It will also be appropriate to emphasize that a great deal of important
work has already been done by the Indian hybridizers with rudimentary
facilities for research and without any incentives, financial or otherwise.
FUTURE OF INDIAN ROSES
Taking up the question of the future of Indian roses it should be noted

that the popularity of rose growing in India on a long-term basis is directly
linked to the production of suitable varieties for each of India’s rose-growing
zones. In a thought-provoking article the US hybridizer Dr John James
has remarked:
(i) There is no universal modern rose, no matter how high the rating—one
that will perform well everywhere.
(ii) This points to a fact that we ignore or choose not to recognize—roses

are local or regional.
Arguing further, he points out that what are required are roses which
grow well for home owners who are not avid gardeners. To drive home the
point, he reports on the results of a survey in which he questioned a
number of young people just starting out with their homes and gardens.
On being asked whether they were going to plant roses, and if not, why
not, the usual answers were; “Too much trouble”. “Too expensive”, “Don’t
live long”, and “Don’t always flower as expected”.
This same point has been made much earlier by the doyen of Indian
hybridizers, Bhatcharji, when he states that “rose growing is for the pleasure of
having enough of good flowers on healthy plants under normal care”
The future of rose growing in India will be assured only when roses
are grown not chiefly by enthusiasts as at present, but generally by all
those interested in gardening If this is to happen, roses raised in India
should be given a fair trial by rose growers who seem to be generally
under the impression that what is raised in India cannot possibly be as
good as what is imported from Europe or the US. Happily, this potentially
disastrous misconception does not extend to our farmers who will hardly
plant a wheat variety evolved in the US in preference to one raised in
India, and recommended for being grown in that agroclimatic zone.
Apart from this mental block as regards Indian roses referred to above,
two main factors stand in the way of Indian roses becoming more popular:
(i) the absence of plant patent laws, which inhibit large-scale rose hybridization,
there being no financial reward; (ii) the absence of trial grounds where
Indian-raised varieties could be tested and their suitability determined
for the various rose-growing areas in the country.
Taking up the latter point first, we may refer to the exhaustive “Rose-
Calendar” prepared by Sunil Jolly, nurseryman from Dehradun, who has divided
the country into 8 rose-growing zones. Ideally, we should have one trial ground
at least in each of these zones, which, as Dr Pal suggests, could be one
of the agricultural universities situated in the zone.
As regards plant patent legislation, it is curious that the Government
of India should adopt an inhibited attitude to such an important piece
of legislation, which will provide a tremendous incentive not only for
the rose hybridizers, but for hybridizers of other horticultural plants as well. No
valid objection can possibly be raised to plant patent legislation which covers
vegetatively-propagated plants such as roses.
On the part of the Indian rose hybridizers what is required is “a bold
response to the challenge of breeding better roses for India. To reiterate,
what we really need is a separate line of breeding for the warm tropical
ROSE 51
climate, and mere crosses between standard varieties evolved in the West,
which have been selected for good performance in cold climates will not
lead us very far”. Indian rose hybridizers will have to ask themselves
the question, why they still continue to raise new cultivars mainly by
inter-crosses of imported rose varieties. Surely at least one of the parents
in each cross could be the hybridizer’s own introduction, selected for
good performance in the Indian climate. Even the IARI seems to suffer
from a needless inferiority complex about its own varieties—as these hardly
ever figure as one of the parents in later introductions. Unless this
trend is reversed the prospects of evolving a separate line of warm climate
roses are indeed dim.
Before concluding, reference should be made to what is probably the most
exciting prospect for rose breeding in India—that is, breeding with Rosa
clinophylla (R. involucrata). As already stated this species is obviously
well adapted to the warmth of the plains and also to water-logged conditions.
Like many of the wild roses it is diploid—it is closely related to the
black-spot-immune R. bracteata, and hopefully may carry the genes for
black-spot resistance also. Since modern roses are tetraploid the difference
in chromosome numbers will no doubt pose some initial problems but these
could be overcome by standard procedures.
If rose hybridizers could raise hybrids with this rose species, a giant
step forward would have been taken in evolving authentic Indian roses
easily grown, not only in our own country, but throughout the tropical
regions of the world, which have been denied the pleasure of good and
easily grown roses so far. An adequate response to this challenge will
ensure the future of Indian roses.
REFERENCES
Bhatcharji, B.S. 1959. Rose Growing in the Tropics. Second edition. Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta.
Choudhury, B. and Singh, A.P. 1980. The Indian Rose Annual. I., pp. 180-184.
Datt, Braham 1982. The Indian Rose Annual. II., pp. 24-29.
Datta, Subodh Kumar, and Gupta, M.N. The Indian Rose Annual. IV. (to be published).
Dewan, A.K. 1980. The Indian Rose Annual. I., pp. 172-179.
Hardikar, M.N. 1980. The Indian Rose Annual. I., pp. 167-170
Hande, Y.K. 1984. The Indian Rose Annual, III, pp. 21-22.
James, John 1984. Am. Rose Mag. 27(13).
Jolly, Sunil. The Indian Rose Annual. IV. (to be published).
Kaicker, U.S. The Indian Rose Annual. IV (to be published).
Karnad, R.R. and Banerjee, A.K. The Indian Rose Annual. IV (to be published).
Kasturirangan, G. 1980. The Indian Rose Annual. I., pp. 158-160.
Pal, B.P. 1972. The Rose in India. Second Edition, ICAR, New Delhi.
Pal, B.P. 1980. The Indian Rose Annual. I., pp. 8-14.
Pal, B.P. 1980. Breeding of Indian Roses. The Indian Rose Annual. I., pp. 150-154.
Pal, B.P. 1982. Rose Breeding: Some Thoughts and Experiences. The Indian Rose Annual. II, pp. 10-16.
Pal, B.P. 1984. My Newest Roses. The Indian Rose Annual. Ill, pp. 18-21.
Pal, B.P. The Indian Rose Annual. IV (to be published).
Polunin, Oleg, and Stainton, Adam. 1984. Flowers of the Himalayas. Oxford University Press.
Thomas, J.S. 1965. Climbing Roses, Old and New. Phoenix House, London.
Viraraghavan, M.S. 1978. Better Roses for India. Commemoration Vol. 1st All India Rose Convention Bombay,
pp. 11-14.
Viraraghavan, M S. 1980. The Indian Rose Annual. I, pp. 155-157.
Viraraghavan, M S. 1984. The Indian Rose Annual. Ill, pp. 10-15.
5
Chrysanthemum
M.A. Kher
National Botanical Research Institute
Lucknow, UP
C HRYSANTHEMUM is next only to rose in importance among the flower

crops in the world. It is grown both for its aesthetic value and for commerce.
Historically, Confucius, the great Chinese philosopher has in his writings
mentioned chrysanthemum as early as in 500 BC making it one of the most
ancient cultivated flowers of the world. After attaining a certain level
of development in China chrysanthemum reached Japan via Korea more than
a thousand years back. In Japan it underwent a great transformation resulting
in evolution of a wide range of types varying from perfectly regular blooms
to most irregular forms. It was proclaimed as the National Flower in that
country by Emperor Uda in ad 910 and a sixteen-petalled Tchimonji’ was
adopted as the Imperial Crest during the 12th century (however, at present
the National Flower is ‘Cherry Blossom’ but chrysanthemum is still regarded
as symbol of royalty in Japan).
In England the popularity of chrysanthemum as exhibition flower is at
its peak and as a commercial crop it occupies the second position in value
of crop produced. In the United States it is the number one dollar-earner
flower and the most reliable. Varieties that can be grown throughout the
year have been evolved in that country. It is difficult to say with certainty
when its culture began in India. Sant Gyaneshwar has mentioned it in His
famous Marathi exposition of Gita “Gyaneshwari” written in ad 1290. The
Hindi name guldaudi (meaning flower of Daud) suggests that it must
have been grown during the Moghul Period in this country. However, most
of the improved varieties grown in northern part of this country are of
British, American or Australian origin. The yellow-flowered varieties grown in
south, west and central India on field-scale seem to be old timers.
In India it has been recognized as one among the five important
commercially potent flower crops by the All-India Co-ordinated Floriculture
Improvement Project of the ICAR. In the different states of India it is grown
53
under different names, guldaudi in the Hindi belt, chandramallika in the

eastern states, samanti in the southern states and shevanti in the western states.
Chrysanthemum is versatile, it can be planted in the bed, cultured in the pot,
used for garland-making and also as cut-flower for flower arrangement. Therefore,
the modern techniques based on scientific research and by evolving more
attractive cultivars, have immensely increased its potential as a commercial crop,
which can be grown round-the-year.
BLOOM CLASSIFICATION
The number of cultivars of chrysanthemum grown in the world is incredibly

large with more than 15,000 reported from Japan alone. The national
chrysanthemum societies in each country classify the cultivars grown on the basis
of bloom characteristics: (i) the relative number of two kinds of florets;
(ii) the physical shape of florets, and (iii) the direction of growth and arrangement
of florets.
The two kinds of florets that compose chrysanthemum bloom are:
Disc-floret situated in centre, tubular with five united petals. They
are usually shorter and contain both male and female reproductive parts;
they are called flowers.
Ray-floret which surround the disc-florets and are comparatively longer,
vary in shape, colour and direction of growth. The ray-florets are called
imperfect flower as they contain only the female reproductive parts.
While blooms of most varieties contain both types of florets some cultivars
may have only one kind of floret. However, most of the cultivated forms
in our country can be classified, either as large-flowered or small-flowered.
Large-flowered
Incurved. The ray-florets in this class are broad and curve upward
and inward towards centre to give the bloom a globular shape. Disc is
not visible.
Incurving. The ray-florets curve inward and upward in loose manner
to give the bloom an open and airy appearance.
Reflexed. The ray-florets curve outward and downward away from centre
so that their upper surface is seen. It is important to know that in early
stages the inner florets in this class remain incurved. Disc is not visible.
Intermediate. The distinguishing feature of this class is that while
outer ray-florets curve outward and downward showing upper surface the
inner ones continue to remain incurved.
Irregular. This class has the characters of Intermediate class except
that the ray-florets are twisted and turn irregularly.
CHRYSANTHEMUM 55
Ball or rayonante. The ray-florets which are usually chanelled and

closely packed radiate in all directions, thus giving the bloom the shape
of a ball.
Quilled. The ray-florets are tubular like a quill with tips which may
be open or closed.
Spider. The ray-florets are tubular and elongated but slightly curved
with coiled or hooked tips.
Spoon. The ray-florets are tubular up to some length from the base
and then open like a spatula.
Anemone. The disc is raised as a result of well-developed disc florets.
The ray-florets may be ligulate or tubular.
Single. Straplike ray-florets in not more than 5 whorls. The disc is
conspicuously visible but not raised as in the Anemone class.
Semidouble. Straplike ray-florets in more than 5 whorls with conspicuous
disc as in single.
Small-flowered
Anemone. Same as in large-flowered except size of bloom.
Button. Blooms very small (2-3 cm) and compact like ball.
Korean (Single). Straplike ray-florets 5 or less in number of whorls.
Disc conspicuously visible.
Korean (Double). Like the Korean class except that the number of whorls
of ray-florets is more than five.
Decorative. Like Double Korean except that the disc is not visible
due to presence of ray-florets all over the capitulum.
Pompon. Ray-florets short, broad and regularly arranged to give the
bloom a compact, hemispherical shape. Disc not visible.
Stellate. Like Single Korean except that the ray-florets have often
compressed sides and they are twisted.
Cineraria. Like Korean except the size of bloom which is not more than
3 cm in diameter.
Quilled. The ray-florets are tubular like a quill. The tips may be
open or closed.
Semi-quill. The ray-florets are tubular up to some length and then
open.
The above classification is used on exhibitions or shows where competitors
put up their entries in different classes as specified in schedules so
that comparison between dissimilar ones is avoided. There are however
other criteria also for classifying chrysanthemum varieties: (i) suitability
for different purposes like garland-making, cut-flower or pot culture; (ii) response
to photoperiod and temperature for year-round blooming; (iii) natural blooming
season; and (iv) bloom colour. Various nursery catalogues list the varieties in
groups based on these different criteria. Names of some of the selected varieties
grown in India have been given below grouping them according to their utility
and bloom colour.
Large-flowered (as exhibits)

White Yellow Mauve Group Red Group
‘Beauty’ ‘Chandrama’ ‘Grape Bowl’ ‘Bravo’

‘Beatrice May’ ‘Sonar Bangla’ ‘Ajina Purple’ ‘Diamond
Jubilee’
‘Nob Hill’ ‘Shin Mei Getsu’ ‘Shirley Perfection’ ‘Distinction’
‘Snow Ball’ ‘Super Giant’ ‘Mahatma Gandhi’ ‘Alfred Simpson’
‘Willium Turner’ ‘Mountaineer’ ‘Dream Castle’ ‘Rustic’
‘Kasturba Gandhi’ ‘J.S. Lloyed’ ‘Pink Turner’ ‘5i.L. Andre Reffaud’
‘General Petain’ ‘Mark Woolman’ ‘Peacock’ ‘Alfred Wilson’
‘May Shoesmith’ ‘Triumphant’ ‘Classic Beauty’ ‘Mrs Helmepot’
‘Jet Snow’ ‘Evening Star’ ‘Pink Giant’ ‘Gloria Deo’
‘Innocence’ ‘Kikubiori’ ‘Raja’ ‘Mrs W.A. Reid’
Small- flowered (for pot culture)

‘Lohengrin’ ‘Topaz’ ‘Ace’ ‘Gem’
‘Mercury’ ‘Indira’ ‘Sharad Prabha’ ‘Rakhee’
‘Perfecta’ ‘Liliput’ ‘Modella’ ‘Red Gold’
‘Jyotsna’ ‘Archana’ ‘Megami’ ‘Winifred’
‘Honey Comb’ ‘Rani’ ‘Mohini’ ‘Flirt’
‘Rita’ ‘Aparajita’ ‘Hemant Singar’ ‘Jaya’
‘Niharika’ ‘Mayur’ ‘Appur’ ‘Jean’
‘Sharad Shoba’ ‘Peet Singar’ ‘Charm’ ‘Garnet’
‘Shweta Singar’ ‘Sharad Kanti’ ‘Alison’ ‘Arun Singar’
‘Excelsior’ ‘Sonali Tara’ ‘Fantacy’ ‘Suhag Singar’
Small-flowered (for cut-flowers)

‘Birbal Sahni’ ‘Nanako’ ‘Sharad Prabha’ ‘Jubilee’
‘Apsara’ ‘Jayanti’ ‘Ajay’ ‘Jaya’
‘Himani’ ‘Sujata’ ‘Nilima’ ‘Danity Maid’
‘Jyotsna’ ‘Kundan’ ‘Gaity’ ‘Blaze’
‘Baggi’ ‘Freedom’ ‘Alison’ ‘Flirt’
CHRYSANTHEMUM 57
Small-flowered (for religious offering and garland-making)

‘Tushar’ ‘Meghdoof
‘Sharad Shoba’ ‘Sharada’
‘Baggi’ ‘Archana’
‘Santi’ ‘Vasantika’
‘Himani’ ‘Basanti’
‘Safed Revdi’ ‘Sonali Tara’
‘Raja’ ‘Kasturi’
‘Jawra’ ‘CS-16’
‘Lilith’ ‘Prof. Harris’
‘Jyotsna’ ‘Kundan’
CULTIVATION
Chrysanthemum plants respond differently to their environments,

underground or aerial.
Underground Environment
Chrysanthemum plants have a fibrous root system which is sensitive to
waterlogging, prone to attack by diseases and pests, but, fairly tolerent
to drought. The media for growing should therefore be such which while
retaining sufficient water for use by the plant should also allow proper
aeration for respiring fine roots so that they do not die of choking or rotting. Sandy
loams are ideal from this point. Apart from physical characteristics the
chemical status of the medium is also important. Ideally, a pH of 6.2-6.7 is
required. The optimal level of some of the essential elements in the medium
should be:
Element
Nitrogen 10-50
Phosphorus 5-10
Potassium 30-50
Calcium 100-150
Boron 20
Copper 5
Manganese 3-4
Zinc 6-8
Aerial Environment
The response of chrysanthemum to its aerial environment has been
thoroughly studied by the scientists and the information emanating from these
studies has been fully utilized by commercial growers in making revolutionary
changes in growing techniques all over the world. The chief elements of
aerial environment are light, temperature and humidity. Long days, higher light
intensities and high temperatures encourage vegetative growth in
chrysanthemum. Apart from quantitative effect the qualitative effect of these
factors is very striking.
Light. It has been shown that chrysanthemum plants continue to grow
vegetatively till the nights are shorter than critical level (9^ hr in most
traditional varieties). The flower bud is initiated as the night length crosses this
critical level. Discovery of this phenomenon termed ‘photoperiodism’ by
Garner and Allard (1920) leads to the development of the technique of year-
round and programmed-blooming by manipulating day and night-lengths using
artificial light and shading material. The photoperiodiSm phenomenon has been
shown to be the function of phytochrome pigments which has two forms, Pr
which is red-absorbing and responsible for flower bud initiation and Pf which is far-
red absorbing and inhibits flowering. With the onset of darkness the Pf form slowly
converts into Pr form and the flower buds are initiated. Interruption of dark
period with light reverses this conversion process and thus inhibits flowering. It
has also been found that cultivars vary in their requirement of photo¬
induction period for flowering. This period is measured in weeks and cultivars
have been classified into 6 to 15 weeks response group depending upon
the number of weeks of short-days required by them respectively for flowering.
This information helps the growers in planning the programme of blooming
by photoperiodic control.
Temperature. Temperature is an equally important component of aerial
environment affecting growth of the chrysanthemum plants. According to
Cockshull (1976) the growth rate in chrysanthemum remains at low level
at or below 10°C. As the temperature is raised to 15°C the growth
rate increases rapidly. At higher temperatures (25°C), however long and thin
stems are formed. A constant temperature of 16°C has been found to be the best
for rooting,of cuttings. On the basis of their response to temperature regarding
flowering the cultivars have been grouped into three classes by Cathey:
Thermozero : Flowering at any temperature between 10° and 27°C but most
consistently at 17°C night temperature.
Thermopositive : Continuous low temperature between 10° and 13°C
inhibited or delayed bud initiation. At higher temperature
27°C bud initiation is rapid but flowering is delayed.
Thermonegative : Bud initiation occurs in low to high temperature between
10° and 27°C, but continuous high temperature delays bud
development.
Interaction of light and temperature. The response of different cultivars
CHRYSANTHEMUM 59
to photoperiod and temperature regimes has been studied and the cultivars
classified into 6 ecotypes by Okada (1963).
Group Photoperiodic response Temperature response
BUD INITIATION DEVELOPMEf
Autumn Short day Short day Flower bud initiation at 15°C or
flowering high temperature, development not
inhibited at high temperature
Winter Short day Short day Flower bud initiation and develop¬
flowering ment inhibited at high temperature
Summer Day neutral Day neutral Usually flower bud initiation takes
flowering place at 10°C
August Day neutral Day neutral Minimum temperature for initiation
flowering of flower bud at 15°C. Development
inhibited at low temperature
September Day neutral Short day Same response as in August
flowering blooming
Okayama Short day Day neutral Same as in Autumn flowering type
Heiwa-type
flowering
It is apparent therefore that temperature affects the bud initiation or
development in all cultivars while the photoperiod may or may not.
Relative humidity. A relative humidity between 70 and 90% is optimum for
growth of chrysanthemum. Higher levels encourage soft growth and fungal
diseases.Dry weather at flowering is desirable. In India where chrysanthemum is
almost exclusively grown outdoors the humidity cannot be controlled. It is
advisable, therefore, that the crop may be grown commercially in drier tracts, or,
at least cultivars should be chosen in such a way that at flowering there are no
rains.
COMMON CULTURAL PRACTICES
Propagation, feeding, water management, growth regulation and protection

are common cultural requirements to be looked into for growing chrysanthemum
successfully for hobby, for commerce or exhibition. The essentials of these are
elaborated.
Propagation. The age-old method of propagation from suckers is followed.
The advantages of this method are natural availability of suckers, their easy
establishment and almost no mortality and early take-off due to already persistent
roots. The main disadvantages are transmission of parental diseases to progeny
and lack of uniformity and poor flower quality.
The method based on scientific research ensures healthy, disease-free and

uniform plant population bearing high-quality blooms. The method consists of
raising disease-free stock plants which are kept in vigorous growing condition for
taking terminal vegetative shoot cuttings. For rooting ideally, (i) sterilized
medium for inserting cuttings, builders sand-heated over an iron pan and cooled
(NBRI, Lucknow); (ii) 16°C night temperature; (iii) good light but avoiding direct
sunlight during mid-day; (iv) use of chemical root -promoting auxin (quick dip in
2,000 ppm IBA); and (v) use of Thiram and Captan to control damping-off.
Terminal cuttings, 5-6 cm long, dipped in fungicide and rooting hormone
are inserted 3 cm x 5 cm apart and watered immediately and thereafter regularly.
They are ready for transplanting in 3-4 weeks. Specialised propagators in many
countries resort to mass production of virus-free cuttings by tissue culture for
commerce. This method has been standardized at the NBRI, Lucknow, in ‘Birbal
Salmi’, ‘Pandhari Revdi’ and ‘Otome Zakura’ (Prasad and Chaturvedi, 1982,
1983).
Feeding. The growth of newly propagated sapling largely depends upon the
nutrient supply made available to it. The emphasis in the early stages should be
on nitrogen supply using organic manures. Phosphorus is best applied as basal
dressing since it is released slowly. Proportion of potassium should be increased
as the flower buds appear. The experiments conducted at different centres of the
All-India Co-ordinated Floriculture Improvement Project of ICAR propose
definite recommendations of field doses for major nutrients. Pune centre at
Ganeshkhind recommends 200 kg each of N, P,Cf and K,0 per hectare for
maximum benefit in ‘Zipri’. The Ludhiana centre at Punjab Agricultural
University recommends, with a basal dose of 5 kg farmyard manure, application
of 40 g each of N and P205 and 20 g of K20 per m2. Kalyani centre at Bidhan
Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, West Bengal, recommends 40 g each of N, P,05
and K20 per mf for maximum yield. Half the dose ofN and full of P205 and K20
was applied at the time of planting and the remaining half dose of N was given 40
days after the planting in these experiments. A different approach to feeding is
the use of slow-release fertilizers—urea formaldehyde nitrogen, fritted potassium,
magnesium ammonium phosphate and coated inorganic fertilizers. The
advantage of slow-release fertilizers is that a single application is required which is
not possible with readily soluble traditional fertilizers. Coated fertilizers in
combination with liquid application of N and K have been reported to produce
better crop (Simpson, 1975).
Water management. The frequency of irrigation depends on the stage of
growth, soil and weather condition, besides on whether the plant is grown in the
ground or in the pot. The soil is to be kept constantly moist till the plants get
established from planting, after which the condition of scarcity and sufficiency of
water should alternate for ideal growth. To avoid waterlogging during the rainy
CHRYSANTHEMUM 61
season plants are usually planted on ridges. Potted plants are either provided
temporary shelter or kept in horizontal position during a constant downpour.
While irrigating the beds, a thorough drenching is preferable to surface wetting.
In our country the method of irrigating the fields is by channel system and for
pots manual bucket system. Both these systems are inefficient due to wastage of
water. The overhead sprinkler system and various soaking systems followed in
the developed countries though economize water, require considerable
investment for installation.
PLANT PROTECTION
Pests
Aphids. These are small greenish-to-black dot-like insects which are seen in
large number sucking the sap from tender parts like stem tips, flower buds and
young leaves. Mild insecticides like tobacco leaf decoction or Malathion is
effective against them.
Red spider mite. Very minute dot-like insects of red colour seen on the
undersurface of leaves, particularly in hot dry season. Spraying with Metasystox
or Kelthane controls the pest.
Hairy caterpillar (Diacrisia obliqua). Also called Bihar caterpillar,attacks the
plants in the rainy season and continues till winter. Manual collection in mild
attacks and spray of 0.2%Ekalux at weekly intervals have been found an effective
control.
Grw6 (Holotrichia sp, ).This pest cuts the underground part of stem and roots
specially in hot weather. Soil application of Aldrin or Lindane are effective control
measures.
Thrips. Thrips cause damage to summer blooming varieties and spraying
Malathion or Lindane is effective against them.
Earthworms. The common earthworms pose problem during the rainy
season specially in pot-grown plants. As soil drench 1-2 applications of lime water
kills them.
Diseases
Root rot (caused by Pythium spp. orRhizoctonia sp.). Also called collar rot or
foot rot. It is the damping-off disease of the cuttings which turn soft at soil level
and wilt. Use of sterilized medium, and treatment of cuttings and the medium
with Thiram and Captan effectively control it.
Leaf spot (caused by Septoria chrysanthemella). Greyish brown spots appear
on leaves which turn yellow and ultimately die. The disease spreads from below
upwards. It can be controlled by Bavistin and Dithane.
Wilt (caused by Verticillium spp.). The leaves turn yellow to grey and the
branch or whole plant wilts gradually. The use of disease-free planting material
and planting in sterilized medium prevent the infection.
Stunt (caused by stunt virus). Spreads by mechanical means through cutting
knife or secateur resulting in the overall dwarfing, paleness in leaf colour and the
appearance of small yellow green dots in summer in some varieties. Not using the
same knife for diseased and healthy plants during pinching or cutting prevents its
spread. Rouging diseased plants should be practised.
Aspermy (caused by aspermy virus). This virus is transmitted by aphids and
results in distortion of flower and reduction in flower size with florets becoming
wary. Heat therapy considerably reduces the incidence and consists of keeping
the plant at 40°C for 2 hours.
GROWTH REGULATION
When allowed to grow naturally, most of the cultivars of chrysanthemum

leave something to be desired either in plant form, height, branching, quantity,
quality or the time of bloom. To obtain the results in the desired direction
certain growth regulatory methods are adopted.
Physical Methods
Pinching. Removing the terminal growing portion along with a portion of
stem is called pinching. Pinching reduces the height but promotes axillary
branching, delays flowering and helps in breaking rosetting.
Disbudding. Removing unwanted flower buds is called disbudding. It is
practised to reduce flower number, improve spray-form and to increase the flower
size.
Dis-shooting. Removal of undesirable branches is known as dis-shooting.
Its aim is to reduce the number of branches thereby the number of blooms, to
improve the spray form and to increase the bloom size.
Staking. Giving physical support to the plant or branches is called staking.
It prevents them from falling and leads them to grow in the desired direction.
Chemical Methods
Chemical root promotion. Indole butyric acid, growth retardant SADH or
DAMN (Diaminomaleonitrile) have been found to promote the rooting in
chrysanthemum. The proprietary rooting hormones available in the market are
also combinations of talc with auxins.
Chemical growth retardation. B-Nine and Phosphon are the two commonly
employed growth retardants for chrysanthemum which are used as spray and soil
drench respectively. Other chemicals effective for this purpose are ACPA,
Chloremquat, Ancymidol and Alden.
CHRYSANTHEMUM 63
Growth-promoting chemical. Gibberellic acid causes elongation of stem,
pedicel or florets depending on the stage of the plant when it is applied. This
chemical is also effective in breaking the rosetting in combination with chilling
treatment.
Chemical pinching. Certain chemical preparations like UBI P293, Emgard
2077 and Off-shoot ‘O’ have been reported to be effective pinching agents for
chrysanthemum. These chemicals contain certain alkyl esters which are
responsible for selective killing of the terminal buds.
Cultural Practices
Cultural factors such as planting time, medium and pot size, amount and
frequency of watering, light and temperature can be manipulated to influence
growth in chrysanthemum to achieve specific objectives.
Plant height. Constant water supply, early planting, semi-shaded location
and bigger size of pot tend to increase the height of the plant.
Blooming time. Manipulation of day length and temperature at different
stages of growth has been successfully used to obtain blooms in chrysanthemums
on any desired date. This method has revolutionized the chrysanthemum trade in
many developed countries and is also being used at ‘Dochi’ in Shimla Hills, from
where potted plants in bloom are supplied to Bombay and Delhi markets the year
round.
Bloom quality. It is also possible to increase the bloom size and improve
the spray form by a technique called ‘Interrupted lighting’ which consists of
alternating short and long days in definite numbers and sequence (12 SD-10
LD-SD till anthesis).
Genetic Method
The methods of growth regulation described above, though reliable, entail
some additional expenditure by way of labour, skill, chemical or infrastructure.
The cheapest way, therefore, is to breed varieties which naturally would possess
the desired combination of characters. A recent example of this method is the
evolution of scores of new varieties at the NBRI, Lucknow, which naturally
possess the desired characters rendering other methods of growth regulation
unnecessary. The reason, the newly developed dwarf and compact-growing
varieties like ‘Arun Singar’, ‘Sharad Singar’, ‘Hemant Singar’ and ‘Suhag Singar’
have enabled the grower to do away with the cumbersome and labour-intensive
practices of pinching and staking. Similarly the evolution of out-of-season
blooming varieties such as ‘Jyoti’ and ‘Jwala’ for summer, ‘Varsha’ and ‘Rim
JhinT for the rainy season, ‘Sharada’ and ‘Sharad Mala’ for early autumn and
‘Jaya’ and ‘Vasantika’ for late winter have rendered the photoperiod and
temperature control unnecessary for getting blooms in these seasons. This saves
a lot of expenditure.
ART OF CHRYSANTHEMUM GROWING
Training chrysanthemum plants in different attractive styles is an art in

which the Japanese growers have attained perfection. Standard and bush are the
two styles in which the Indian growers have been training the chrysanthemum
plants from the British period. Recently, at the NBRI, Lucknow, a few other
highly attractive styles like cascade, sen-rin tsukuri, hanging baskets and various
deviations of mini-culture have been successfully tried and popularized. The
essential cultural modifications applied for training in these different styles have
been summarized.
Large-flowered
Standard form. This style consists of training the plant into 1-3 erect stems,
each bearing single, giant, terminal bloom. The plants are raised from cuttings
made in July-August. If single flower is desired no pinching is done. On the
contrary, for more flowers the rooted cutting is pinched once after about a month
Fig. 1. A group of large-flowered plants trained as ‘standards’.

CHRYSANTHEMUM 65
of planting. The resultant branches are subjected to dis-shooting leaving only as
many branches as the number of blooms desired, and stakes of split bamboo tied
to each of them. As the flower buds appear, disbudding is practised to leave only a
single bud per shoot. Consequently, a standard, bearing extra-large bloom or
blooms, which are usually grown for garden display and competing, are obtained
(Fig. 1).
Sen-rin tsukuri. This is a Japanese word meaning ‘making thousand blooms’.
Some profuse-branching, large-flowered cultivars are more suitable for this type
of culture (Fig. 2). The plants are started from early planted suckers which are
encouraged to grow vigorously by frequent feeding and pinching so that a
profusely-branched plant is ready. A split-bamboo frame, resembling an umbrella
with several rings arranged concentrically in horizontal plane is constructed
around this plant. The branches of the plant are then carefully tied to the bamboo
rings at an equal distance. Disbudding is practised to obtain only a single bloom
on each terminal shoot. At the NBRI show, plants trained in this style and
bearing about 100 large-flowered blooms never fail to attract the onlooker and
win their admiration.
Small-flowered
Bush form. An ideal bush of chrysanthemum grown in 25 cm pot is about 60
cm high from the rim of container with a floral head of equal diameter, with
blooms evenly spread and flowering all at a time. Plants for this purpose are raised
Fig. 2. A large-flowered plant trained as ‘Sen-rin tsukuri’

from suckers taken from profuse-branching cultivars soon after the winter season
and are encouraged to grow vigorously. Pinching is practised frequently to keep
the plant dwarf and for it to develop into a round-headed bush. Stakes are used all
around the plant to prevent branches from falling.
Cascade form. In this style the plants are trained in elongated shape and
gradually bent downwards in such a way that the plant tip points towards the
ground. The whole plant is somewhat compressed with blooms in one plane
giving an appearance of a water-fall. Cultivars with elongated internodes, pliable
stem and short pedicel but profuse-branching habit are more suitable for this
style of training. The essential features of culture are selective pinching, gradual
bending and frequent tying of branches to a split-bamboo frame to keep the plant
in one compressed plane. When in bloom, the container and the frame is hidden
below the leaves and flowers making the specimen highly attractive.
Hanging basket. Hanging baskets of chrysanthemums can be easily prepared
by planting 30 to 40 rooted cuttings of dwarf, small-flowered cultivars late in the
season in a single basket filled with compost. These are ideal for veranda and
terraces.
Mini-culture. The newly developed dwarf cultivars at the NBRI, Lucknow,
have been found ideal for growing in mini containers 10 cm or less in diameter
(even in ice-cream cups). These plants are raised from the late-struck cuttings
which are not allowed to grow more than 15 cm high. Such profusely branched
plants may bear 50-60 blooms or less. When in bloom these mini plants can be
used for interior decoration as such or can also be transplanted in flower vases in a
group of 3 or 4 to make artistic arrangements like cut-flower arrangement, or in
flat trays to make attractive landscapes in conjunction with other items such as
mini-huts, streams, ponds and hillocks (Fig. 3).
GROWING FOR COMMERCE
In India the commercial cultivation of chrysanthemum is for loose flowers

for worship and garland-making. To a very small extent chrysanthemum is also
grown for sale as cut-flower with long stem and as potted plants. Some
nurserymen also trade planting-material of different varieties on a small scale.
Field culture. The main centres of field cultivation of chrysanthemums in
India are Madurai, Chingleput and Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu; Malur, Hosur,
Chikballapur and Devenhalli in Karnataka; Ahmednagar and Pune in
Maharashtra; Indore, Ratlam and Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Pushkar in
Rajasthan; and Madhupur and Deogarh in Bihar. Yellow and white-flowered
varieties bearing 4-6 cm blooms are preferred for this purpose. The field is
prepared by ploughing twice or thrice, followed by application of 37-49 tonnes
of farmyard manure per hectare. Suckers are planted on ridges. A distance of
CHRYSANTHEMUM 67
Fig. 3. Landscape culture in a tray of 30 cm X 45 cm size.
30 cm x 30 cm for planting has been recommended by Pune centre of the All-India

Co-ordinated Floriculture Improvement Project for ‘Zipri’. Planting time depends
on the region and ranges from March to August. Wells are the main source of
irrigation in most places and flooding the beds by channel system is the usual
mode. Interculture mainly consists of 8-10 weedings which may or may not be
accompanied by hoeing. Hardly any protection measures are used against pests
and diseases resulting in considerable losses in bad years. Flowers are harvested
by hand-picking every 3-4 days with or without pedicel (for giant-size garlands
with pedicel). Flowering season varies from region to region. The natural
blooming season, for all regions combined, lasts from July to February with
traditional cultivars and techniques. The yield ranges from 3-6 tonnes of loose
flowers. Flowers are packed in bamboo baskets or gunny bags for marketing. The
capacity of bamboo basket ranges from 1 to 7 kg while the gunny bag
accommodate 30 kg of loose flowers. In the wholesale markets the flowers are
stored at room temperature heaped on pukka floors. The average storage life is
said to be 4 days under these conditions. After deduction of the cost of cultivation
and overhead charges the net profit for the grower ranges from Rs 5,000 to Rs
15,000 depending on the season, region and the marketing conditions.
Cut-flower production. The cut-flower production method differs from loose
flower cultivation in a variety of ways. Instead of starting early from suckers of
white- and yellow-flowered cultivars rooted cuttings of a wide range of different
coloured varieties of both large- and small-flowered types are planted late in the
season at a much closer distance (20 cm x 20 cm). One pinch is given to the plants
of medium- and long-duration cultivars. In 1 hectare 175,000 cuttings can be
planted even after leaving 30% for paths and irrigation channels. Each of these can
give 1 or 2 sprays depending on whether pinching is done or not. Obviously more
than 100,000 sprays can be obtained if the cultivation is restricted to traditional
varieties grown for natural season production only. Even then the profits could be
much higher than in loose-flower production. The limitation, however, is, that
sprays with long stem are in demand only in big cities in our country. Whereas the
loose flowers have a wider acceptance even in smaller towns.
Pot-plant production. ‘Pot-mum’ is the term given to this rather modern
method in which cuttings are planted in handy, small-size pots. The number of
cuttings depend on pot size. One, 3, 5 or 7 cuttings are planted in pots of 9, 10.8,
14 and 15.2 cm size respectively. Pots measuring 14 cm across are most common.
Uniform cuttings are used for planting in each pot. They are spaced evenly while
planting them along the periphery in each pot at uniform depth. Frequent liquid
feeding in late planting keeps the plants vigorously growing, one pinch and use
of chemical growth retardant such as Phosphon or B-Nine keeps them dwarf. It
has been calculated that as many as 175,000 pots measuring 14 cm across can be
planted in one season in natural season production in every hectare. Each such
pot can fetch Rs 5-10 in metropolitan markets. This type of culture is however
highly intensive and requires precise knowledge of varietal behaviour and needs
intensive care. The profits too are much higher.
PROBLEMS AND POTENTIALITIES
Chrysanthemums can be grown to perfection by traditional methods

provided weather is favourable and no outbreak of disease occurs. On the
contrary, even the best growers are not confident of assured results as
unfavourable weather and diseases take a heavy toll,both in terms of quantity
and quality. This uncertainty, combined with short-blooming season, post¬
harvest spoilage and glut conditions dampen the spirit of any prospective grower
whether he be a novice, professional or a commercial one. Similar situation
prevailed even in advanced countries like the UK and the USA few decades ago.
However, the situation has changed entirely in those countries where application
of scientific research have converted this crop into a dependable one more than
CHRYSANTHEMUM 69
any other ornamental crop.
Eliminating Crop Failure

Use of disease-free planting material, sterilization of planting medium,
precise water management, judicious feeding and protection from diseases and
pests eliminates the possibilities of crop failure.
Assured and Increased Profits

Profits depend on the yield, quality and timing of flowering. Right choice of
variety and providing ideal conditions for growth of plants ensures high yield and
superior quality. Yield can be doubled or trebled by growing 2 or 3 crops in the
same area within a year either by using newly developed ecotypes which naturally
bloom in different seasons or by resorting to controlled blooming as is done in
glass-house culture. Right timing of the crops goes a long way in increased profits
to the grower. The rates of loose flowers in Indian markets fluctuate from Rs 2 to
20/kg depending on the demand-and-supply condition. Herein lies a great scope
for several-fold increase in profits. Researches by plant physiologists and breeders
have enabled growers to obtain chrysanthemum blooms on the date of their own
choosing. Obviously one can get much more profit by producing flowers at a time
when they fetch higher price in the market. This can be done in two ways:
By growing in controlled environment. This method although foolproof,
requires considerable expenditure by way of erecting closed structure and
controlling light and temperature inside. The crop produced this way must
necessarily be sold at a much higher price than the one produced outdoors. Only
the effluent can afford such a crop. This method is therefore recommended
mainly for ‘pot-mum’ production and for very high-quality cut-flowers for sale in
5-star hotels and at the florists’ shops in metropolitan cities like Delhi, Calcutta or
Bombay.
By planting newly developed ecotypes. Several new cultivars have been
evolved at the NBRI, Lucknow, which naturally bloom in different seasons when
planted according to a given schedule as detailed.
Cultivar Date of planting Blooming season
‘Jwala’, ‘Jyoti’ January Summer
‘Varsha’, ‘Meghdoot’ February Rainy Season
‘Sharada’, ‘Sharad Shobha’ March Sep.-Oct.
‘Sharad Mala’, ‘Megami’ and ‘Sharad Kanti’July Oct.-Nov.
All traditional cvs July Nov.-Dec.
‘Vasantika’, ‘Jaya’ August Dec.-Jan.
‘Illini Cascade’ August Feb.-Mar.
As the growing of these cultivars does not require any extra expenditure.
their cost of production would be same as of traditional cultivars. On the other

hand, as the flowers would be produced when there is scarcity in the market, the
grower would get a higher price than when he grows conventional cultivars.
Besides the price would be within the reach of common man. Thus these varieties
are worth recommending for open-field cultivation of loose flower. Moreover
some of the early varieties can easily fit in crop rotation as the field would be free
for the rabi crop.
Post-harvest Spoilage
Although chrysanthemums have a fairly long post-harvest life, the losses
due to faulty picking, rough handling during transit and shabby storage at room
conditions in the wholesale market can be minimised. In the advanced countries,
the whole crop is harvested at a time, followed by opening the buds using
chemical holding solutions (Figs. 4A, 4B). The cut-flowers can then be stored at
approximately 0°C for 4 weeks. The technique called hypobaric storage enables
even storing of potted plants in bloom for 4 weeks.
While we can certainly benefit from these findings, there is a need for some
fundamental research for enhancement of post-harvest life of loose flowers which
form the bulk of our country’s total production. Prof. Mohan Ram and his group
Fig. 4A. Incomplete opening of flower Fig 4B. Complete opening of flower buds of cut spray
buds of cut spray kept in plain kept in chemical solution,
water.
CHRYSANTHEMUM 71
are doing pioneering work in this field at the Delhi University. Other research
institutes, agricultural universities and centres under All-India Co-ordinated
Floriculture Improvement Project are also playing a useful role in generating and
transmitting information for the benefit of the growers.
REFERENCES
Cockshull, K.E. 1976. Flowers and Flowering. In Chrysanthemum—The Inside Story. National Chrysanthemum
Society, London.
Garner, W.W. and Allard, H.A. 1920. J. agric. Res. 18: 553.
Okada, M. 1963. Studies on flower-bud differentiation and flowering. In Chrysanthemum. Memoirs of the faculty
of Tokyo University of Education. 9: 63-202.
Prasad, R.N. and Chaturvedi, H.C. 1962. Proc. 69th Indian Sci. Congr. Pt. Ill, Abstr No. 293:138.
Prasad, R.N., Sharma, A.C. and Chaturvedi, H.C. 1963. Bangladesh J. Bot. 12(1): 96-102.
Simpson, B., Einert, A.E. and Hilman, L.H. 1975. Flor. Rev. 156:27-28, 68-69.
6
Dahlia
Swami Vinayananda
Ramakrishna Mission
New Delhi
D AHLIA, in India, is like an uncut diamond. The diamond is not at

its sparkling splendour because no one bothered to take the right care
of it. In fact it can well vie for the top place among all the popular
flowers in India.
If earning dollars be the chief criterion for a successful commercial
exploitation, dahlia may top the list provided it is properly cared for.
Holland sells 50 million dahlia tubers annually in the international market.
With indigenous expertise, India can produce an equal quantity of tubers
having the same international quality at a much lower cost. Tuber materials
(field tubers and pot tubers are usually accepted in the international
market) may be produced as a by-product of the normal dahlia-growing in
Indian plains, through late-cutting, a method developed in this country.
This method is capable of proliferating dahlia tubers in such a great
quantity in our climates that probably no other country can multiply dahlias
so fast. Hand-pollinated dahlia seeds from quality cultivars find a good
demand in the international market and such seeds may be produced here
more easily. Indian climates are so congenial to breeding dahlia that
cultivars evolved here may be a first-rate commodity in the international
market. Dahlias are not adversely affected by climatic fluctuations, a great
advantage not found in any other popular flower.
Dahlia flowers in full glory for over 4 months at a stretch in many
parts of the vast plains and at different times in the different climates
of the hills. It flowers in summer in the hills and in winter in the plains.
India is probably the only country which can boast of producing fresh
dahlia flowers naturally the year round. The vase life of the ‘Pompon’
is very long and it is also not difficult to transport this type even
to a distant destination. Dahlia field tubers, pot tubers, tuber divisions,
open-pollinated seeds, hand-pollinated seeds and cut-flowers are all good
commercial items. It indeed is good for exhibition or garden-display, as
72
DAHLIA 73
also for commerce.
Use of Dahlias
Dahlia, a versatile flower, is extensively used for exhibition, garden-display,
and home decoration. All types of dahlias are favourities as exhibits, but the
cynosure is the ‘Giant’ whose flowers measure over 25.4 cm across. The
flowerpot ‘Giant’ dahlia is a speciality of the Indian exhibitions. These are also
popular for garden, terrace (roof), garden or verandah display. In parks and
gardens, a bed of dahlias in flower will compel attention even from a distance. For
garden-display all types are extensively used. There is a dwarf-growing type,
which is called ‘border dahlia’ in common parlance, and this is highly suitable for
borders or beds since they do not require any staking. In India, ‘Giant’ or ‘Large’
dahlias are much in use for altar decoration. There are certain types of dahlias
that look even better indoors than other plants. The long-stemmed dahlia flowers
of various forms, colours, and sizes are indeed flower arrangers’ delight. The most
prominent among the types used for flower arrangement are ‘Pompon’, ‘Small
Semi-Cactus’, ‘Small Cactus’, and ‘Water Lily’. However, ‘Pompons’ also make
moderately good garlands.
INDIA’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE

WORLD DAHLIAS
In India, dahlia was first introduced in 1857 under the auspices of

the (Royal) Agri-Horticultural Society of India, Calcutta. The flowerpot
dahlia forms a major contribution of this country to the world of dahlia
and these must have been cultivated even before 1935. The other notable
contributions are the late-cutting method of dahlia preservation developed
in 1960; planned self-pollinating breeding in 1981, and planned breeding
with only first-year seedlings in 1982—the importance of the last two
experiments being that they give a new theory, which may be called ‘Mutation
Theory of Dahlia Evolution’, a firm footing. All the above-mentioned 4
points have been discussed in the text. From the dahlia-literature point
of view, books so far produced in India are, one in Bengali (Bhikshu
Buddhadev and Sengupta, 1978) and the other in English (Swami Vinayananda,
1985). The English book is meant for the whole of the Indian subcontinent.
There is probably no other book that discusses dahlia cultivation in tropical
climates.
Flowerpot dahlias. Flowerpot dahlias (Swami Vinayananda, 1984) are
most popular for growing ‘Giant’ dahlias which produce enormously large
blooms. In order to produce the largest possible flower for the plant,
only the crown bud (first bud) is allowed to develop into a flower while
all other buds and new shoots are rubbed off as soon as possible. The
reason a flowerpot ‘'Giant’ cultivar produces only one flower. From transplanting,
dahlia takes 60 to 80 days to produce the flower on the crown bud. A liquid
feed helps to produce larger and better flowers and an organic liquid
manure is considered better than an inorganic liquid feed. Commonly, 26 cm
pots are used for flowerpot dahlias and a pot of this size contains just
6 litres (when measured with a litre-graduated bucket) of potting compost.
One popular potting compost: 3 parts of loamy soil, 3 parts of cowdung
manure, and 2 parts of leaf-mould are first mixed thoroughly; to every
6 litres of this mixture, 30 g bone-meal, 20 g hoof-and-horn meal, 15
g single superphosphate, and 5 g sulphate of potash are further added.
Potting compost should be prepared a month or so before use.
Green plants or tuber divisions nurtured in small pots are transplanted
in flowerpots (and also in ground) with their root balls intact. The booster-feed
in flowerpots is given around 15 days from transplanting; 50 g powdered
mustard or some other oilcake is also given to every plant. At bud-initiation,
a plant gets the bud-feed. The supplemental granular bud-feed consists
of 30 g sterameal (7:10:5) and 5 g magnesium sulphate. All granular feed
should be given by the ring method and there should be copious watering
for three consecutive days following an application of granular feeds. Liquid
manuring starts about a month from the transplantation of green plants, and it is
usually applied twice a week.
Late-cuttings. The late-cutting method (Swami Vinayananda, 1984) of
dahlia preservation has satisfactorily solved a very long-standing problem.
This method has also started spreading to the advanced dahlia-growing
countries. Tender basal shoots from the plants in flower are taken as
cuttings and the resultant plants (stock plants) are kept in growing condition.
The stock plants are made bushy by continual pinching of the growing ends—
pinching is an essential feature of this method in order to get quality cuttings.
Some 5 rooted-late-cuttings are planted in a 26 cm fowerpot and the same
potting compost may be used. But there should be no further feeding. During
very hot summer days, the stock plants should be kept in such a place
where they get only the morning sun for 2 hr. Cuttings to make green plants
may be taken from mid-August through November, or, further where the dahlia
season is considerably long, from the stock plants. The late-cutting is
particularly suitable for the plains.
Mutation Theory of Dahlia Evolution. The dahlia was introduced into England
in 1803, but from a few varieties it soon had more than 300 varieties within the
first 15 years. The earliest dahlia blooms grown in the British Isles were purple or
crimson, but within 15 years the wide range of colours we know today and many
variations in form had occurred’(National Dahlia Society, England, 1981). It
DAHLIA 75
should be remembered that this was the period when planned breeding was
unknown in dahlias. This was also the time when almost nothing was understood
about the mutants and particularly the apical mutants and the question of
stabilizing them did not arise at ail.
The academic botanists are at one with one another that Dahlia coccinea
contributed most to the evolution of the present day dahlias. Dahlia coccinea was
one original species that was sent to Cavaniiles from Mexico and this is also the
most wide-ranging species in the habitat of the dahlias. About this species it has
been noted that: (i) ‘It is my belief that D. coccinea is a single, very wide ranging,
polymorphic species and that its ‘varieties’ are often merely extreme variants,
and (ii) ‘in one instance both diploids and tetraploids were found in the same
population’ (Sorensen, 1969). The innate tendency to vary is probably most
noticed in the case of Dahlia coccinea but many other dahlia species also have this
propensity in varying degrees.
Two experiments (Swami Vinayananda, 1985) that have been carried out in
India are of particular importance in connection with the Mutation Theory. The
first is a planned self-pollinating breeding. From one such breeding a cultivar
‘Swami Madhavananda’ was originated. It can now be safely asserted that more
than 25% cultivars are actually self-compatible. This is, however, diametrically
opposite to the very long-standing theory, which was advocated by the academic
botanists. According to them, all dahlia cultivars (hybrids) are self-incompatible.
All the breeding theories developed in the West are dependent on this theory.
There was, however, a very clear proof (Sorensen, 1969) that hybrids raised from
Dahlia scapigera x Dahlia coccinea were self-compatible (the present author
came to know about this paper only in November 1984). It is not difficult to find
out whether a cultivar is self-compatible or not but the work involved is indeed
laborious. The second experiment was a planned breeding with only promising
first-year seedlings. It has been found that these seedlings are capable of
producing equally good seeds (in all respects) in comparison with the seeds from
recognized cultivars. From the first such breeding a cultivar ‘Lord Buddha’ was
originated.
The dahlia mutates of and on. The apical portion of the plant mutates mostly
but sometimes the whole plant or the tuber also mutates. When the tuber itself
mutated the same was more easily preserved and this happened from the very
early days of dahlia cultivation. Many of the mutants have altogether new forms
or sizes. A mutant of the massive Giant ‘Kelvin Rose’ was spotted in Calcutta area
in the early eighties. Almost all the petals of this new mutant have ‘spoon’
formation according to the chrysanthemum terminology - the petal is tubular
with the end opening like a spoon (Fig. 1). When an enterprising breeder now
gets a mutant having some new form he consciously tries to breed with it in
the hope of originating a new type of dahlia. If the mutant is viable as a seed-
Lig. 1. ‘Kelvin Rose’ Mutant: Petals have the spoon formation.
parent or pollen-parent, it then does comply. In the early days of dahlia

cultivation the apical mutants must have produced seeds as seed-parent, pollen-
parent or self seeds, though these mutants probably did not survive for more than
one season. Self-pollinated seeds seem to pass the new traits more easily. Both
tuber mutants and apical mutants did their duty to pass the new traits through
their offspring though the apical mutants could not be stabilized in the early days
of dahlia cultivation. It seems to be most probable that dahlia has got so many
forms and sizes mostly through the mutants. And because many dahlia species
have a natural tendency to vary, so many variations in the dahlia have come so
early and so easily. Mutation theory of dahlia evolution may stand even without
self-pollinated seeds and seeds from the first-year seedlings, but these two do give
it a very firm footing.
DAHLIA 77
BRIDGING HILL AREAS AND PLAINS
Most of our hill areas have temperate climates while the vast plains mostly
have tropical climates. Dahlia cultivation in hill areas is practically identical with
that of the West. In the West, the tubers are started in greenhouse (glass-house),
but here they are started when the climate becomes sufficiently warm. Any good
dahlia book (e.g. Hammett, 1980) written for the temperate climate should be a
useful guide for growing dahlias in our hill areas. August and September are the
best months for the Dahlia species to flower in Mexico and other habitats, the
flowering period in most of the hill areas in India tallies with this. But in many
places of the hill areas, the dahlia also flower much earlier. The story of dahlia
cultivation in Indian plains is altogether different, however, the usual flowering
period starts from November and it continues till the end of February or even
later. While dahlia books meant for temperate climates are useful for hill areas,
they are hardly of any use for growing dahlias in the plains. Cultivation, flowering
period and many other aspects are altogether different in these two climatically
different areas. Dahlia season starts in one place when it ends in the other-
dahlias are growing like this in India in her hill areas and plains!
The seemingly unbridgeable dahlia cultivation in hill areas and plains
may not be really that unbridgeable any longer, and for the sake of better
growing it has now become essential to bridge them. Dahlia tubers and
seeds do not care for a period of dormancy if there be congenial conditions
for growing. If dahlia tubers are sent immediately on lifting from hill
areas to plains or vice versa, they start growing satisfactorily in the new congenial
condition.
From the transport point of view, pot tubers and tuber divisions are
better than the field tubers. In America and Australia, tubers are divided
immediately on lifting them from the ground and, according to some dahlia
specialists there, the new eyes are visible at this time. This was tried by this
author and it was found that the eyes were not really visible in Delhi climate.
But, at the same time, it was found that the lifted field tubers could be
successfully divided with a piece of the crown (Fig. 2). This is done just like tuber
divisions of sprouted field tubers—the sprouts are imaginary here and this is the
only difference.
Transport of freshly lifted tuber materials from plains to hill areas
and vice versa is going to open up new vistas for the dahlia breeders
of this country. The same new promising seedlings may be tested and flowered
twice a year and that too in altogether different climates. This will help the
forthcoming Indian cultivars to be better tested and to be finally evaluated by the
end of the second year. With the recent transport improvements, sending or
getting dahlia tuber materials should not be much of a problem.
Lig. 2. Tuberdivisiononlifting.lt Lig. 3. Actual operation of hand-pollination,

is complete with a piece of
the crown.
DAHLIA CULTIVATION
Growing in Ground
Dahlias love sun above and moist soil below. A dahlia bed should have
only two rows of plants though the bed can be of any length. A bed is
first worked to a depth of 30 cm. A 10 to 15 cm thick layer of cowdung
manure is first spread on the bed and then mixed thoroughly to the whole
depth. For transplanted green plants or tuber materials the different times
of application of supplemental feeds are just like flowerpot dahlias; the ring round
the main stem for applying supplemental granular feeds should have a minimum
radius of 15 cm. For booster-feed, 5-8 g of some NPK fertilizer (like 14:28:14 or
14:36:12) has to be given and for bud-feed 7-10 g of an NPK fertilizer and 5 g of
magnesium sulphate have to be given to every plant of garden-display. Garden-
display dahlia plants are stopped when they are around 20 cm tall and allowed to
have many laterals. These laterals are to flower only at the central bud. These
laterals produce many laterals again. One or two only, arising from every old
lateral, are allowed to grow and produce flowers on their central buds. All the
other new laterals are disbranched at the earliest, and companion buds
are always disbudded.
For exhibition quality flowers on ground, dahlias are best cultivated
by compost-in-pits method. A pit 40 cm deep and 40 cm in diameter is made
DAHLIA 79
and filled with the potting compost meant for flowerpot dahlias. Supplemental
granular and liquid feeds are given like flowerpot dahlias (discussed under
‘India’s contributions to the world of dahlias’). Disbudding and disbranching are
also done thoroughly. Flowers of the first flush usually have better depth and this
should be remembered while producing exhibition flowers.
Growing Flowers for Market

Growing for cut-flowers is practically the same as the growing in ground
but the selection of the right cultivars is a condition necessary for success. Beds
are prepared like the garden-display dahlias. The question of cutting down the
expenditure is naturally very important in this type of cultivation. With this
in view, only booster-feed is given as supplemental feed to these plants. The
booster-feed is made of 4-7 g of urea for every plant. If found necessary, they
should be given the same bud-feed meant for the garden-display dahlias.
Producing cut-flowers demands a maximum number of flowers in a steady
succession from a plant. A suitable cultivar should branch freely but it should
also be encouraged to do so by stopping like garden-display plants. And in order
to get a maximum number of flowers, a minimum disbranching is practised.
Thus, all laterals including the new laterals arising from the older ones are
allowed to flower. But companion buds are disbudded without fail.
Dahlias in Exhibitions
In India dahlias are exhibited both as cut flowers and flowerpot dahlias.
Flowerpot dahlias, particularly the ‘Giants’, are most impressive and they are also
most popular. The quality of flowers in this country is on par with that of the
advanced dahlia-growing countries. India has no scheme of dahlia classification
for exhibition of her own as yet, but the dahlia exhibitions are very much
influenced by the British classification from the very beginning. And the same
with some minor modifications should suit India admirably.
In the late sixties, there was a move to form an international scheme
of dahlia classification for exhibition. England was given the responsibility
of formulating the international classification. The society that was entrusted with
the work most over-zealousiy declared the existing British classification to be the
international classification. This so-called international classification showed
scant respect to the age-old specialities of the other countries (there is not even
any mention about the flowerpot dahlias in it). To this over-zealous act, a natural
reaction took place in the advanced dahlia-growing countries. Three countries,
America, Australia and New Zealand, revised their classifications of dahlias in the
eighties. None of them have even mentioned about the so-called international
classification. There is, however, a conscious endeavour on the part of the
different countries to come as close to one another as practicable. But the idea
of an international classification has been practically dropped on finding

it to be impractical. The so-called international classification and the reactions
to it, however, have done us much good. We can now suitably modify the so-
called international classification to make it a suitable one for this country.
As India always has the influence of the British classification the
task of the Indian classification becomes easy. The two groups, Single-flowered
dahlias and Paeony-flowered dahlias, are not likely to be popular here
at any time, so the cultivars of these two groups may be conveniently
put under the Miscellaneous Dahlias Group. And their places may be suitably
occupied by Water Lily Dahlias and Fimbriated Dahlias since these two
groups are likely to be highly popular in this country also. The following
are complete ten groups of dahlia (except the two groups, all other retain
their original group number) for exhibition for Indian exhibitions.
1. Water Lily Dahlias
2. Anemone-flowered Dahlias
3. Collerette Dahlias
4. Fimbriated Dahlias
5. Decorative Dahlias
6. Ball Dahlias
7. Pompon Dahlias
8. Cactus Dahlias
9. Semi-Cactus Dahlias
10. Miscellaneous Dahlias
Classification of dahlias for exhibition is directly connected with judging
dahlias in the exhibitions, i.e. competitions. For judging Water Lily and
Fimbriated groups, classifications of Australia and New Zealand are probably the
best. And forjudging flowers of the other eight groups, the British classification
is probably the best for this country. All the above-mentioned groups, except for
Collerette and Miscellaneous (certain types belonging to this group) groups,
should have fully double flowers. An exhibit, i.e. flower, belonging to any of these
fully double-flower groups, should not open its disc before judging at the
exhibition. If the exhibit opens its disc prior to judging, it is liable to be
disqualified. And ‘Pompons’ must not be more than 50 mm in diameter. For
flowerpot dahlias, the balance between pot, plant and flower(s) is a very
important factor.
Propagation and Preservation

Dividing sprouted field tubers and storing tubers after lifting are
the usual methods for propagation and preservation respectively in hill
areas. After the flowering is well over and before it frosts, the tubers
DAHLIA 81
formed at the base of the dahlia plants are lifted. Two shovels (or spades)
working together from the opposite sides of the field tuber is the best
method to lift it. Tubers are dried in shade and then stored in a cool
and dry place. The dahlia tubers go dormant (in plains they may not be
dormant) in the winter of hill areas and they sprout spontaneously with
the coming summer season. The sprouted field tubers are divided in such
a way so that each division has one sprout and at least one tuber. The
tuber divisions should be singly planted in 15-cm pots and conditioned
before planting them in ground or flowerpots.
In the vast plains of India, the most satisfactory method of preservation
is the late-cutting (discussed under ‘India’s Contributions to the World
of Dahlias’). Striking cuttings to make green plants is the usual method
of propagation in plains. Dahlia cultivation in plains becomes a lot easier
when it is done by transplanting green plants. A good cutting should be
6-8 cm long and 2-3 mm in diameter, and 2-3 cm of a cutting should remain
inside the rooting medium. The base of the cuttings is made firm so that
there may not be any movement for the portion inside the rooting medium.
Coarse sand is usually used as the rooting medium, it has to be sterilized
before use. After the insertion of the cuttings, the medium has to be
kept moist all the time. The cuttings usually take two weeks to root.
A rooted cutting is planted in an 8-cm pot and grown in it for seven days
in order to make a green plant. Both green plants and conditioned tuber
divisions are transplanted with their root ball intact. This is done by
tossing them out of the small pots.
Quality Control
Planting materials, i.e. green plants, tuber divisions, etc. of a first-rate
quality is a must for a real success in dahlia growing. Any double-flowering
cultivars producing semi-double flowers should not be used for propagation
(these are, if not virus affected, good as seed-bearing parents). Plants
suffering from viral diseases are not capable of producing first-rate
blooms. Any plant suspected to be suffering from a virus disease should
be destroyed by burning forthwith. Aphids and thrips are carriers of virus
diseases. These may be kept under considerable control by routine spray
of some milder pesticides. In hill areas, tuber rot is a serious problem.
Spraying Bavistin (1 g in 1 litre of water) immediately after lifting tubers, at the
time of storing and immediately after tuber division is helpful. Charcoal rot is
very much prevalent in Delhi area. Routine drenching with Captan (2 g in 1 litre
of water) during summer and rainy seasons is a very effective help. Mites are a
very serious problem almost everywhere in the vast plains. The drowning method
(Swami Vinayananda, 1984) has been found to be most effective to combat mites.
Quality control also depends a lot on the types of cuttings. All shoots
from stock plants (that are resultant of late-cuttings), tender shoots arising
directly from tubers, and basal tender shoots from older plants make first-rate
cuttings. Tender but not basal shoots from older plants always produce inferior
cuttings and inferior flowers—this type of planting material has swamped the
dahlia market in this country and a serious grower has to carefully avoid such
green plants.
DAHLIA BREEDING
Dahlia breeding is probably the easiest of all. Capping and emasculation

are pains-taking steps and the absence of these make dahlia breeding particularly
easy. A good percentage of dahlia cultivars is self-compatible. Disc florets,
almost as a rule, have both stigmas and stamens. And the ray florets (petals)
also at times contain stamens. It is almost impossible to discover the
stamens of the ray florets. But such occurrence of stamens is by no means
common. Common or not, the presence of any stamen can very well upset
the whole programme of capping. Emasculation of disc florets is practically
impossible. In a self-compatible cultivar, the pollination is certain to take place
even before the emasculation is attempted. And in self-incompatible cultivars,
emasculation is nothing but superfluous. The capping, however, has some utility
in the case of disc-floret breeding with self-incompatible seed-parent but the
condensation inside the cover of a dahlia bloom is great and so one has to be very
careful about it. Two methods of breeding are particularly useful for places where
the breeding is done in the open. These are, the hand-pollination breeding
(Bhikshu Buddhadev, 1976) that has been standardized by this author for the
Indian climates and the induced bee-pollination. The hand-pollination breeding,
however, seems to be the best for breeding this popular flower.
Hand-pollination. The dahlia petal (ray floret) is a complete female
flower and the stigma is situated at the nner base of the petal. The
stigmas of different cultivars have different shapes but the most usual
form looks somewhat like a capital Y at the ready state of the stigma.
When the petal fully opens the stigma also opens with that, and the pollination
of the stigma starts on the day the petal is fully open. The hand-pollination
is carried on with the help of a zero-numbered sleek painting brush (Fig. 3).
This is done to as many ready stigmas as can be easily reached. Wherever
possible, the same stigma is pollinated for three consecutive days, from the
day the petal is fully opened, but the pollen-bearing parent need not be the same
for all these days. It has been found that the rows of petals near to the disc bear
seeds more easily. The withered petals of the seed-bearing flower are pulled out
gently after fifteen days from the opening of the innermost row of petals. The
DAHLIA 83
seeds ripen on the plantsthemselves, a processwhichtakes around a month. The

pollen is to be found at the disc of a dahlia flower, and it looks like yellow or
orange cosmetic powder on maturity. On touching with the tip of the brush the
pollen adheres to it. Pollen is available for days together from the same bloom.
The honey bees are very much after the pollen but they show no interest in
the stigmas at the base of the petals. This particular aspect makes capping
of the flower irrelevant under this method of breeding.
Induced bee-pollination. This form of breeding is the oldest and there
are also many votaries of this even among the modern breeders. This method
is also the easiest- of all. Actually speaking, a breeder has hardly anything
to do beyond the planning in this method of breeding. Two cultivars are
selected as parents (each may be seed-parent and pollen-parent at the
same time) and they are planted in pairs, or only these two cultivars
in a bed of their own, and cultivated in isolation as a part of the plan.
The plants are kept in isolation, i.e. away from all other dahlia cultivars,
so that they may not be influenced by the pollen of the other cultivars.
Discs (disc-florets of the dahlia are usually bisexual) of both the parents
should open (by taking several flowers on a plant this may be easily done)
at the same time. The honeybees are always after the dahlia pollen, in
their search for pollen they will effect a cross-pollination between the
two parents. And thus both parents may produce seeds. If a cultivar is
self-compatible, then self-pollinated seeds are the most likely outcome.
This form of breeding is based on the assumption that all dahlia cultivars
are self-incompatible. Since the overwhelming majority of cultivars seems
to be self-incompatible, this method is worth trying though one should
remember about its limitations.
The flower to supply pollen gives a lot of pollen if kept indoors as
a cut flower. A seed parent should be encouraged by stopping to bear
several flowers at a time. Moreover, seed-parents should get only the
booster-feed and no bud-feed. In induced bee-pollination, you may expect
seeds only at the disc. And in hand pollination, seeds may form both at
the base of the floret-stigmas and at the disc, the latter being either
self-pollinated or bee-pollinated seeds.
Seeds and seedlings. Seeds should be dried well in strong sun and stored
well. Dahlia seeds lose viability very fast though an experiment by this
author has clearly shown that a small percentage of seeds do retain their
viability for one and a half years. Seeds produced in plains may be sown
in hill areas almost immediately after drying them and vice versa this
may be used advantageously and the final results obtained at the earliest.
Dahlia seeds are sown like summer-annuals in hill areas and like winter-annuals
in plains. The seed starts to germinate from the third day from the time
of sowing in plains but it takes a few more days in hill areas. The last
seed to germinate from the same sowing may take many more days.
Wherever possible, seedlings are best grown in flowerpots as this offers
certain additional advantages. One seedling to a 26-cm flowerpot is better
than three seedlings to a 30-cm flowerpot. Seedlings are nurtured like
flowerpot dahlias but they do not get any bud-feed nor any liquid feed.
Lifting of tubers sometimes causes death of a plant, when a promising first-year
seedling dies in this manner it becomes a total loss. Moreover, it is difficult to
manipulate a plant in ground for producing basal shoots for late-cuttings. In the
case of the first-year dahlia seedlings in flowerpots, they may continue in the pot
or the tubers may be easily collected without causing any injury to it. Secondly,
flowerpot first-year seedlings may be manipulated to produce basal shoots (to be
taken as late-cuttings) immediately after the plant produced the first flower. The
first-year seedlings to produce late-cuttings are kept prostrate with the main stem
towards the sun. At the time of watering the flowerpots have to be raised but they
are put in their previous position immediately after that. Keeping the plants in
lying condition helps the basal dormant shoots to sprout and develop very fast
and, as a result, there are plenty of suitable shoots for late-cuttings. All the
different methods of preservation should be employed to perpetuate a promising
first-year seedling. From the first-year seedling stage, preservation, propagation
etc. are like that of the existing cultivars.
Dahlia seedlings may show improvements during the first three years. Most
changes or improvements take place during the second year. Any seedling to be
finally selected should be superior to the existing cultivar that resembles it most
or should be at least equal to it.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF DAHLIA
The progress of the dahlia in only 200 years (the dahlia came out of its native
land in 1789) is indeed fantastic, but it has, by no means, reached the pinnacle.
There is no blue dahlia, black (actually deep red but looking like black) dahlia or
green (green chrysanthemums are extremely beautiful) dahlia. The fragrant
dahlia is also a distinct possibility. And what about climbing dahlias? Dahlia
macdougallii is the only climbing dahlia species and it can climb some 10 m. By
breeding with it, there might be a series of beautiful climbing dahlias. Many more
new forms are also likely to appear in dahlias. Dahlia has indeed to
go miles before it reaches the pinnacle.
UNIQUE ROLE FOR INDIA TO PLAY
With dahlia breeding and commercial exploitation, certain development

DAHLIA 85
centring dahlia in India can be taken as a foregone conclusion. These

are: a National Dahlia Society with a great number of satellite dahlia
societies; better organized dahlia shows, launching Indian cultivars etc.
in the international market, besides a lot of research. The accomplishment
of all these will surely place India among the top dahlia-growing countries.
But India can do for the cause of dahlia a very great service which no
other country can probably do.
The unique role that India can play is to develop a sanctuary for the original
species of the dahlia in some suitable place in the Himalayas. The taxonomy
of the dahlia contains 28 dahlia species and 4 intraspecific taxa (Sorensen,
1980) and these are still extant in their habitats in Mexico, Central America
and northern-most South America. Though they are still existing they are also
very much in danger because of the ever-spreading civilization. Moreover,
it is not really easy to collect a particular species from its habitat for
geographical, political and reasons otherwise. Dahlia cultivars and species (this
author grew a species. Dahlia imperials, this way at an altitude around 2,000 m in
the Himalayas) grow in various parts of the Himalayas without getting any
attention. Dahlia sp. growing in wild like their habitats, and occur in the
Himalayas only. And this particular facet provides the right opportunity for India
to play this unique role.
According to some specialists, the colour of the modern dahlias is already
showing the sign of being washed-out. If this be true, the need will soon
arise to back-cross (as is being done in rose breeding these days with
sterling effects) with the original species. When the original species are easily
available this and a lot of other researches should be on the cards. This sanctuary
will indeed do dahlia and the dahlia enthusiasts a world of good. And the
posterity will remain ever grateful for this unique service.
REFERENCES
Bhikshu Buddhadev 1976. Indian Horticulture. 22(No. 22).
Bhikshu Buddhadev and Sengupta 1978. Dahlia (in Bengali). General Printers & Publishers, Calcutta.
Hammett, Keith 1980. The World of Dahlias. Reed Ltd, Auckland.
National Dahlia Society of England, 1981. Dahlia 100 (1881-1981).
Sorensen, Paul D. 1969. Discovery of a factor for reproductive self-compatibility in Dahlia scapigera. Bulletin of
the American Dahlia Society, June 1969.
Sorensen, Paul D. 1969. Rhodora, 71.
Sorensen, Paul D. 1980. Rhodora, 82.
Swami Vinayananda, 1984. Dahlias of Today. Puget Sound Dahlia Association of Washington.
Swami Vinayananda, 1984. Dahlias of Today Puget Sound Dahlia Association of Washington.
Swami Vinayananda, 1984. Dahlias of Today. Puget Sound Dahlia Association of Washington.
Swami Vinayananda, 1985. Dahlias of Today. Puget Sound Dahlia Association of Washington. (In press).
Swami Vinayananda, 1985. Dahlia Growing. Associated Publishing Co. New Delhi.
7
Gladiolus
S.S. Negi and S.P.S. Raghava

G LADIOLUS, a bulbous ornamental, has gained popularity in many parts

of the world owing to its unsurpassed beauty and economic value. It is
grown for both cut flower and garden display purposes. It ranks next only
to tulips in Holland in commercial importance. There are now a large number
of varieties with different colours, types of florets and petal structure
available in the world which have arisen as a result of interspecific
and intervarietal hybridization. In India also, gladiolus has become one
of the most important commercial flower crops. During winter season, cut
flowers besides home consumption, can be exported to European countries
as during this period it is difficult to grow gladiolus there outside and glasshouse
cultivation is costly. In addition to cut flowers, corms can also be exported.
Keeping all these facts in view, work on genetic improvement, cultural
requirements and protection against diseases and insect pests of gladiolus was
started at different research centres in India. The progress made so far on these
aspects at different research centres is summarized below.
CROP IMPROVEMENT
Selection
Most of the present day varieties of gladiolus have been developed in
countries like the USA,the UK, Holland and the USSR. Some of these varieties
were introduced at different research centres in India and were evaluated
for their suitability for different purposes on the basis of various characteristics
under different agro-climatic conditions. At Regional Fruit Research Station,
Mashobra (Shimla), the varieties ‘Anne Virginia’, ‘Blaur Domino’, ‘Cardinal
Spellman’, ‘Double Frills of Pink’, ‘Exotic Double Sister Eliz’, ‘Fenny
Lind’, ‘Florence Nightingale’, ‘Gold Dust’, ‘Hawaii’, ‘Hill Crest’, ‘Kenny’,
‘King Lear’, ‘La Paloma’, ‘Mashobra No. 8’, ‘Oklahoma’, ‘Psittacinus hybrid’,
‘Rawi Fallu’ and ‘Spic and Span’ were found to be promising.
86
GLADIOLUS 87
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, reported eight varieties,

namely ‘Apple Blossom’, ‘George Mazure’, ‘GoefF Whiteman’, ‘Jo Wagenaar’,
‘Patricia’, ‘Pfitzer’s Sensation’, ‘Ratna’s Butterfly’ and ‘Snow Princess’, to be most
promising for Delhi conditions.
Thirty-one large-flowered varieties, namely ‘Apple Blossom’, ‘Australian
Fair’, ‘Blue Lilac’, ‘Camellia’, ‘Debonair’, ‘Fred Tucker’, ‘Friendship’, ‘George
Mazure’, ‘Geliber Herald’, ‘GoeffWhiteman’, ‘Green Woodpecker’, ‘G.S. Porter’,
‘Jo Wagenaar’, ‘Lady Killer’, ‘Life Flame’, ‘Lincoln’s Day’, ‘Old Gold’, ‘Oscar’,
‘Pactolus’, ‘Patricia’, ‘Prof. Goudrian’, ‘Ratna’s Butterfly’, ‘Rose Spire’, ‘Sam
Smith’, ‘Scheherazade’, ‘Snow Princess’, ‘Stormy Weather’, ‘Sylvia’,
‘Thunderbird’, ‘Vink’s Glory’ and ‘Winter Gladioli’, and six miniature varieties,
viz. ‘Canberra’, ‘Jolly Joker’, ‘Katrain Local’, ‘Mashobra Butterfly’, ‘Psittacinus
hybrid’ and ‘Red Canna’, were found to be outstanding for Shimla conditions at
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Regional Station, Flowerdale, Shimla.
At the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore,
eleven varieties, namely ‘Beauty Spot’, ‘Cherry Blossom’, ‘Friendship’, ‘Jo
Wagenaar’, ‘Melody’, ‘Picardy’, ‘Snow Princess’, ‘Tintorente’, ‘Tropic Seas’,
‘Watermelon Pink’ and ‘Wild Rose’, were found to be promising for cut flower
and garden-display purposes.
Hybridization
Studies on floral biology were carried out at Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwa
Vidyalaya, Kalyani, West Bengal. It was reported that the inflorescence of
gladiolus is spike with sessile hermaphrodite florets. The flower buds take, on
an average, 16 days to reach the full bloom stage. The opening of petals start early
in the morning. It takes 22-24 hours for complete opening of flower. The
dehiscence takes place between 8 and 9.30 A.M. following anthesis. The pollen
grains were found to be round in shape with average diameter of 106 p,. Pollen
stainability with acetocarmine was 98% and stigma remained receptive for 24
hours.
At IIHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, about 6,000 hybrids were raised. Of
these, nearly 2,010 were evaluated thoroughly for various characteristics for 2-3
seasons. Performance trials of very promising hybrids were conducted for three
seasons in comparison with standard cultivars. Six hybrids were finally selected
and released as ‘Meera’, ‘Nazrana’, ‘Poonam’ and ‘Spana’ in 1979 and as ‘Aarti’
and ‘Apsara’ in 1980. Brief descriptions of these new cultivars are given below.
‘Meera’. It is from a cross ‘G.P.l’ x ‘Friendship’. It flowers after 58 days of
planting. Spikes are robust, bewitching and 90 cm long. Rachis length is 54.3 cm,
florets snow white, 18 per spike, compact and thick-textured, open-faced, size
11.9 cm, 6 remain open at a time. Vase life of cut flowers is 8 days. Cormel
production is very good. It is ideal for cut flower and garden-display (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. ‘Meera’ (‘G.P. T X ‘Friendship’).

GLADIOLUS 89
‘Nazrana’. This hybrid is from a cross ‘Black Jack’ x ‘Friendship’. It

produces flowers 57 days after planting. Spikes are very strong, charming and
104.6 cm long. Rachis length is 64.5 cm. Florets are cardinal red
(53.B) with Barium Yellow (10.D) flash in throat, 18 per spike, compact and thick-
textured, open-faced, size 11.5 cm, 6 remain open at a time. Cut flower life is 6
days. Cormel multiplication is good. It is suitable for cut flower purpose (Fig. 2).
‘Poonam’. It is from a cross ‘Geliber Herald’ x ‘R.N. 121’. It flowers
after 61 days of planting. Spikes are 98 cm long. Rachis length is 61.7
cm. Florets are Dresden Yellow (5.D) with Mimosa Yellow (8.C) blotch,
17 per spike, texture medium, open-faced, size 11 cm, 6 remain open at
a time. Cut flower life is 7 days. It is excellent multiplier. It is to¬
lerant to Fusarium wilt disease. It is good for cut flower and garden-
display purposes.
‘Sapna’. This hybrid is from a cross ‘Green Woodpecker’ x ‘Friendship’.
It requires 54 days to flower. Spikes are strong, magnificent and 83 cm
long. Rachis length is 51.7 cm. Florets Barium Yellow (10.D) with Primrose
Yellow (4.A) blotch and Mandarin Yellow (41.D) tinge on margins, 17 per
Fig. 2. ‘Nazrana’ (‘Black Jack’ x ‘Friendship’). Fig. 3. ‘Sapna’ (‘Green Woodpecker’ x

‘Friendship’).
spike, compact and thick-textured, open-faced and ruffled, size 12 cm,

8 remain open at a time. Cut flowers last for eight days in vase. Cormel
multiplication is excellent. Very good for cut flower and garden-display
purposes (Fig. 3).
‘Aarti’. Is is from a cross ‘Shirley’ x ‘Melody’. Requires 70 days
to flower. Spikes are attractive and 63.6 cm long. Rachis length is 48.4
cm. Florets Poppy Red (40.D) with reddish purple (60.A) and Canary Yellow
(9.C) blotch and Mandarin Red (40.C) spots, 11 per spike, hooded, size
10.8 cm, 4 remain open at a time. Cut flower life is 6 days. Cormel multiplication
is very good. Butterfly type, suitable for flower arrangement.
‘Apsara’. This hybrid is from a cross ‘Black Jack’ x ‘Friendship’.
It flowers 45 days after planting. Spikes are strong, dazzling and 97.6
cm long. Rachis length is 67 cm. Florets are Ruby Red (61.A) with Barium
Yellow (10.D) flecks in throat, 18 per spike, thick-textured, open-faced,
size 11.3 cm, 6 remain open at a time. Cut flower life is 8 days. Cormel
multiplication is good. Suitable for cut flower purpose (Fig. 4).
Three cultivars were developed and released as ‘Agni Rekha’, ‘Mayur’
and ‘Suchitra’ by Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, in
1980. They are briefly described below.
‘Agni Rekha’. It is an open-pollinated seedling of cv ‘Sylvia’. Maturing
in mid-season. Plants are 90 cm tall. Florets are Fire Red (10) with Saffron
Yellow (7/2) blotch and scarlet stripes, 18 per spike, open- aced, size
9.8 cm. Cormel multiplication is good. It is suitable for cut flower purpose.
‘Mayur’. It is also an open-pollinated seedling of cv ‘Sylvia’. It is late
flowering. Plants are 82 cm in height. Florets Lilac Purple (31/3) with dark purple
throat (31), 20 per spike, open-faced, size 9.5 cm. Cormel multiplication is very
good. It is suitable for cut flower and garden display purposes.
‘Suchitra’. This hybrid is from a cross ‘Sylvia’ x ‘Jo Wagenaar’. Plants
are 90 cm tall. Florets are Camellia Rose (622/2) with stripes of Vermilion
(18) and Dianthus Purple blotch, open-faced, 22 per spike, size 9.6 cm.
It is good for cut flower purpose.
National Botancial Research Institute, Lucknow, developed and released
11 cultivars, namely ‘Manmohan’, ‘Manohar’ and ‘Mukta’ in 1982; ‘Manhar’,
‘Manisha’, ‘Mohini’ and ‘Jwala’ in 1983 and ‘Archana’, ‘Arun’, ‘Sanyukta’
and ‘Triloki’ in 1984. Their brief descriptions are given below.
‘Manmohan’. This hybrid is from a cross ‘Friendship’ x Gladiolus tristis.
It blooms 80-120 days after planting. Spikes are one-sided and 80 cm in
length. Florets Primrose Yellow (601/3) having irregular splashes of Orchid
Purple (31/1) at the tips of outer 3 petals, throat Primrose Yellow (601/3)
having splashes of Orchid Purple (31/1) in irregular fashion, overlapping,
14-16 per spike, size 10 cm. Cormel production is very good.
GLADIOLUS 91
‘Manohar’. It is also developed from the cross ‘Friendship’ x G. tristis.

Flowers 80-120 days after planting. Spikes are one-sided and 80 cm long.
Florets Orchid Purple (31/2) and at tips Orchid Purple (31/1) with Primrose
Yellow (601/3) throat and all the petals have a central streak of Primrose
Yellow (601/2) and reverse side with splashes of Orchid Purple (31/1)
and Primrose Yellow (601/3), 14-16 per spike, size 10.5 cm. Cormel
multiplication is very good.
‘Mukta’. This hybrid is also from the cross ‘Friendship’ x G. tristis.
Flowers 90-120 days after planting. Spikes one-sided and 70 cm in length.
Florets are Sulphur Yellow (1/3) with Sulphur Yellow (1/2) throat and
reverse side Sulphur Yellow (1/3) with splashes of Orchid Purple (31/2)
in irregular fashion, loosely placed, 12-15 per spike, size 9 cm. Production
of cormels very good.
‘Manhar’. It is also developed from the cross ‘Friendship’ x G. tristis.
It requires 80-120 days to flower. Spike length is 60 cm. Florets are
Primrose Yellow (601/3), tips of outer 3 petals splashed with Tyrian Rose
(24/1), throat Primrose Yellow (601/1), reverse side Primrose Yellow (601/3)
Fig. 4. ‘Apsara’(‘Black Jack’ x‘Friendship’). Fig. 5. ‘Shobha’(Mutant of‘Wild Rose’).

having splashes of Tyrian Rose (24/1) on outer 3 petals in an irregular

fashion, 14-18 per spike, size 10 cm. Cormel production is good.
‘Manisha’. This hybrid is also from the cross ‘Friendship’ x G. tristis.
It flowers after 80-120 days of planting. Spikes are 60 cm long. Florets
are white, outer 3 petals splashed with Tyrian Rose (24/3), more towards
margins, throat Primrose Yellow (601/2), reverse side white, irregularly
splashed with Tyrian Rose (24/2), 14-16 per spike, size 11 cm. Cormel
production is very good.
‘Mohini’. It is also derived from the cross ‘Friendship’ x G. tristis.
It requires 80-120 days to flower. Spikes are 60 cm long. Florets are
white, outer three petals and inner upper one petal heavily splashed with
Tyrian Rose (24/2 and 24/3), lower inner two petals sparsely splashed
with the same, throat Primrose Yellow (601/3), reverse white splashed
with Tyrian Rose (24/2 and 24/3) in an irregular fashion, 12-14 per spike,
size 10 cm. Cormel production is very good.
‘Jwala’. A new cultivar bearing Vermilion flowers. A special feature
of it is its branching habit which makes it especially suited for bedding
purpose.
‘Archana’. This hybrid is from a cross G. psittacinus ‘Sylvia’ x ‘Friendship’.
It requires 90-120 days for flowering. Spikes are 80 cm long with branching habit.
Florets are Begonia (619/1) suffused with Begonia (619) with a central white
streak on petals, blotch Primrose Yellow (601/2), reverse same, 16-18 per spike,
ruffled, size 11 cm. Cormel multiplication is good.
‘Arun’. It is developed from a cross G. psittacinus ‘Sylvia’ x ‘Fancy’.
It requires 90-120 days for flowering. Spikes are 80 cm long and branched.
Florets Vermilion (18/2), splashed and streaked towards margins of petals
(18/1), inner lower two petals having a streak in centre, half Primrose
Yellow (601/1) and half Cardinal Red (822/3), reverse side same, 16-18
per spike, size 10 cm. Cormel multiplication is good.
‘Sanyukta’. This hybrid is obtained from a cross ‘Friendship’ x G.
tristis. It requires 90-120 days for flowering. Spikes are one-sided, branched and
80 cm long. Outer three petals of florets Rose Opal (022), inner three petals Rose
Opal (022/2), throat Primrose Yellow (601/3), reverse side Rose Opal (022/2)
splashed with Primrose Yellow (601/3) more on the lower side, 18-20 per spike,
over-lapping, size 10 cm.
‘Triloki’. It is also developed from the cross ‘Friendship’ x G. tristis.
Flowers after 90-120 days of planting. Spikes one-sided and 75 cm long.
Florets are China Rose (024) in upper half portion, Primrose Yellow (601/2)
in lower half portion having splashes of China Rose (024) on the margins,
reverse same, 14-15 per spike, size 10 cm. Cormel production is very good.
Four very promising hybrids, ‘Chaubattia 6/4’, ‘Chaubattia 14/23’,
GLADIOLUS 93
‘Chaubattia 19/1’ and ‘Chaubattia 21/10’ were selected for trial by Horticultural
Experiment and Training Centre, Chaubattia, Uttar Pradesh.
IARI, Regional Station, Flowerdale, Shimla, produced nine promising
hybrids. They were numbered as ‘71 SJW-Or 074-4’, ‘71 SJW-PfS 173-6’, ‘71 SJW-
PfS 273-7’, ‘71 SJW-PfS 373-9’, ‘71 SPfS-SS 073-14’, ‘71 SPfS-JJI-273-15’, ‘71
SSSm-PfS 073-22’, ‘71 SRB-JJI-374-26’ and ‘71 SHE-GG 074-31’.
At NBRI, Lucknow, intra- and interploidal crosses (using tetraploid, triploid
and diploid hybrid and garden cultivars) and one interspecific cross (Gladiolus
sp.cv ‘La Paloma’ x Gladiolus callianthus) were made. It was observed that 4x x
2x cross was successful only when a tetraploid was used as a female parent.
Twenty eight out of 29 plants were triploid in the progeny of the cross 4x x 2x.
Gladiolus callianthus could be crossed only with the cvs ‘La Paloma’ and ‘Pacifica’
(2n=60)when these were used as female parents. G. psittacinus hybrid (5x) and
garden cultivars (4x) could be crossed reciprocally.
Mutation Breeding
At IIHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, conns of three cultivars of gladiolus
were irradiated with gamma rays at different doses. LD50 was found to be between
10 and 15 Kr. A desirable and stable mutant with Shell Pink floret colour,
observed in vM2 generation as a chimera in 1 Kr treatment, was isolated from the
cv. ‘Wild Rose’ with Roseine Purple floret colour in vM4 generation. Based on the
result obtained in performance trials, this mutant was named and released as
‘Shobha’ in 1980. Its brief description is given below.
‘Shobha’. It is a mutant of cv ‘Wild Rose’ induced with gamma rays
at 1 Kr. It requires 50 days for flowering. Spikes are pleasing and 97 cm long.
Rachis length is 62 cm. Florets Shell Pink (37.C) with Empire Yellow (ll.D)
throat, 18 per spike, medium-textured, open-faced, size 11.5 cm, 6 remain open at
a time. Vase life of cut flowers is 7 days. Cormel multiplication is good. It is ideal
for cut flower and garden decoration purposes (Fig. 5).
IARI, Regional Station, Flowerdale, Shimla induced flower colour mutations
after treatments with gamma rays in gladiolus cvs ‘Jo Wagenaar’, ‘Oscar’
and ‘Picardy’.
Cormels of gladiolus cv ‘Scarlet Double’ were subjected to different
levels of fast neutron and gamma radiation at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
Bombay. It was reported that the gladiolus cormels were less sensitive
to irradiation and survival at higher doses was greater than for other
bulbous ornamentals. Fast neutron treatment was more effective.
Genetical Studies
Studies on genetic variability, interrelationship of characters and selection
index in gladiolus were carried out at IIHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore. The range,
coefficient of variation, phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation,

heritability in broad sense and genetic advance as percentage of mean were all
high for three characters, namely, weight of cormels produced per corm, number
of cormels produced per corm and weight of corms produced. Thus, selection
based on these characters will be very effective for the improvement of the crop.
Spike length was significantly correlated in positive direction with rachis length,
number of florets per spike, weight and size of corms produced and breadth of
leaves. Number of florets per spike was positively correlated with rachis length,
floret size, weight and size of corms planted and weight of corms produced. Floret
size showed significant positive correlations with weight and size of corms
planted, whereas its association with days to flowering and number of corms
produced was significant and negative. Weight of corms produced had significant
positive association with breadth of leaves. Selection index studies revealed that
rachis length was the most important character to be used in selection.
CROP PRODUCTION
Manuring
In 2-year trials conducted at NBRI, Lucknow, plants of gladiolus cv.
‘Psittacinus hybrid’ were applied with urea (25-100 g/m2), P205 (100-300 g/m2)
and K:0 (100-300 g/m2) in various combinations. In general, NPK application
delayed spike emergence and number of buds per spike was not appreciably
affected by NPK. Flower spikes were tallest (126.5 cm) in plants which received
25 g urea + 100 g P205 + 100 g Ko/m2. Another experiment was conducted at this
Institute to find out the effect of nitrogen on the growth, flowering and corm/
cormel yield in cv ‘Psittacinus hybrid’. Potash at 200 kg/ha as KC1 and
phosphorus at 200 kg/ha as single superphosphate were given at the preparatory
stage. Nitrogen at 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg/ha was used. Half of the nitrogen
doses were applied initially and the other half 30 days after planting.
The results indicated that N alone has not shown significantly better
results as compared to control in its immediate growth, flowering and
corm/cormel yield. There was increased nitrogen uptake under enhanced
nitrogen application, 200 kg/ha being most effective. It was suggested
that enhanced nitrogen is stored up in the corms for use in the subsequent
generation.
In studies with gladiolus cv ‘Friendship’ at IIHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore,
plants with pinched and non-pinched flower spikes were given a basal dressing
of 2 kg FYM/m2 + 4 g P205 and 6 g K20 per plant + N at 5, 10,
15 or 20 g/m2. Average corm and cormel weight rose with increasing N
rates in both pinched and non-pinched treatments, but was greater in pinched
treatment. The average number of cormels per plant was 59.31 in pinched
GLADIOLUS 95
treatment at 5 g N/m2 followed by 59.01 in non-pinched treatment at

10 g N/m2. The lowest figure (43.21) was obtained in pinched treatment
at 15 g N/m2. The heaviest (61.03 g) corms were produced with 20 g N/m'
in pinched treatment. The number of cormels produced per plant was not
significantly affected by N or pinching treatments.
At Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, plants of cv ‘Friendship’ were
top-dressed with 5 levels of N (0, 10, 15, 20 and 25 g/m), 3 levels
of P (0,15 and 30 g/m2) and 3 levels of K (0, 15 and 30 g/m2). Increasing
levels of N advanced the time of flowering and greatly increased flower
spike length, corm weight and size and number of cormels per plant. The
maximum number of florets per spike and the largest flowers were obtained
with 20 g N/m2. The application of P and K and rising levels of each
element tended to improve the flower spike quality, corm growth and cormel
production. First and/or second order interactions were found between
floret number per spike, flower diameter, corm weight and corm size.
It was reported from BCKW, Kalyani, West Bengal, that the application
of nitrogen at the rate of 50 g/m2 along with phosphorus at 10 g/m2
and potash at 20 g/m2 gave the highest yield of flowers and corms in
gladiolus cv ‘Oscar’.
Nutritional and plant population studies conducted at Marathwada
Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra, on cv ‘H.B. Pitt’, showed that
the height of plant increased by 50 kg N, 50 kg P205 and 50 kg K20/ha.
The positive effect of N was enhanced in the presence of P. Comparative
response of N was greater at 30 cm x 30 cm. Positive significant influence
was exerted by 50 kg N/ha and 30 cm x 45 cm spacing on leaf breadth and stem
size. A dose of 100 kg N + 50 kg K20/ha produced significantly more
number of cormels per plant and hectare basis. The number of florets and
the length of spike increased with increasing N from 0 to 100 kg/ha.
A dose of 50 kg P205 was also superior to control. The response of
N accentuated at the wider spacing and by the application of P and K.
The number of corms per plant increased by the application of N and K
and the wider spacing. Number of corms per hectare increased by N and
K application and closer spacing (30 cm x30 cm). Interaction of NxP, was
consistent with regard to corm number per hectare. The effect of P was
seen through the interaction with N or K or N and K both. The optimum
levels of fertilizer and spacing based on the results of this experiment
were 100 kg N, 50 kg P205 and 50 kg K20/ha and 30 cm x 30 cm spacing.
Effect of Time of Planting, Depth of Planting, Spacing and Pinching on Production of

Flowers and Corms
At 1IHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, effect of planting time on growth,
flowering and corm production was studied in gladiolus cv ‘Friendship’.

Planting in June, October and November proved to be the best so far as
quality (length of rachis and spike and number and size of florets) of
flower was concerned. Planting from December to February also appeared
to be good for flower production. Planting during August, September, March
and April did not appear to be very congenial for production of flowers.
Maximum number of cormels were obtained from planting in June followed by
February, April and May plantings. Corms planted in June took minimum
number of days (61.70), while those planted in February took maximum number
of days (93.30) to flower. The results indicated that higher temperature
increased plant height and longer day-light hours delayed spike appearance ,
increased spike length and number of florets. Higher soil moisture content
increased spike length and floret number. In another experiment at this
Institute, effect of corm size, depth of planting and spacing on the production
of flowers and corms was studied in cv ‘Fr endship’. There were three
corm sizes (1.5-2.5 cm, 2.5-3.5 cm and 3.5-4.5 cm), three depths of planting
(3, 5 and 7 cm) and three spacings (15, 20 and 25 cm), It was observed
that larger corms increased the height of plants significantly. Increased
planting density resulted in shorter rachis with less number of small-sized
florets. In one case, wider spacing increased the duration of flowering
under field conditions. Shallow planting increased, while deep planting
reduced the number of cormels produced per plant. The interaction between
wider spacing and shallow planting produced significantly heavier cormels
as against deep planting. An experiment on the effect of removal of leaves,
flowers and rachis on the production of corms in cv ‘Friendship’ was
conducted at the above Institute. Flower spikes were removed at different
stages of opening either without leaves or along with two or four leaves.
In a couple of treatments, the rachis was retained after removal of florets
before opening or after half the florets were opened. It was observed that,
in general, the corm size and weight increased when the spikes were removed
before opening of the florets or after 2, 4 or half the number of florets
opened either singly or along with 2 leaves compared to control (where
the spike was retained) and when spike was cut after all the florets had
opened. The retaining of rachis but removal of florets adversely affected
the corm production. The spike removal treatment has no effect on the
cormel production.
At National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Regional Station, Phagli,
Shimla, the effect of different planting depths (4, 7 and 10 cm) on corm
and cormel production was studied in gladiolus cv ‘Sylvia’ and in a hybrid
(‘Sylvia’ x ‘Ratna’s Butterfly’). Both corm and cormel production appreciably
decreased with increased planting depth.
GLADIOLUS 97
At BSI, Calcutta, research was carried out on the effect of corm size,
planting depth and spacing on flowering and corm production in cv ‘Friendship’.
Corms of three sizes (2.5-3.5 cm, 4.0-5.0 cm and 5.5-6.5 cm) were planted
at three depths (5, 7 and 9 cm) and three spacings (15, 20 and 25 cm)
within the rows which were 20 cm apart. As corm size increased, so did
the flower spike length, floret number, floret diameter and the size and weight of
the corms lifted. A combination of shallow planting and medium corm size
resulted in the maximum cormel production. As planting depth increased, the
quality of flower spikes and daughter corms improved. Wide spacing was
associated with the best flowering, corm growth and cormel formation. First and/
or second order interactions were found for all characters except flower size.
Effect of planting time on flower and cormel production was studied at
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, in six cultivars of gladiolus.
Small, medium and large corms were planted in mid-August, mid-September and
mid-October. Large corms and early planting generally resulted in the earliest
colour break of the basal floret. Cormel production was highest from large- and
medium-sized corms planted in mid-October but great varietal differences were
observed, ‘King Lear’ being the most productive.
Studies were conducted in Alokudyog Farm, New Delhi, on the effect, of
removal of flower and foliage on the yield of corms and cormels in cv
‘Debonair’. Flower spikes alone or with leaves were removed at five growth
stages, viz. before flower opening or when 2, 4, 8 or all flowers were
open. Removal of spikes alone during the first three stages resulted in
increase of corm weight from 124 g in control to 145-151 g in treatments.
Removal of two leaves at these stages had an adverse effect on corm weight.
There was no effect of these treatments on the weight of corms produced
in the subsequent season. All treatments had an adverse effect on the
production of cormels, which was highest in the control (60/plant).
Effect of growth regulators

Investigations conducted at NBRI, Lucknow, indicated that IAA and IBA
concentrations of more than 50 ppm had a negative effect on corm sprouting
and survival in Gladiolus psittacinus. The best results with regard to sprouting
(100%), plant survival (100%), time taken to sprout (8.17 days), days to flowering
(92.85 days), duration of flowering (16.21 days), spike length (59.95 cm) and
number of florets per spike (14.6) were obtained with NAA at 50 ppm. Number of
cormels produced per plant (9.2-10.8) was highest in plants treated with NAA at
all concentrations (50, 100, 200 or 500 ppm).
At IIHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, corms of gladiolus cv ‘Friendship’
were soaked for 24 hours in ethrel solutions of 50, 100, 250, 500 or 1000
ppm. The results obtained showed that soaking of cormels with ethrel had
very little effect on growth and flowering. However, ethrel soaking slightly
reduced the length of flower stem, though the result was not significant
statistically. The yield and weight of cormels increased significantly as a result of
ethrel treatment.
Research was carried out at Panjab University, Chandigarh, to study
the effect of GA3 at different concentration (50, 100 or 200 ppm) in
cv ‘Sylvia’ on growth, flowering and production of corms and cormels.
It was found that spraying of GA3 increased plant height and number
of leaves and shoots per plant and improved spike quality (in terms of
number and size of florets). The number and quality of corms and cormels
produced were also enhanced by spraying. In most cases, 100 ppm applied
three times was the most effective spray treatment. The maximum number
of corms and cormels resulted from either a three-fold GA3 spray or
a preplanting dip at 100 ppm + spraying at 100 ppm at 30-day intervals.
Propagation in vitro
At PAU, Ludhiana, callus tissue cultures were established from excises
segments of the inflorescence, flower stalk, denuded flower bract, perianth
and leaf of two gladiolus cvs ‘Oscar’ and ‘Snow Princess’. The best callus
was obtained from segments of flower stalk cultured on a basal Murashige
and Skoog medium supplemented with NAA and Kinetin. The callus mostly
underwent rhizogenesis and occasionally differentiated some shoots. Complete
plants were regenerated from in v/Yro-cultured cormels, cormel tips and axillary
buds and six plants were formed from the segments of one cormel.
Dormancy
At IARI, Regional Station, Flowerdale, Shimla, an investigation was
conducted, wherein the tunics from the cormels of gladiolus cv ‘Little
Mexicana’ and two hybrids were either removed by hand or left intact to
study their effect on sprouting of cormels. Skinned cormels sprouted much
sooner and all of them sprouted. The average corm and cormel number per
plant, weight of fully developed corms and percentage of plants that flowered
were also higher in skinned cormels in comparison to cormels with intact
tunic.
In a similar experiment at BARC, Bombay, effect of descaling was studied
on the dormant corms of cv ‘Happy End’. Descaling helped in faster sprouting
than the controls. The mean time taken for the sprouting of descaled corms
was, in general, less than the time taken for the sprouting of controls.
It varied over 4-8 days between 25 and 100% sprouting. The plants from
descaled corms exhibited vigorous growth in terms of larger leaves. A
significant difference in the leaf number was observed at 10 weeks after
GLADIOLUS 99
planting. Descaling proved to be favourable for producing flowers earlier

as well as for availability of pickable spikes. Total flowering time (from
planting till the stage of availability of pickable spikes) was 107 days
in the case of descaled corms and 124 days in case of controls. In another
experiment conducted at this Centre, effect of 6-Benzyladenine (BA) and ethrel
on sprouting of cormels of gladiolus cv ‘Scarlet’ produced in summer
and the rainy season was studied. Concentrations of BA ranged from 10 to
5,000 ppm, while those of ethrel ranged from 100 to 10,000 ppm. Summer
crop cormels exhibited greater rest period than the rainy crop cormels.
While presoaking in BA could break the dormancy of cormels of both the
seasons, ethrel did so only on summer crop cormels. Also, the summer cormels
responded to treatments more favourably than the rainy crop cormels, BA
being always more effective than the ethrel.
In further investigation at this centre to find out the Benzyladenine-induced
physiological changes in gladiolus cormels during dormancy, dormant cormels of
gladiolus cv ‘Scarlet’ were descaled and soaked in 500 ppm solution for 30
minutes and were stored in moist sand. The cormels were taken out periodically
for various examinations till the stage of sprouting. Benzyladenine-induced
promotion of growth and release of dormancy of dormant buds was attributed to
an increase in amylase activity as also to a rise in starch breakdown, level of sugars
and consequently, respiratory activity.
At Horticultural Experiment and Training Centre, Chaubattia, Uttar Pradesh
freshly harvested corms of cv ‘Cremlin’ were treated with GA (100 or 200 ppm)
or Thiourea (500 or 1000 ppm) for 12 or 24 hours or the corms were chilled at 2° C
for 15, 30, 45 or 60 days. The best flowering (100%) was obtained after treatment
with Thiourea at 500 ppm for 24 hours followed by 95.6% with Thiourea at 1000
ppm for 12 hours. Flowering in control was 56.6%. Chilling treatments gave only
30-40% flowering.
At IIHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, 10 cytokinin-like substances termed
as X„ X2, X3, X4a, X4b, X5a, X5b, X6, X7 and X8 active in soybean hypocotyl
test were detected in corms of gladiolus cv ‘Friendship’. The factors X4a, X5a and
X6 were tentatively indentified as zeatin (Z), isopentenyl adenosine (iPA) and
isopentenyl adenine (iP), respectively based on their behaviour during
chromatographic analysis. Factor X3 which behaved like zeatin riboside (ZR) in
the above systems could be ZR and/or dihydrozeatin riboside (DHZR). The
behaviour in Sephadex and ion-exchange column chromatography suggested
that X, and X2 may be cytokinin glucosides and X8 a cytokinin nucleotide or a
cytokinin conjugate similar to lupinic acid. The total cytokinin content and the
concentration of Z, ZR/DHZR and iPA were higher in non-dormant than in
dormant corms. The concentrations of X, and X2 were higher in dormant corms
of gladiolus.
Weed Control
Trial conducted in gladiolus at IIHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, showed
that Basalin at 2.1 kg/ha was the safest and effective herbicide as far
as weed control and yield of spikes and corms were concerned. Yields were
lower under Lasso and Sencor treatments and the latter had visible phytotoxic
effects.
At Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra, it was
reported that Linuron at 1 kg/ha applied 24 days after planting gladiolus
corms on Vertisol during rainy season caused no injury to plants grown
for flower production. The treatment gave fairly good weed control and
did not appreciably affect most of the growth and flower attributes. It
increased leaf length and breadth and girth of the stem. The weeding operation
was difficult during rainy season and was also less economical than Linuron
application.
CROP PROTECTION
Diseases and Their Control

At the University of Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh the causal organism of
a dry rot of gladiolus corms was identified as Fusarium solani. Rotting
was reduced by treating the corms with 0.5% Flit-406, which was the most
effective of 14 fungicides tested on a laboratory scale. Low temperature
at storage and care in handling and harvesting were also recommended as
means of reducing the risk of infection.
IARI, New Delhi, recommended dipping of gladiolus corms in solution
of 0.05% of Aureofungin for one hour before planting for controlling the
rotting of corms. Two sprays of the antibiotic, one at six-leaf stage and another
20-30 days before lifting the corms from the ground when the foliage of plants is
still green, were also suggested.
NBRI, Lucknow, reported core rot caused by Penicillium funiculosum
and a storage rot caused by P. gladioli for the first time in India
in 1970. A soft rot disease caused by a bacterium Erwinia carotovora
(Jones) Holland was reported to cause rotting of corms in G. callianthus
from IARI, Regional Station, Flowerdale, Shimla, for the first time in
India in 1976. Two more diseases such as ‘Cork-screw’ and ‘Green-petal
stunt’ were reported to affect gladiolus from the same Research Station.
It was supposed that these two diseases may be due to ‘aster yellows’
which has been attributed as a cause of similar disease in the U.S.A.
and the U.K. In an experiment conducted at the above Research Station,
several fungicides were compared for control of Alternaria spp., Curvularia
trifolii and Septoria gladioli in gladiolus cv ‘Vink’s Glory’. The best control was
GLADIOLUS 101
obtained with Dithane M-45 (Monocozeb) and Miltox (Copper oxychloride +

Zineb) each at 0.2% sprayed at 2-week intervals from mid-June to October.
An outbreak of a new leaf-spot disease was observed in gladiolus cv
‘Sylvia’ for the first time in 1979 at C.S. Azad University of Agriculture
and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. The disease generally affected
the leaves at maturity. Initial symptoms appeard on leaf margins as irregular
to circular, dirty whitish lesions like a chemical incrustation which coalesced
and extended more towards midrib regions, later progressed from tip downwards
to cover entire lamina. Straw-coloured bands also appeared in between the
affected leaf area. Yellowing and twisting of the leaves and reduction in spike size
also occurred in severe infection of the disease. It was also observed serious as
root and neck rot on plants of gladiolus. The pathogen was identified as
Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn.
At IIHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, 41 gladiolus cultivars and 14 hybrids
were screened for resistance to wilt and cormel rot (Fusarium oxysporum
f. sp. gladioli Snyder & Hansen) by inoculating cormels. Two cultivars,
‘Australian Fair’ and ‘Mansoer’ were found to be tolerant.
Insects Pests and Their Control

Investigations conducted at Vegetable Research Station, Katrain, Himachal
Pradesh on the attraction of Thrips flavus to different colours in 22
cvs of gladiolus showed that bright red flowers were the most preferred
and white ones were the least.
In an experiment conducted at IARI, Regional Station, Flowerdale, Shimla,
for controlling cutworm (Agrotis segetum) in gladiolus, Methyl parathion
at 0.02% was found to be the most effective. Quinalphos at 0.038% was
almost as effective as Methyl parathion, but Chlordane at 0.07 or 0.14%
was less effective.
CROP UTILIZATION
Maturity Standard for Corms

Investigations were carried out at NBRI, Lucknow, on vegetative growth,
development and maturation of daughter corms of Gladiolus psittacinus
hybrid (carrot red). It was concluded that these processes including maturation of
daughter corms and cormels get completed 90 days after blooming under sub¬
tropical conditions.
Vase Life
Studies conducted at IIHR, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, indicated that
aluminium sulphate at 0.1% was an adequate substitute for 8-hydroxyquinoline
in prolonging the vase life of gladiolus.
Experiments conducted at BCKW, Kalyani, West Bengal, showed that vase

life of cut flowers of gladiolus cvTsittacinus hybrid’ can be increased by use of
growth substances like MH, CCC and B-nine. It was reported that vase life was
significantly increased by MH at 150 and 300 mg/litre and B-nine at 150 and 600
mg/litre concentrations. CCC proved to be less effective than other two
chemicals. The chemicals also improved the lustre of the individual flowers.
At Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra, gladiolus
cv ‘H.P. Pitt’ was grown in plots receiving different NPK conditions.
The cut spikes were placed for 10 days in water or in a preservative solution
containing 6% sucrose + 650 ppm A12(S04)3 + 50 ppm AgN03. Vase life
was longest in spikes from plots receiving N at 100 kg/ha, but no P and
K, and held in the preservative solution.
Post-harvest Studies on Bud Opening
In an investigation carried out at Delhi University, Delhi, gladiolus

spikes harvested at green-bud stage were placed in solutions of GA (10"4M
or 10~5M) or sucrose either alone or together or in water (control),
with illumination for 14 hr/day (set A) or they were kept in cardboard
boxes in the dark at 4° or 20°C (sets B and C, respectively) for one
week before being transferred to similar test solutions at 20°C. Flowers
in set A had the highest percentage of open flowers, assessed after 15
days, varying from 58% for control to 84% for sucrose + GA (10_4M) treatment.
Flowers in set B given this treatment also had 84% open flowers, but other
treatments were less effective than their counterparts in set A. Flowers
in set C were already about 33% open when transferred to test solutions
and treatment effects, assessed after only 10 days, differed little from
controls (49% open). In second experiment at Delhi University, a critical
stage in flower bud growth in the spikes of G. natalensis, initiated by GA3 and
sustained by sucrose, was identified. It corresponded to the stage at which the
separation of outer bract occurred. In buds at different developmental stages,
isolated and held in water, it was the same bud stage that first showed increased
growth, irrespective of treatment. Buds not induced by light responded more
significantly to GA3 and sucrose than those induced by light. Since the separation
of outer bracts resulted in light-induced amylase production and starch hydrolysis
leading to petal growth, it is proposed that growth promotion by GA? is related to
light-induced petal growth at this specific stage. In third experiment at the above
University, it was observed that in the tight-bud spikes of gladiolus,
the buds were nearly twice as heavy as younger green-bud spikes and had
higher sugar and starch contents. About 50% of the flower buds opened
in the green-bud spikes held in water compared with 67.5% in the tight-bud
spikes. The flowers from the green-bud spikes were smaller and less intensely
GLADIOLUS 103
coloured. When green-bud spikes were held continuously in sucrose (0.5
M), 75.3% of the buds opened. The peduncle did not elongate between the
green-bud and the tight-bud stages, but the flowering axis elongated,
so that the spikes of desired length could be harvested. A sucrose + GA
treatment produced a spike length comparable to that obtained in the field.
Storage of spikes in cardboard containers for 24 hours followed by transfer
to water markedly increased fresh weight. An after-storage treatment with
sucrose for 48 hours followed by transfer to water induced nearly 75%
of buds on the green-bud spikes to open.
8
Bougainvillea
Brijendra Singh and N.K. Dadlani

Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi
W ITH its spectacular mass of brightly coloured bracts, the Bougainvillea is

unrivalled both in beauty and utility, particularly in the gardens of tropics
and sub-tropics. A native of South America, Bougainvillea was discovered in 18th
Century by the French botanist Commerson, at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, who
named it after Louis Antoine de Bougainville, the French navigator, with whom
he went on a voyage round the world during 1766-1769. It was first introduced
into Europe from its home in South America, during the 19th century and from
Europe it moved subsequently into tropical Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand
and other countries. According to Holttum (1970), the species Bougainvillea
spectabilis, was the first to be introduced in Europe, in 1829. In India also, B.
spectabilis was the first species to be introduced, coming from Europe
in 1860. Later, two more species B. glabra and B. peruviana were reported
to have been introduced into Europe and other countries. In India, two
cultivars of B. peruviana were reported to be grown by the Agri-Horticultural
Society, Madras, in 1935.
CROP IMPROVEMENT
Bougainvillea, belonging to the family Nyctaginaceae, has ten species

(Heimerl, 1900), but only three species B. spectabilis, B. glabra and B. peruviana
are of horticultural importance. Holttum (1970) in his comprehensive account of
bougainvilleas has described four species. In addition to B. spectabilis, B. glabra
and B. peruviana, he has described B. x buttiana, which he considered to be a
natural hybrid between B. peruviana and B. glabra. It was first recorded at
Trinidad in 1910, named ‘Mrs Butt’, after Mrs R.V. Butt, who first collected it
from Colombia. However, Holttum (1970) recognised only three species and
considered ‘Mrs Butt’ (B. x buttiana), a variety developed as an interspecific
hybrid. He has listed several cultivars under another interspecific hybrid
104
BOUGAINVILLEA 105
‘Spectoglabra’ (B. spectabilis x B. glabra). Most of the garden cultivars of

bougainvilleas have arisen by hybridization and mutation among the three basic
species mentioned above.
Bougainvilleas are among the most floriferous shrubs of the tropics,
producing beautiful colour effects which can hardly be excelled by any
other plant. These are easy to grow, hardy often scandent shrubs. In the
recent years these have become one of the most popular garden plants all
over the world.
In India, the Bougainvillea improvement work started in the early 20th
century, with the introduction of a few varieties by the Agri-Horticultural
Societies at Calcutta and Madras. ‘Scarlet Queen’, named by Sir Percy Lancaster
in 1920, is probably the first Bougainvillea raised in India. This was
from the population of a variety similar to ‘Mrs Butt’, received from
the West Indies. A large number of varieties have since been developed
and released in our country, mainly by private nurserymen. The nurseries
which have been credited with the release of varieties include K.S.
Gopalaswamiengar Son, Bangalore, Soundarya Nursery, Madras; Chandra
Nursery, Sikkim and Palekar & Co., Bombay. In addition to Sir Percy Lancaster,
who has been the pioneer in the development of bougainvilleas in this country,
others who have made significant contributions in this field include K.S.
Gopalaswamiengar, P.S. Swaminathan, B.S. Nirody, B. Rama Rao, B.P. Pal, M.H.
Marigowda. Bougainvillea improvement on scientific lines has however been
done at a very few scientific institutions in our country in the last two decades
or so. Dr B.P. Pal, the then Director of the IARI, New Delhi, initiated
some work and developed 4 varieties in 1959. The NBRI (formerly National
Botanic Gardens), Lucknow, also took up work on bougainvilleas around the
same time, largely at the initiative of Sir Percy Lancaster. Later, some very good
work was done at this Institute by T.N. Khoshoo and his associates and as a result
a few really promising varieties have been developed.
As mentioned earlier, most of the garden cultivars of bougainvilleas have
been developed from the 3 basal species B. spectabilis, B. glabra and B.
peruviana and also from B. x buttiana. While the species and their cultivars
can be distinguished by their growing habit, shape and size of the leaf, the surface
of leaf, the colour, size and shape of bracts, the shape of flower tube and its
surface, the size and shape of the hairs on the flower tube, the presence or
absence of the star, its colour and size and the flowering habit, the nomenclature
of cultivars has always been very confusing. Various workers have developed keys
based on different characters for the identification of the cultivars. Bor and
Raizada (1954), among the Indian workers, based their classification on the hairs
on the plants, the tips of the bracts, and the colour of the bracts.
Swarup and Singh (1964) observed that pollen grains of different species
differed in the shape of apex of brochi besides showing difference in pollen size
and number and size of brochi. Further, they also observed the length and
density of the leaf hairs and the latter characteristic was found to be more helpful
than the former in the identification of different species. Although they recorded
the length and density of hairs on mid-rib, veins and lamina, the differences were
found pronounced on the mid-rib. The tips of brochi were acute in B. x buttiana,
round in B. peruviana and almost intermediate in B. spectabilis, whereas
B. glabra was characterized by its prominent thick ring around the exine
of the pollen grain. In B. x buttiana, the flower tube is constricted
in the middle, but was sparsely hairy. It also had malformed flowers with
no star and exserted stamens in some cultivars. Its bracts change their
colour from light shades when young to dark shades when old, unlike the
other species, in which it is the reverse. Besides, the tips of brochi
of pollen grains were characteristically acute. All these characters lend
support to the suggestion that B. x buttiana be considered a natural
hybrid of B. peruviana with B. glabra. Nair (1965) also suggested pollen
morphology to be a more stable character for the identification of species and
cultivars. He reported difference in the size and number of brochi in pollen grains
of different cultivars.
Although during the short period of its popularity, a wide array of hybrids
and bud sports have appeared from the 3 elemental species (B. glabra,
B. peruviana and B. spectabilis), much more remains to be achieved.
Outside the humid tropics, progress in any comprehensive breeding programme
is hampered by the extensive pollen and seed sterility. It is, therefore,
essential that we have a complete knowledge of the genetic system of the
crop. This kind of study, besides giving us a correct assessment of the
extent and nature of the sterility, may help us in finding ways of its
rectification by genetic means. Normally, sexual sterility resulting from
genic, structural, segregational and environmental causes does not affect
the survival potential of bougainvilleas, because of clonal multiplication.
But, for effecting any genetic improvement, restoration of the fertility
may become imperative (Zadoo and Khoshoo, 1968).
Ninan et al. (1958) studied the meiotic behaviour, pollen fertility,
and pollen size in some Bougainvillea cultivars. They concluded that high
pollen sterility in many varieties was due to irregular meiosis and particularly
due to a high frequency of univalents. Non-functionability of stainable
pollen and the sterility of ovules could be the reason for lack of seed
setting. They opined that the Bougainvillea species with 2n=34 may comprise
two genomes with different time cycles of meiotic division. Zadoo and
Khoshoo (1968) observed a case of interchange heterozygosity in a cultivar
of B. peruviana, in which there was regular formation of 15 bivalents
BOUGAINVILLEA 107
and an interchange multiple of 4 chromosomes. The multiple was always

associated with the nucleolus at diakinesis, indicating that one of the
chromosomes involved was nucleolar. The nucleolar pair of chromosomes
were slightly heteromorphic which may be due to an unequal interchange.
Although 80% of interchange multiples orientate non-disjunctionally, yet
65% pollen was stainable. The pollen was ineffective in self-pollination
but highly effective in crosses with 2x and 3x cultivars of B. spectabilis.
The higher pollen stainability indicated that the deficiencies and duplications
caused by non-disjunction do not have serious physiological effects on
pollen grains and that its genome can withstand rearrangements.
Khoshoo and Zadoo (1969) in their study of 60 cultivars of Bougainvillea
found 58 to be diploid (2n=34) and 2 (‘Perfection’ and ‘Poultonii Special’)
triploid (2n=51). While 10 cultivars had pollen stainability ranging from 50 to
90%, with 7 having 50 to 80% ovule fertility, all the cultivars were self-sterile. This
imposed considerable restrictions in the choice of parents by excluding cultivars
that may be sterile, but otherwise may possess useful characters. To have a broad-
based germplasm, they felt some method should be evolved for restoring pollen
or seed fertility or both. They induced tetraploidy (2n=68) in three totally male
and female sterile cultivars. Extensive intercrossing programme involving these
induced tetraploid with diploid and triploid parents resulted in 40-100 % seed
set. Although fully fertile pollen, all the induced-tetraploid cultivars nevertheless
remained self sterile indicating thereby a sporophytic control of incompatibility
associated with trinucleate pollen and simultaneous cytokinesis. It was apparent
from the breeding behaviour of induced tetraploids that they not only have nearly
normal male fertility, but, also a high degree of female fertility. This indicates that
total sterility in diploids was a result of recombination between homologous
chromosomes or segregational hybrid sterlity. In addition to identifying the
nature of sterility, which is a serious obstacle in Bougainvillea breeders, and
establishing a method for overcoming its genetic deficiencies; these results
permitted incorporation of a good deal of germplasm into the breeding
programme previously out of reach of the Bougainvillea breeders.
The work of Khoshoo and Zadoo in the 1969 gave us new perspectives in
Bougainvillea breeding. Khoshoo and his co-workers were able to develop several
new varieties with this new technique. But if one looks at the gamut of new
cultivars developed all over the world, it is evident that most of the cultivars have
arisen as a natural bud sport or mutation. This aspect, indicated the possibilities
of inducing mutations to obtain new cultivars. Gupta and his co-workers initiated
the work on artificial induction of mutations at the NBRI, Lucknow. They
observed that effects of different doses of gamma-rays on cuttings of
bougainvilleas varied with the cultivars. This indicated that the bougainvilleas
were very sensitive to radiation. Abraham and Desai (1977) also reported
bougainvilleas in general to be sensitive to low doses of radiations and observed

that with acute doses of X-rays and gamma-rays, it could not withstand doses
beyond 2 Kr administered to fresh cuttings. With chronic gamma-ray doses, there
was no survival beyond 5 Kr. It was therefore found suitable to administer
recurring low doses of radiations to increase surviving populations and to induce
mutations.
At the NBRI, Lucknow, with variety ‘Partha’ in a plant irradiated with 250
rads of gamma-rays, a mutant with variegated leaves was isolated. This branch
multiplied by layering gave the new variety ‘Arjuna’ (Gupta, 1979). Abraham and
Desai (1977) also observed, the cultivar ‘Jayalakshmi’ on exposure to gamma-
radiation developed a branch with variegated leaves. They isolated this mutant
and multiplied it by vegetative means. This mutant was less vigorous in growth
and was late-flowering compared to control, probably because of the reduced
chlorophyll content in leaves. Some of the other mutants developed by them are
‘Jaya’, ‘Lady Hudson of Ceylone Variegata’ and ‘Silver Top’.
It must be mentioned that in addition to the work done at the NBRI,
Lucknow, the IIHR, Bangalore, also took up systematic work on Bougainvillea
breeding. They have carried out planned research programme on the
improvement of this crop. By rigorous selection, much improvement has been
carried out in this crop. Thereafter, 6 promising cultivars have been developed
and released.
PROPAGATION
Besides, the crop improvement in bougainvillea the other aspect which has
attracted lot of interest among the research workers has been propagation. The
Bougainvillea is propagated by cuttings, layerings, gooties (air-layering) and
budding. Bougainvillea can also be grown from seeds for obtaining new varieties.
However, all varieties do not produce seeds. On the contrary, ‘Formosa’ and
‘Trinidad’ set seeds profusely. The climate also affects the seed-set. In India, seed¬
setting is better in Bangalore than in Delhi. The method to be employed for
propagation would largely depend on the variety. While a large number of
varieties could be easily multiplied by cuttings, there are also varieties like
‘Thimma’ and ‘Bois-de-Rose’, which are difficult to root and one has to resort to
budding or layering for their multiplication.
Misra (1971) observed varietal differences in their response to seradix
treatment in rooting and survival. They reported profuse rooting and maximum
survival in ‘Blondie’, ‘Elizabeth’, ‘Pixi’, ‘Rosa Catalina’ and ‘Sundari’. Mishra and
Singh (1984) observed that varietal differences and weather conditions
affected rooting in Bougainvillea cuttings. They also observed that varieties
of B. glabra and B. x buttiana rooted better than those of B. spectabilis and B.
BOUGAINVILLEA 109
peruviana. In ‘Mahara’, Yadav et al. (1978) observed that cuttings planted in the
middle of August performed better in terms of percentage of cuttings rooted,
average root number per cutting, and average root length. Several research
workers used growth regulators to induce rooting of cuttings. Singh and Rathore
(1977) used softwood, semi-hardwood and hardwood cuttings treated with IBA at
1000 ppm and planted in the open sunlight and partial shaded polythene tents.
While all the softwood cuttings rooted, their survival percentage was low
compared with the hardwood cuttings. No cutting planted in the open sunlight
rooted, whereas 91% rooted when planted in shade. Bhattachaijee and
Balakrishna (1983) observed that 15-20 cm long cuttings with 3-5 leaves treated
with 4000 ppm NAA or 4000 and 6000 ppm IBA gave 80% rooting and 100%
survival. Apical cuttings had better rooting and survival percentage as compared
to basal or middle cuttings. However, the rooting percentage of cuttings treated
with 4000 ppm IBA was highest in sand followed by vermiculite.
Gandotra et al. (1975), Philip and Gopalakrishnan (1981, 1982) and
Bhattachaijee and Balakrishnan (1983) also observed significantly better
rooting with IBA 6000 ppm (4000 ppm, Bhattacharjee and Balakrishnan, 1983).
Shield buds prepared from dethorned shoots, when the thorns were young
and tender, gave better budding success (Nair, 1972). February was the
best month for rooting and survival of cuttings propagated under intermittent
mist (Singh and Motial, 1979). IBA 3000 ppm was more effective than NAA.
Singh et al. (1976) were able to induce rooting in difFicult-to-root ‘Mary Palmer’
and “Bois-de-Rose’, by growing them under bottom heat after treating them with
5000 ppm IBA.
Plant regeneration from cultures of meristem and tissue has special
significance in Bougainvillea because of the fair incidence of bud sports in this
plant (Zadoo et al., 1975) and new cultivars can be created in a short time
by isolating the mutated tissue and organ and regenerating the whole plants
from it. Chaturvedi (1979) reported fast proliferation of shoot apices of B. glabra
‘Magnifica’ in a combination of BAP and IAA. The isolated shoots were rooted
resulting in the formation of complete plants which were successfully grown in
soil. Several shoots were repeatedly obtained from a single culture effecting rapid
clonal propagation. These in v/tro-raised plants produced true-to-type flower
under field conditions. Even in case of‘Scarlet Queen Variegated’, a difficult-to-
root cultivar, nearly 100% rooting of shoots was obtained in vitro (Chaturvedi,
1979).
BASIC STUDIES
A few basic studies have also been attempted on the use of growth regulators
and other chemicals with Bougainvillea. Hove and Bose (1970) observed
growth retardation with Cycocel B-9 and Phosfon on 5 Bougainvillea cultivars.

Maximum growth retardation was recorded with 8000 ppm Cycocel. Application
of 4000 ppm Cycocel increased the number of flowers and bracts. Rao
and Mallikarjuna (1978) observed that when leaf discs of B. spectabilis
were soaked in 10 ppm pantothenic acid, the rate of chlorophyll breakdown had
decreased. Misra and Pradhan (1982) also floated leaves of B. spectabilis
on solutions containing sodium chloride, calcium chloride, gibberellic acid,
kinetin and benzimidazole at various concentrations and found that
benzimidazole at 10“5 M advanced senescence by 5 days. Kochhar and Ohri
(1977) and Kochhar et al. (1979) conducted biochemical analysis of the bracts of
bougainvilleas and resolved the pigments constituting the magenta colour. Ohri
and Khoshoo (1982) studied the DNA content of the three basal Bougainvillea
species.
Flowering was induced in the in vitro-grown shoot apices of B. glabra
and B. x buttiana, taken from non-induced plants, under non-inductive
photoperiods. The flowers were normal and had the mother-type bract colour.
These results have both fundamental and applied significance that besides
helping in enumerating the biochemical nature of the so-called ‘florigens’,
which is not yet known, they may also help in speeding up the selection
process of desirable new cultivars (Chaturvedi, 1979).
Bougainvillea has been used as the material for several other studies
conducted at different laboratories in India and some useful results of
basic nature obtained. Some of these could form the basis for further
experimentation and could be used in future planning of Bougainvillea
research in India.
CULTURAL ASPECTS
From the preceding account, it is evident that Bougainvillea has received

the attentions of research workers in India, mainly for crop improvement
and some work on propagation has a!so been attempted. The cultural aspects
have not been touched at all. The main reason for this is that no problems
of serious nature in Bougainvillea culture have been reported. It is a
very easy-to-grow plant and hardly needs any special care. A bit of watering
initially for establishment and natural sunshine are all the inputs required
for its successful growing. It grows in any kind of soil and in fact thrives
well in drier regions and on rocky terrain. As mentioned earlier, it is one of the
very versatile plants and could be put to various uses in the garden. It could be
grown as a pot plant, as a bush specimen, an impenetrable hedge, a standard, a
ground cover, or trained up a tree. The improvement work done in India has
yielded a large number of improved varieties suited for different purposes. Out of
BOUGAINVILLEA 111
more than 150 cultivars developed in our country, some of the popular and
promising are ‘Begum Sikander’, ‘Chitra’, ‘Dr H.B. Singh’, ‘Dr R.R. Pal’, ‘Enid
Lancaster’, ‘Happiness’, ‘Jawahar Lai Nehru’, ‘Jayalakshmi’, ‘KrumbiegaP,
‘Lalbagh’, ‘Lord Willingdon’, ‘Louise Wathen’, ‘Maharaja of Mysore’, ‘Mahatma
Gandhi’, ‘Manohar Chandra’, ‘Mary Palmer’, ‘Mary Palmer Special’, ‘Meera’,
‘Munivenkatappa’, ‘Partha’, ‘Princess Margaret Rose’, ‘Purple Gem’,‘Purple
Queen’, ‘Rao’, ‘Rosea Luchsea’, ‘Sensation’, ‘Shubhra’, ‘Sonnet’, ‘Spring
Festival’, ‘Srinivasa’, ‘Stanza’, ‘Summer Time’, ‘Thimma’, ‘Vellayani’ and
‘Zakeriana’.
As mentioned in the earlier part of this paper, it is recognised that the work
on development aspect in this crop has largely been done by the Agri-
Horticultural Societies at Calcutta and Madras. The Lai Bagh Garden at
Bangalore also contributed a great deal by introducing a large number of exotic
cultivars, particularly the multibracted varieties from the Philippines.
BOUGAINVILLEA PROMOTION
The IARI, New Delhi, was designated as the International Registration

Authority for Bougainvillea Cultivars by the International Society for
Horticultural Science, and it has compiled a check-list of more than 300 varieties
developed all over the world. This check-list is a very useful document for
reference purposes, giving authentic descriptions of the varieties. In 1973, the
Bougainvillea Society of India was formed with the main objective of inculcating
among people a love for this colourful plant. The Society through the organization
of an annual Bougainvillea Festival at Delhi has also done a yeoman service by
bringing to the notice of the public the large wealth of varieties available in this
plant.
REFERENCES
Abraham, V. and Desai, B.M. 1977. Curr. Sci. 46 : 351.

Bhattacharjee, S.K. and Balakrishnan, M.B. 1983. Haryana J. hort. Sci. 12 : 7.
Bhattacharjee, S.K. and Balakrishnan, M.B. 1983. Haryana J. hort. Sci. 12 : 13.
Bor, N.L. and Raizada, M.B. 1954. Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. 286 pp. The Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.
Chaturvedi, H.C. 1979. In Progress in Plant Research, NBRI Silver Jubilee Publication. Vol. I: 265. Today &
Tomorrow . Printers & Publishers, New Delhi.
Choudhury, B. and Singh, B. 1981. International Bougainvillea Checklist. IARI, New Delhi.
Dadlani, N.K. and Singh, B. 1985. Newsl. Bougainvillea Soc. India 5(1) : 7.
Gandotra, J.K., Nair, P.K.R. and Dubey, K.C. 1975. Punjab Hort. J. 15 : 71.
Gupta, M.N. 1979. In Progress in Plant Research, NBRI, Silver Jubilee Publication. Vol. II : 75. Today &
Tomorrow Printers & Publishers, New Delhi.
Heimerl, A. 1900. Classe 70 : 97.
Holttum, R.E. 1970. Bougainvillea. In Edwin A. Manninger's Flowering Vines of the World: An Encyclopedia of
Climbing Plants, pp. 233-45, Hearthside Press Inc. Publ. New York.
Hore, B.K. and Bose, T.K. 1970. PI. Sci. 2 : 112.
Kochhar, V.K., Kochhar, S. and Ohri, D. 1979. Curr. Sci. 48 : 163.
Kochhar, V.K.. and Ohri, D. 1977. Z. Pflzucht. 79 : 47.
Khoshoo, T.N. and Zadoo, S.N. 1969. J. Hered. 60 : 357.
Mishra, H.P. and Singh,K.P. 1984. S. Indian Hort. 32 : 113.
Misra, A.K. 1971. Indian J. Hort. 28 : 68.
Misra, G. and Pradhan, R. 1962. Sci. Cult. 48 : 243.
Nari, P.K.K. 1965. Indian Agric. 9 : 53.
Nair, P.K.K. 1972. JNKW Res. J. 6 : 169.
Ninan, T., Singh. M.P. and Swaminathan, M.S. 1959. J. Indian bot. Soc. 38 : 140.
Ohri, D. and Khoshoo, T.N. 1982. Z. Pflzucht. 88 : 168.
Pal, B.P. and Swarup, V. 1974. Bougainvilleas. ICAR, New Delhi.
Philip, J. and Gopalakrishnan, P.K. 1981. S. Indian Hort. 29 : 164
Philip, J. and Gopalakrishnan, P.K. 1982. 5. Indian Hort. 30(1) : 56.
Rao, P.G. and Mallikarjuna, K. 1978. Curr. Sci. 47 : 686.
Singh, S.P. and Motial, V.S. 1979. PI. Sci. 11 : 53.
Singh, I.P. and Rathore, S.V.S. 1977. Haryana J. hort. Sci. 6 : 201.
Yadav, L.P., Bhattacharya, A.P. and Pandey, H.S. 1978. Progve Hort. 9(4): 72.
Zadoo, S.N. and Khoshoo, T.N. 1968. Genetica 39 : 353.
Zadoo, S.N.,Roy, R.P. and Khoshoo, T.N. 1975. Z. Pflzucht. 74 : 223.
9
Jasmine
S. Muthuswami and JBM. MD. Abdu! Khader

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
J ASMINE blossoms have been in use in India for ceremonial purposes

since time immemorial. The word Jasminum has been derived from the
Persian word ‘Jas-Minum’ meaning fragrance. The genus Jasminum belongs
to the olive family Oleaceae. It consists of about 90 species distributed
over Asia, Africa, Australia and Southern Europe. About 40 species are
reported to occur in India
The distribution pattern of as many as 72 of these in India, Malaysia
and China provides a strong basis to claim that Indi& may be one of the
principal centres of origin of Jasminum species. The reference to the
three cultivated species, viz. J. auriculatum, J. grandiflorum and J. sambac, in
ancient Tamil literature belonging to the Sangam Era prior to 500 B.c. suggests
that South India may possibly be the home of alteast some of these species.
IMPORTANCE AND USES
Jasmine is one of the oldest of fragrant flowers to be cultivated by

man. In India, the jasmine flowers and buds are used for preparing garlands,
bouquets and veni for religious offerings. In South India, large quantities
of jasmine flowers are used by women folk for adorning their hair. The
flowers are also used for the production of perfumed hair oils and attars
particularly in Uttar Pradesh. The world famous ‘jasmine oil’ is extracted
from the flowers of the Spanish jasmine (/. grandiflorum). The jasmine
oil is regarded as unique as it blends well with floral extracts and it
is highly valued throughout the world for producing high-grade perfumes.
The oil finds use in soap and cosmetic industries also.
In India, jasmine is cultivated throughout the country. Although correct
statistics of the area and production are not available, it is estimated
that it occupies an area of about 8,000 ha with an annual production of
flowers worth Rs 80-100 million. The country exports jasmine flowers
113
to the neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia and

of late to the Gulf countries. Although India has been cultivating jasmine
for the past several centuries, it does not currently figure in the jasmine
perfume trade of the world. In recent times, there is a growing market
for spirituous perfumes and colognes particularly in countries like Japan,
the UK, the USA, the USSR, Scandinavia, East Europe, etc. India lost its
leading position as a perfume country because of its countinued reliance
on attars and non-spirituous perfumes of the traditional type. It is thus obvious
that there is a good scope for large-scale development of spirituous perfumes
based on jasmines for export purposes.
SPECIES OF JASMINUM
J. auriculatum, J. grandiflorum and J. sambac are the three commercially

important Jasminum spp. of India.
In case of J. auriculatum Vahl. (Juhi, mugohee, sunika, oosi mallige,
pindari, kadaru mallige) flowers are white, sweet-scented, and are used
for production of perfumed oil and attar.
J. grandiflorum L. [Syn. J. officinale f grandiflorum] (common jasmine
or Spanish jasmine, chameli, jathimalli, safed chambeli) bears flowers which are
white often tinged with purple on the outside; delightfully fragrant and are used
in making garlands, decorative bunches and veni. Small quantity is used for
preparation of hair oil and attar. Presently jasmine concrete is extracted from the
flowers of this species only. This species is cultivated in Tamil Nadu and Uttar
Pradesh.
In J. sambac (L) Ait. (Arabian jasmine or Tuscan jasmine; moghra,
champa, motia, malli, mogri, adukkumalligai and gundumalligai) flower buds are
white, with single or multiwhorled petals; widely used in making garlands,
bouquets, in religious offerings, extraction of perfume (otto) and in cosmetic
industry.
In J. arborescens L. (muta bela, naba malliga), flowers are white,
very fragrant. This is grown in West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.
J. calophyllum Vahl. {pandal malli) is a profuse-flowering species generally
grown in home garden with staking flowers which are scented, white, produced
practically round the year and are free from pest-and-disease attack.
J. flexile Vahl. [Syn. J. caudatum Wall.] (malati, nitya mallige) is a profuse¬
flowering species grown widely in home compounds for its scented flowers. It
bears flowers practically throughout the year and is free from insect pests.
J. humile L. [Syn. J. bignoniaceum] (Yellow jasmine, semmalligai,
pellichambeli) bears flowers which are yellow, fragrant, and are used in
perfumery.
JASMINE 115
J. pubescens Willd. [Syn. J. multiflorum Burm. f.] (kunda, kundo).

Its plants are very ornamental, flowers are slightly fragrant and white
and flower throughout the year with a peak in winter. This is popularly
grown in north India since its performance is better in cool climate.
VARIETAL SITUATION
Research efforts to catalogue the existing variability in jasmines for

evolving superior forms for fresh flower use and for essential oil extraction
were made by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. Raman (1955) attempted
a classificat on of existing varieties under J. sambac primarily based on number
of whorls of corolla and leaf characters. Fifteen distinct morphological
variants showing differences in floral characters like length of pedicel,
corolla tube length, and shape of flower bud were identified. Of these,
cultivars ‘Madanban’, ‘Gundumalli’ and ‘Ramabanam’ were adjudged superior
in y eld. In J. auriculatum five morophological variants differing chiefly
in the flower bud characters were identified and named as ‘Long Point’, ‘Long
Round’, ‘Medium Point’, ‘Short Point’ and ‘Short Round’. These clones exhibited
differences in their degree of susceptibility to the common gall-mite pest and one
clone, viz. ‘Medium Point’, was found to be highly resistant to this pest. Besides
the above characters, these clones showed variations in diameter of open flower,
weight of flower bud, corolla tube length, fruit-set and heterostyly. Such variants
might have arisen as a result of chance hybridization in nature or occurrence of
bud sports as controlled crossings resulted in failure. According to Chandra
(1982) the varieties ‘Palampur’, ‘Madanban’, ‘Mogra’ and ‘Motia’ are double-
flowered.
In J. grandiflorum six distinct variants differing in floral characters
and ploidy level were catalogued. Of these five have pink-tinged buds
while the sixth is whitish. One of the ‘pinks’ proved to be triploid
(2n = 39) (Fig. 1) and the rest diploids (2n = 26) (Fig. 2). The triploid
was found to be exceedingly sterile.
CROP IMPROVEMENT
Introduction, clonal selection, half-sib evaluation, hybridization,

mutagenesis and ploidy breeding were attempted for identifying or evolving
superior forms in respect of flower bud characters, yield, quality of fresh flower
and essential oil content in the commercial jasmines.
Introduction and clonal selection. The pioneering work carried out
by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University showed that in J. grandiflorum,
Lig. 1. Jasminum grandiflorum (triploid).
Eig. 2. Jasminum grandiflorum (diploid).

JASMINE 117
the clones from different states in the country showed considerable variations
in respect of flower production as well as yield of jasmine concrete.
The mean flower bud yield of the six clones varied from 4,329 kg/ha to
10,144 kg/ha while that of jasmine concrete showed a range of 13.85 kg/ha
to 29.42 kg/ha (Veluswamy, 1980). This led to the release of an improved
variety named ‘Co 1 Pitchi’ (J. grandiflorum) with an yield of 10.15 t/ha of flower
buds with a concrete recovery of 29.5 kg/ha. The colour of flower bud is pink and
attractive with pleasant fragrance suitable both for fresh flower trade and oil
extraction. Similar work carried out in /. auriculatum led to the identification of a
high-yielding gall mite-resistant clone ‘Parimullai’, which was released by the
TNAU in 1971 for cultivation by growers. The clone is characterised by a long
flowering season of nine months and a mean flower bud yield of 10 t/ha
(Madhava Rao and Muthuswami, 1972). The selection nevertheless suffers from
undesirable corolla tube length. Later a secondary selection, viz. ‘Long Round’,
was found more prolific in yield and possessed larger corolla tube as well as bud
length and this was released as ‘Co 1 Mullai’. This is capable of yielding 8,800 kg/
ha with good consumers’ perference. Valuswamy (1981) found clones of J.
grandiflorum superior to J. auriculatum in flower bud yield, though in jasmine
concrete recovery J. auriculatum was better with 344 mg/100 g as against 288
mg/100 g in the former.
Hybridization. Interspecific hybridization involving J. auriculatum, J.
grandiflorum, J. flexile, J. calophyllum and J. sambac attempted in the past have
shown that the success was very low ranging from 0.5 to 5%. The seeds of direct as
well as reciprocal crosses failed to germinate. However, a success of 3-16% was
recorded when an induced tetraploid of J. auriculatum was used as female and J.
grandiflorum, J. angustifolium, J. flexile and J. calophyllum as donors. But the
seeds of these crosses also failed to germinate. With the same female parent,
crosses using J. rigidum, J. arborescens and J. paniculatum as male parents also
ended in failure. Interspecific hybridization among the wild species also met
the same fate. Veluswamy (1981) reported successful fruit set in the
combinations involving J. auriculatum with J. flexile and J. grandiflorum; J.
grandiflorum with J. auriculatum, J. calbphyllum and J. flexile', and J. sambac with
/. grandiflorum. But in all these cases, the seeds failed to germinate showing a
strong barrier for crossability and hybrid inviability existing among the different
species and also the possibility of endosperm antagonism in operation. Existence
of pollen sterility and seed sterility due to defective egg mechanism
have also been indicated. The sterility factors operating in jasmines have been
reported by Mridula Dutt (1952) and Murthy and Khanna (1971).
Intraspecific hybridization on the other hand showed partial success ranging
from 0.5 to 35% in J. grandiflorum. The crossed seeds registered a germination
of 50-100%. Cross incompatibility was also evident in some of the interclonal
crosses. This indicates the genetic divergence of the clones in different

degrees and the possibility of exploitation of such divergence for improving
the economic attributes. In addition, reciprocal differences also seem to exist
thereby indicating the operation of one way incompatibility system.
In J. auriculatum, success was obtained in ‘Short Round’ x ‘Short Point’,
‘Parimullai’ x ‘Short Point’ and an induced tetraploid x diploid of J.
auriculatum. Fruit set on crossing ranged from 0 to 27%. However, none
of the progenies proved economical (Fig. 3).
Ploidy breeding. Jasmines are generally diploids with 2n = 26. However,
natural occurrence of forms with higher ploidy levels have also been reported
(Alikhan et al., 1969; Murthy and Khanna, 1971) as given below:
J. sambac var. ‘Gundumalli’ 2n=39
J. flexile (Cultivated variety) 2n=52
J. primulinum 2n=39
J. angustifolium 2n=52
In general, triploids have been found to be more vigorous and better
yielders than diploids while tetraploids are robust, hardy and produce
bolder flowers.
Fig. 3. Flower bud character in J. auriculatum.

JASMINE 119
Artificial induction of polyploids has been found feasible in J. auriculatum
but not in J. grandiflorum (Veluswamy, 1981). Seed or seedling treatment with 1%
colchicine recorded 11.4-23.1% in J. auriculatum.
Induction of polyploids was attempted in the diploid forms of J. auriculatum
and J. grandiflorum. Seeds of ‘Short Point’ clone of J. auriculatum were treated
with 0.5% colchicine for 12 hours and 24 hours. One tetraploid seedling was
obtained from ‘Parimullai’ (J. auriculatum) seeds. In general, tetraploids were
found to be poor yielders with low concrete recovery. Treatment of vegetative
buds with 0.1 to 0.5% of colchicine did not yield any useful polyploid. In J.
grandiflorum 0.5% colchicine seed treatment resulted in six tetraploids which
were however not found to be economically useful. In J. sambac tetraploids were
found more vigorous but produced less number of bold flowers per plant
(Alikhan et al., 1969). The natural triploids are found to be vigorous with higher
yields than diploids.
Mutagenesis. Both chemical and physical mutagens have been tried in
J. auriculatum. X-ray treatment of active vegetative buds produced no
mutagenic effect. Seed treatment with gamma-rays beyond 10 Kr proved
lethal. A mutant with longer corolla tube was spotted but it was found
to be susceptible to gall mite. Use of chemical mutagens showed that soaking
in EMS at 0.1% for 72 hours proved lethal. However, with the use of this
chemical, one mutant was secured which had undesirable traits. In J.
grandiflorum gamma-rays of dose beyond 30 Kr proved lethal. Although
10 mutants were isolated with lower dosages, none proved to be good for
flower yield. Treatment of soft-wood cuttings with gamma-rays (1 to 10
Kr) also met the same fate suggesting the limited role of mutagenesis
in jasmine improvement.
PROPAGATION
Layering had been the mode of vegetative propagation in Jasmines until

recently. Simple layering during June-July to October-November gives good
success in 90-120 days. After rooting, the plants are separated and kept
in shade covering the roots with a wet gunny until required for planting.
Propagation by rooting of cuttings has been attempted and perfected in
J. auriculatum and /. grandiflorum. Singh and Bhatnagar (1955) studied
the effect of IAA and NAA on rooting of soft- and hardwood cuttings of
J. grandiflorum. The highest rooting of 90% was recorded in soft-wood
cuttings treated with IAA 1,000 ppm and in hardwood cuttings treated with 500
ppm. Bose et al. (1973) also confirmed the effectiveness of IAA and NAA in
rooting of cuttings of this species. Sand medium and cuttings taken in May
contributed to higher success (Anon., 1977), thereby showing the influence of
the kind of rooting medium and season of propagation on the final success
achieved in rooting. Terminal five nodal cuttings in J. grandiflorum, terminal and
semi-hardwood cuttings in J. sambac and J. auriculatum were found best suited
for propagation in mist chambers. Among other species, J. calophyllum and J.
rigidum rooted easily while J. humile recorded low success (Anon., 1974).
Studies on grafting jasmines were carried out by Veluswamy et al. (1980).
There was a perfect union of scion and rootstock in the case of J. grandiflorum on
J. auriculatum, J. communis and J. sambac. The scion grew for about six months
and flowered, but the flowers did not show any variation.
CULTIVATION
Spacing and planting. Spacing is one of the factors which determines the
ultimate flower production. In commercial cultivation it varies from place to place
and also depends upon the species cultivated and the soil conditions. The famous
Spanish jasmine is planted at a closer spacing of 80 cm x 10 cm with 100,000 to
150,000 plants per hectare. Studies carried out at Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore, have shown that among the various spacings tested for
J. grandiflorum the closer spacing of 2 m x 1.5 m with a population of 3,333 plants
per hectare recorded the highest yield.
For planting, pits of 45-90 cm3 are prepared depending on the type of soil
and are exposed for a week. Afterwards, half the pit is filled with dried leaves
and burnt to kill the disease organisms present in the soil. A day later, the lower
half of the pit is filled with top-soil. The upper half of the pit is filled with the top¬
soil after mixing with 10 to 20 kg of well-rotted cattle manure or compost to a level
of 10 cm above the ground level. Then a soaking irrigation is given to the pits for
soil to settle down. A mixture of 5% BHC and 5% DDT at 3 to 5 g per pit may be
added to the top 30 cm of the soil in the pit to prevent white ant attack. Planting
can be done after a day.
Nutrition. Systematic investigations to determine the nutrient needs of the
crop have been attempted only since the last one decade. At the Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore, several experiments on the subject have
been carried out. In J. auriculatum, N at 120 g per plant recorded the highest
yield. P and K at 240 g each per plant individually did not influence the yield. But
under 120 g N, the plants registered better yields when applied along with P and
K at 240 g each per plant. Hence, a balanced fertilization was considered
beneficial. Muthuswami and Pappiah (1976) observed that the level of N can be
reduced to half (60 g/plant/year) if applied as foliar sprays at monthly intervals.
In J. grandiflorum soil application proved to be better than foliar application.
Foliar application at all levels depressed the yields. Application of N P K at
60:120:120 g per plant along with 10 kg of farmyard manure applied in two splits,
JASMINE 121
once in January and again in July every year, was found optimum. Subsequent
studies to determine the effect of graded doses ofN (0,30,60 and 120 g/plant) and
P (0,60,120 and 240 g/plant) under a constant K dose of 240 g and farmyard
manure of 30 kg/plant showed that N30P120 and K240 g per plant constituted the
most economic dose for this species.
At Kalyani, West Bengal, the recommended fertilizer dose for maximum
growth and flower production is N50P15K15 for J. auriculatum and J. sambac
(Anon., 1978). The results of study by Natarajan et al. (1981) revealed that
application of N,P and K each at 240 g per plant per year at bimonthly intervals is
optimum under Madurai (Tamil Nadu) conditions.
Pruning. Pruning is an important tool for manipulation of flowering
as it influences flower bud initiation, differentiation and ultimately the flower
production. Normally irrigation is withheld prior to pruning and plants are
pruned by removing all the past season shoots including dead and diseased
branches to a height of about 45 cm from the ground level. All the leaves in the
bushes are stripped off. Following pruning all cut ends are smeared with
Bordeaux paste to prevent infection. Muthuswami et al. (1973) observed that
pruning during the last week of January led to the maximum flower production in
J. auriculatum and pruning beyond this date resulted in lower yields. According
to Pal et al. (1980) for the variety ‘Single’, December and January pruning proved
most favourable, the variety ‘Double’ responded best when pruned in February
and the optimum height of pruning was arrived at 30 cm.
In J. grandiflorum, Muthuswami (1975) reported that the time of pruning
influenced the quantum of flower yield in each month from February to
October. Pruning as early as November did not help in shifting the peak
flower production in June-July. Subramanian (1977) in his study showed
that early pruning in December enhanced the duration of flowering up to
eight months while it was five months in the late-pruned crop. The highest
yield was obtained in plants pruned on 28 December and the lowest yield
from plants pruned on 28 March.
The effect of pinching of new shoots to stagger the flowering and thereby
spread the period of productivity was investigated by Muthuswami and Madhava
Rao (1980). They found out that pinching delays flowering by 17.4 days
in J. grandiflorum and 14.3 days in J. auriculatum.
Muthuswami et al. (1973) reporting on the effect of pruning in J. sambac
var. ‘Single Mohra’ showed that flowering reached peak during March to
May and declined thereafter with no flowering between October to January.
Pal et al. (1980) under Kalyani conditions observed that though pruning
did not produce any appreciable differences in branch number, pruning
to a height of 20 cm as against 40 cm resulted in reduced branch number
in J. sambac var. ‘Khoya’. The plants pruned at 40 cm height in January
produced the highest yield. The usefulness of chemical defoliants for

substituting manual purning was investigated (Muthuswami et al., 1974).
Chemical defoliants like paraquatdichloride, pentachlorophenol, potassium
chloride and sodium chloride were employed in J. auriculatum. While
paraquatdichloride caused quickest and heaviest defoliation, pentachlorophenol
and sodium chloride produced increased yield over the unpruned plants.
Use of defoliants as an alternate to manual pruning was thus effective.
In J. auriculatum spraying Ethrel at 1,000 ppm recorded greatest growth
retardation, CCC at 1,000 ppm induced early flowering while B-nine produced
greater number of laterals which produced flower clusters (Muthuswami,
1975). In J. grandiflorum CCC sprays at 500 ppm produced several effects
such as early flowering, high yield, high essential oil content, better
flower size and longer duration of flowering (Pappiah and Muthuswami,
1977). Good defoliation was noted with sprays of Ethrel at 2,000 ppm in
J. sambac var. ‘Gundumalli’ while it failed in J. grandiflorum. Pal et al. (1980)
reported that treatment with Ethrel promoted height of plants while CCC
retarded growth in J. auriculatum. NAA application in general also resulted in
reduced plant growth. Application of Ethrel 0.125 and 0.250 ml per litre and
NAA at 25 mg per litre on J. sambac promoted more laterals resulting in
increased flower number (in J. sambac, the above concentrations of Ethrel and
NAA and CCC at 1.09 and 2.18 ml per litre increased flower number).
Regulation of flowering. The peak flower production in different jasmines
varies with species and is generally confined to a few months in a year.
It was found that pruning time in J. auriculatum, J. grandiflorum and
J. sambac did not influence the peak season of flowering. Since jasmines
are photo-insensitive, the role of other climatic factors, viz. temperature
and rainfall on flowering, was studied. Muthuswami (1975) in his study
on J. auriculatum found that temperature played a major role in the
production of flowers. Early-pruned plantings (28 January) recorded high
yield and longer duration of flowering as they received optimum heat units.
These findings were confirmed in J. grandiflorum in which maximum flowering
occurred in plants pruned in the later part of December.
The requirement of heat units decreased as the pruning was delayed. Raman
(1973) observed a direct correlation between yield and mean temperature
and no relationship with rainfall or humidity in /. sambac. The optimum
time for pruning for J. sambac was fixed as the last week of November.
The relationship between temperature and flowering in jasmines and the
variation that exists among the different species in their specific requirement
of heat units have been brought out by the above investigations. Further
studies to ascertain the possibilities of shifting the flowering pattern were
undertaken by pruning on different dates from early November to late
JASMINE 123
March at ten days intervals. Irrespective of the date of pruning, production
during the months of June and July contributed the largest share to the
total flower yield in J. auriculatum.
Similarly in J. grandiflorum, the peak flower production occurred between
July and October under all pruning dates. Neither very early pruning in
November nor late pruning in March disturbed this trend. Day length degree
values are seen to have a relationship to the peak productivity in particular
months. In both the species, the monthly output of flowers showed a negative
association with relative temperature disparity (RTD). Lower difference
between day and night terni crature and relatively lower day temperature
favoured a higher flower output. Thus diurnal temperature periodicity
appears to have favoured more flower formation in particular months. According
to Muthuswami and Madhava Rao (1980) the above two species can be regarded
as responsive to thermo-periodism quantitatively and classified them as
day-neutral plants requiring temperature alteration for flowering.
Off-Season Flowering. Induction of off-season flowering in J. grandiflorum
cv ‘Thimmapuram’ was attempted (Vedamuthu, 1981). Spraying of growth
regulants coupled with pruning round the year at monthly intervals revealed that
pruning in January and spraying with Alar 1,000 ppm shifted the peak flowering
to October. A shift in flower production to November was observed by pruning in
February and spraying with CCC 500 ppm. Pruning from January to March in
combination with Alar 1,000 ppm spray could prove helpful in extending the
flower production in the off-season.
Yield. In J. sambac cv ‘Gundumalli’ and Truvatchi’, there was a
steep rise in yield from February to April and gradual decline thereafter.
In other cultivars the peak yield was in May or June. Although the
commencement of flowering was at the same time, the quantum of yield and
duration of flowering differed widely. This was attributed to photo-thermal
influence. In low-yielding cultivars, higher day length and night temperatures
were associated with poor yields. In the high-yielding cultivars, the highest
yields were noted under a regime of high day length and day and night
temperatures. These displayed their ability to produce more flowers per
photo-thermal unit (PTU) than low yielders. Thus, the efficiency of different
cultivars to produce flowers per PTU varied and depended on the interplay
of both day length and temperature (Raman, 1973).
JASMINE OIL AND CONCRETE
Jasmine flowers owe their fragrance to a volatile oil present in the

epidermal cells of the inner and the outer surface of both petals and
sepals. The fragrance begins to develop in the flowers soon after sun-
set and ceases within a few hours of sunshine. Though jasmine flowers
have been used in our country from time immemorial, commercial exploitation
of these flowers for extraction of the fragrant oil is only of recent origin.
There is hardly any high-class floral perfume of oriental origin which
does not contain at least a small percentage of jasmine flower oil. It
gives smoothness and elegance to the perfume combinations. Several types
of jasmine oil and perfume extracts from flowers such as concrete, absolute
and pomade are available in the market.
Jasmine oil is at present produced in the Grasse Region of Southern France
and to some extent in Italy, the UAR, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, Algeria, Belgium
and Holland. The world production of jasmine concrete is said to be around
5,000 kg of which nearly 50% comes from France. The international market
prices of jasmine concrete and absolute, in which forms the jasmine oil
is commercially produced, are said to be around Rs 12,000/kg and Rs 19,000/kg
respectively. Price fluctuations are common and normally premium prices
are offered for high-grade products. The main buyers are the USA, the UK,
Holland, Sweden, Norway, Japan and the USSR. The species of jasmine used
in these countries is the Spanish jasmine (/. grandiflorum) and the variety used
has pink streaks on the exterior of the petal lobes.
In the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 15 species and
45 varieties of jasmines were collected and evaluated for concrete recovery.
Of the three important species grown the concrete recovery of J. grandiflorum
ranged from 0.25 to 0.32%. J. auriculatum recorded high recovery of
concrete ranging from 0.28% to 0.36%. But J. sambac, the species grown
largely, yielded only very low percentage of concrete the recovery ranging
from 0.14% to 0.19% (Table 1).
Table 1. Flower yield (kg) and floral concrete recovery (%) in different species of
jasmine (Abdul Khader et al., 1984)
Species Yield of flowers (kg/ha) Concrete recovery (%)
J. auriculatum 4,733 to 9,152 0.28 to 0.36

Range for 5 clones
J. sambac 739 to 8,129 0.14 to 0.19
Range for 6 clones
J. grandiflorum 4,329 to 10,144 0.25 to 0.32
Range for 6 clones
It is to be noted here that the concrete from /. grandiflorum alone

has international market. In a varietal evaluation programme six clones
of J. grandiflorum were evaluated for their yield of flowers and concrete.
A secondary selection from Lucknow clone was found to yield over 10 tonnes
of flowers per hectare with an estimated concrete yield of 29 kg, the
JASMINE 125
recovery being 0.29%. This selection was released by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University as ‘Co 1 Pitchi’.
The jasmine concrete is a wax-like substance containing the natural flower
perfume as a volatile oil, together with some plant waxes and albuminous
and colouring matter. Steam distillation for the extraction of the volatile
oil is of no avail. Hence the solvent extraction method is practised in
which the odoriferous substances of the flower are allowed to be absorbed
by a highly volatile solvent and then the solvent is evaporated leaving
behind the odoriferous principles.
For extraction of concrete only freshly-picked fully-opened flowers are
required. The fully-opened flowers have to be picked early morning preferably
before 9.30 a.m. Delay in picking beyond 9.30 a.m. results in gradual reduction of
concrete yield. Picking the flowers after 11.00 a.m. will considerably reduce the
yield and quality of the concrete.
Food-grade hexane, perfumery-grade hexane, petroleum, ether and carbon
tetrachloride have been tried as solvents. Perfumery-grade hexane was
found good but proved very costly. Carbon tetrachloride gave better and
quicker extraction than food-grade hexane. But owing to its high cost
and inflammable nature its use is also limited. Food grade hexane with a boiling
point of 60° to 80°C, was found satisfactory. But the food-grade hexane available
in the market has several impurities and has to be purified before use. Addition of
liquid paraffin at 5% and distillation at 70°C gave a fairly good grade hexane suited
for floral concrete extraction (Sambandamurthi and Abdul Khader, 1982). For the
rotary type of extractor designed by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore, the optimum requirement of solvent per kilogram of flowers was
found to be 2 litres of food-grade hexane. For static type of extractors the solvent
requirement is still higher. For every kilogram of flowers about four to five litres
of hexane will be required.
After the complete extraction of the perfume from the flowers, the solvent
is filtered and concentrated by evaporation at a constant temperature
of 75°C. At this temperature the solvent evaporates leaving the perfume
and other plant waxes. The vapour of the solvent is condensed into liquid
again for recycling. The concentrated liquid contains the perfume, wax,
pigments and the solvent is distilled in a vacuum distillation unit where
the complete removal of the solvent takes place leaving the floral concrete
in the form of molten wax.
REFERENCES
Abdul Khader, MD. JBM., Chezhiyan, N. and Ponnuswami, V. 1984. Utilization of jasmine flower for floral
concrete extraction. Proc. Seminar on Utilization of value added agro-products. TNAU, Coimbatore.
Anonymous. 1974. Second A. Prog. Rep. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Anonymous. 1977. Fifth A. Prog. Rep. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Anonymous. 1978. Seventh A. Prog. Report. Scheme for intensification of research on the development of roses
and jasmine varieties with high essential oil content. ICAR, New Delhi.
Alikhan, M.W., Raman, V.S. and Raman, K.R. 1969. S. Indian Hort. 17 : 79-85.
Bose, T.K., Mandal, T.P. and Pramanik, D.K. 1973. Prog. Hort. 5(3) : 43-50.
Chandra, V. 1982. Commercial exploitation of Jasminum species in India. In Cultivation and Utilization of
Aromatic Plants. (Eds) C.K. Atal and B.M. Kapur. CSIR, Jammu Tawi.
Madhava Rao, V.N. and Muthuswami, S. 1972. Indian Hort. 20 : 1-2.
Mridula Dut. 1952. Sci. Cult. 17 (12) : 528.
Murthy, A.S. and Khanna, K.R. 1971. Curr. Sci. 40 : 555-66.
Muthuswami, S. 1975. Studies on Some Aspects of Growth and Flowering in J. auriculatum Vahl. and J.
grandiflorum L. Ph.D. Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Muthuswami, S„ Alikhan, W.MD., Sayed S. and Pappiah, C.M. 1974. S. Indian Hort. 21 : 11-14.
Muthuswami, S. and Madhava Rao, V.N. 1980. The concept of relative temperature disparity in flowering of
Jasminum species. Natn. Semin. Prod. tech. Comm. Flower Crops. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore, pp. 11-14.
Muthuswami, S. and Pappiah, C.M. 1976. S. Indian Hort. 24 : 88-93.
Muthuswami, S., Pappiah, C.M. and Sayed, S. 1973. 5. Indian Hort. 21 (2) : 70-72.
Natarajan, S., Nambisan, M.M.P., Rrishnan, B.M. and Shanmugavelu, K.G. 1981. Indian Perfumer 25 ( 3 &
4) : 89-92.
Pal, P., Maity, R.G. and Bose, T.K. 1980. Natn. Semin. Prod. tech. Comm. Flower Crops. Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore, pp. 31-34.
Pappiah, C.M. and Muthuswami, S. 1977. 5. Indian Hort. 25 : 68-74.
Raman, K.R. 1973. Studies on Jasmine with Particular Reference to Flowering. Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu
• Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Raman, V.S. 1955, Bot. Mag., Tokyo 68 : 253-59.
Sambandamurthi, S. and Abdul Khader, MD. JBM. 1982. Essential oil of jasmine. Proc. natn. Semin. Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants. TNAU, Coimbatore.
Subramanian, R. 1977. Studies on the Effect of Pruning on Growth and Development of ‘Jathimalli’. M.Sc. (Ag.)
Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Vedamuthu, P.G.B. 1981. Induction of Off-season Flowering in J. Gradiflorum L. Clone Thimmapuram.
M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Veluswamy, P. 1980. Breeding for high essential oil content in jasmine. Natn. Semin. Prod. tech. Comm. Flower
Crops. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, pp. 5-6.
Valuswamy, P. 1981. Genetic Studies in J. Auriculatum Vahl. and J. grandiflorum L. Ph.D. Thesis. Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Veluswamy, P., Vijayakumar, M. and Muthuswami, S. 1980. S. Indian Hort. 28 (4) : 156-57.
10
Orchids
Foja Singh
O RCHIDS, the most beautiful flowers in God’s creation, comprise a unique

group of plants. Taxonomically, they represent the most highly evolved
family among monocotyledons with 600-800 genera and 25,000-35,000 species
(Garay, 1960; Arditti, 1981). Orchids exhibit an incredible range of diversity
in size, shape and colour of their flowers. They are most pampered of
the plants and occupy top position among all the flowering plants valued
for cut flower production and as potted plants. They are known for their
longer lasting and bewitchingly beautiful flowers which fetch a very high
price in the international market.
Theophrastus, who is also called the father of Botany (370-285 BC),
gave the name ‘Orchids’ to the group of bizarre plants on the basis of
the resemblence of paired underground tubers of these plants to masculine
anatomy (the testes). This resemblence was also responsible for the mistaken
belief that the orchids possess aphrodisiac properties and eating of underground
tubers might ‘provoke venus’ and they may beget male children.
In the Indian Vedic scriptures there is a mention of the plants under
the name ‘Vanda’, which has been adopted as a generic name in one of the
most beautiful group of orchids.
Most of the orchids are perennial herbs with simple leaves. Although,
the specialized flower structure conforms to a standard plan, the vegetative
parts show great variation, a large number of them being epiphytes, or
terrestrial and a few saprophytes and leafless in nature (Larson, 1980).
Majority of the cultivated orchids are native of tropical countries and
occur in their greatest diversity in humid tropical forests of South and
Central America, Mexico, India, Ceylon, Burma, South China, Thailand,
Malaysia, Philippines, New Guinea and Australia. Brazilean cattleyas, Mexican
laelias and Indian dendrobiums, cymbidiums and vandas have played a major
role in the development of modern orchid industry in the world.
The evolution of orchid culture from hobbyist to commercial grower was
127
very slow as most of the orchids collected from different regions did
not adapt to local conditions and died. The methods of propagation were
not known and most of the orchids which flowered under utmost care were
found to be self sterile. Further, it was difficult to germinate the seeds,
which lack any functional endosperm. The seeds sown in the nursery beds
required long period of germination and any disturbance to the soil or
physical environment destroyed the whole population (Northen, 1970).
It was only in 1821 when Conrad Loddiges and Sons started growing orchid
plants commercially at their nursery in Hackney (Larson, 1980), followed
by John Daminy of M/s Veitch & Sons who produced the first orchid hybrid
between two Calanthe species in 1852, which flowered in 1856 in Veitch
Nursery Exeter, England (Withner, 1959). This was followed by a large number
of man-made hybrids produced by hobbyists and small growers. In 1913,
Sun Kee Nursery, Singapore, started the first cut-flower production of Arachnis
type hybrids.
The major developments in the cultivation of orchids in the world have
been due to modern scientific technology which has been suitably used
in case of orchid seed germination and meristen culture (Chadha and Singh,
1985).
Today orchids are grown on assembly-line method in extensive glass-houses
with controlled environment and the sale of orchid flowers runs in millions
of dollars. Thailand alone exports Dendrobium sprays worth more than
$ 12 million to Europe and West Germany. Orchid flower sales in USA for
internal consumption alone are valued at US $ 50-60 million (Rao, 1977).
The annual value of export trade in Singapore in 1974 exceeded US $ 2.3
million. The modern methods of propagation have brought orchid cultivation
on par with other commercial crops.
ORCHID RESEARCH IN INDIA
Orchid Flora
Orchids form 9% of our flora and are the largest botanical family of
higher plants in India (Jain, 1980). It is estimated that about 1,300
species (140 genera) of orchids are found in our country with Himalayas
as their main home and others scattered in Eastern and Western Ghats.
The following is the distribution of orchid species in different regions
of India (Jain, 1985).
North-Western Himalayas ca 200 species
North-Eastern India ca 800 species
Western Ghats ca 300 species
North-Eastern India owing to its peculiar gradiant and varied climatic
ORCHIDS 129
conditions contains largest group of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical
orchids.
India has a very large variety of orchids and hilly regions have one
or the other orchid flowering almost throughout the year. The diversity
is so large that there are large-flowered, small-flowered, terrestrial, epiphytic and
also saprophytic orchids. In general terrestrial orchids are more common in
North-Western India, epiphytic orchids in North-Eastern India and small-
flowered orchids in Western Ghats. The largest terrestrial genus is Habenaria (ca
100 spp.) and the largest epiphytic genus is Dendrobium (ca 70 spp.). Most of the
Paphiopedilum (Lady’s Slipper) species are restricted to N.E. Himalayas except
for P. druryi which has been reported from Kerala but now is almost extinct from
its original habitat.
Some orchids are endemic to India and are not found any where else in
the world. They are Cryptochilus, Anthogonium, Risleya, Sirhookera and
Cleisocentron.
Some of the Indian species are so ornamental and in demand that their
natural populations have been over exploited. Some species in the genera
like Arundina, Cymbidium, Coelogyne, Dendrobium, Paphiopedilum, Renanthera,
and Vanda are almost extinct. The provisional list of 150 endangered
plants of India includes many orchids like Acanthephippium sylhetense,
Anoectochilus sikkimensis, Aphyllorchis montana, Arachnanthe clarkei, Arundina
graminifolia, Cymbidium macrorhizon, Dendrobium densiflorum, Didiciea
cunninghamii, Eria crassicaulis, Galeola lindleyana, Gastrodia exilis,
Paphiopedilum faireanum, P. cordigerum, P. druryi, Pleione humilis, Renanthera
imschootiana, Vanda coerulea, V pumila and V roxburghii.
The list of plants banned or restricted for export from India formerly
included a few orchids but now include all orchids growing wild. The Convention
of International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),
ratified by India, places all species of Orchidaceae under Appendix II,
meaning thereby that their trade will be only through export permits.
Steps have also been taken to conserve Indian native species by establishing
orchidaria, sanctuaries and germplasm conservation centres. Botanical Survey of
India has established two orchidaria one at Shillong and other at Yercaud to
conserve rare and endangered species. The ICAR research complex at Shillong,
the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research at Hessaraghatta and the Indian
Botanic Gardens at Calcutta maintain collections of orchids in their orchidaria.
Some states have also established orchid sanctuaries in Sikkim at Singtom and
Deorali and in Arunachal Pradesh at Tapi.
INDIAN ORCHIDS
Some of the Indian orchid species which are of high ornamental value
are: Aerides crispurn, A. fieldingii, A. multiflorum, A. odoratum, Anaectochilus

roxburghii (Jewel orchid), Arachnis clarkei, Arundina graminifolia, Bulbophyllum
leopardinum, (Button hole orchid), Calanthe masuca, Coelogyne elata, C.
devonianum, Cymbidium pendulum, C. longifolium, C. munronianum (scented
cymbidium), Dendrobium aggregatum, D. aphyllum, D. barbatulum, D.
chrysanthum, D. farmeri, D. densiflorum, D. devonianum, D. fimbriatum,
D. jenkinsii, D. moschatum, D. nobile, Paphiopedilum faireanum (Lady
Slipper orchid), P. venustum, P. hirsutissium, P. insigne, Phaius wallichii,
Pleione praecox, Rhynchostylis retusa, Thinia alba, Vanda cristata, V coerulea, and
V coerulescens (Figs. 1, 2).
Majority of the cultivated orchids are native of tropical climates and
are found in abundance in India in the states of Assam, Meghalaya, West
Bengal, Karnataka and Kerala. Kalimpong, Shillong, Trivandrum, Bangalore and
Yercaud are the places most suitable for the cultivation of orchids. Kalimpong
among these is called heaven for orchids.
Growing of orchids in India commercially is not organised and is still
in the hands of hobbyist and few dealers who mainly depend on wild collections
from forests to meet a large part of their foreign and local demands,
due to which some of the orchid-growing areas are now without any orchid
and very rare species are now facing the danger of depletion. It is only
very recently that orchid growers like Ganeshmani Pradhan and U.C. Pradhan
of Universal Nursery Kalimpong have taken up very systematic growing of
orchids for local market and export.
CULTIVATION OF ORCHIDS
Types. Orchids can be divided into two groups—monopodial or sympodial

depending upon their habit of growth. Monopodial orchids such as Phalaenopsis,
Renanthera and Vanda have a main stem which continues to grow year
after year producing inflorescence from the leaf axils. Sympodial orchids
such as Cattleya, Cymbidium, and Dendrobium have a main stem which
terminates growth at the end of each season. A new shoot (lead) then grows
from the base forming its own bulbous stem called pseudo-bulb which eventually
flowers.
The pesudo-bulbs or thickened stems are very useful devices for the storage
of food and water and function like bulbs.
In addition to the epiphytic orchids, there are also ground orchids or
terrestrial orchids which grow like ordinary plants with their roots in
soil. Most of the temperate zone orchids are terrestrial and tropical orchids are
epiphytes.
ORCHIDS 131
Fig. 1. Indian orchids: (1) Dendrobium aggregation, (2) D. fumeri, (3) D. densiflorum,
(4) D. crassinode.
Fig. 2. Indian orchids: (1) Calanthe masuca, (2) Thunia alba, (3) Paphiopedilum faireanum,
(4) Rhynchostylis retusa.
ORCHIDS 133
Orchid house. Orchids in nature grow protected from the tropical sun
by the shade of trees. Under controlled conditions the orchids can be
grown in specially designed orchidaria or orchid houses, running north
and south and made from materials like split bamboo, glass, fibre glass,
etc. A central tank filled with water helps in increasing the humidity.
However, it must be clear that all types of orchids cannot be grown under
one roof. While tropical orchids enjoy humid, warm atmosphere and burst
into activity during rainy season, temperate orchids should be growing
in cool houses. Orchids dislike sudden change in temperature, however
a difference of 10°—20°C between day and night temperature is beneficial.
The best suitable range is 18°C to 30°C, proper ventillation is must
to provide fresh air and also helps in reducing the temperature.
There are also orchids which can be grown in open sun. Various terete-leaved
species of Vanda, Aranda, Arachnis, Renanthera etc. can be grown in
open trenches filled with brick pieces, charcoal, as is done in Ceylon,
Singapore and Thailand.
Light. Indirect sunlight is ideal for orchids. Seedlings require less
light than adult plants. Very poor light tends to produce weak plants
and retards flowering. A plant which has been grown in the shade should
gradually be shifted to sunlight.
The optimum requirement of light varies between species to species.
Cypripedium and Phalaenopsis require only 200-300 foot-candles. Whereas
genera like Vanda and Aranda thrive best under 800 foot-candles (Abraham
and Vatsala, 1981). Majority of the orchids are day neutral and are not
influenced by day length. But in Cattleya both short-day and long-day
plants are met with.
Dodson (1962) while experimenting with filtered sunlights has reported
that filtered sunlight stimulates formation of male flowers in Catasetum
while in direct sunlight only female flowers are produced.
Humidity/watering. Humid, warm atmosphere is most essential for the
growth of most of the tropical orchids, which do not have well established
root system. It is a good idea to have a water tank or pool in the centre
of the orchidaria to maintain humidity, which should not be less than
30% at night and 80% during day time. The plants should be watered 2-3
times a day and should not be allowed to dry up during hot climate. Plants
in active growth require more water. Similarly plants in baskets require
more water than those in pots. Care should be taken to water the plants
with a fine spray by using standard nozzles and not to hit the plants
with powerful jets of water.
Plants which are freshly potted should be watered very sparingly till
the new roots appear and watering should be gradually increased.
Pots/containers. Orchids should be potted in small containers/pots

according to the size of the plant. As a thumb rule, orchids should be
under potted to get more flowers. Any kind of pots/container which can
hold the medium and provide aeration is suitable. Most of the people prefer
plastic pots which retain moisture longer than mud pots. Vandaceous and
Sarcenthene orchids can be grown in teak-wood baskets. Orchid plants should
not be disturbed frequently and repotting done only when absolutely necessary.
Orchids like Cymbidium, react favourably when repotted after 2-3 years
whereas Vandaceous orchids and Paphiopedilum should not be disturbed
unless very necessary.
Terrestrial orchids, like Spathoglottis, Phaius and Calanthe, should be grown
in 20-25 cm pots with 1:1:1 mixture of leaf mould, FYM and sand.
For Paphiopedilum a mixture of 2 parts leaf mould, 2 parts loam soil
and 1 part each of brick pieces and charcoal is recommended (Rao, 1985).
Experiments conducted at Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, have
revealed that in case of Rhychostylis gigantea, chunks of hard-wood charcoal
alone as potting substrate were superior than eleven other potting media
(Bhattachaijee, 1985). Tree fern fibres also performed better than the
other media while coconut husk and over-burnt brick as planting substrate
had adverse effects on growth and flowering of R. gigentea plants. Some
latest media tried for growing orchids are gravel jelly, fir bark, tree
fern fibre, and polyurethene foam.
Manuring. In nature, orchids obtain their supply of inorganic nutrients
like calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium, nitrogen and traces of manganese,
boron, copper, zinc etc. from the bark of the tree on which they are growing
and also from atmosphere and decaying vegetables and droppings of birds.
However under controlled conditions they have to be supplied with all
these major and minor nutrients.
Taking into consideration the special need of different orchids, a large num¬
ber of fertilizer mixtures, both solid and liquid, are available in market. Liquid
fertilizers are much more quickly absorbed and can be applied more frequently.
As the orchids are slow growing, slow release fertilizers like osmocote can be used
to get very good results. Usage of fertilizer should also depend on the stage of
growth. During vegetative growth, large quantities of nitrogen are required while
during flowering, nitrogen should be reduced and amount of phosphate
increased. One of the most common liquid fertilizer for epiphytic orchids is Ohio
WP solution (Northen, 1970), the composition of which is given below.
Composition of Ohio W P solution fertilizer (g)
Potassium nitrate KN03 2.63

Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO 0.44
ORCHIDS 135
Magnesium sulphate MgS04 7H20 2.04
Monocalcium phosphate Ca4(P04) H20 1.09
Calcium sulphate CaS04 2H20 4.86
Ferrous sulphate FeS04 7H20 0.5
Manganese sulphate MnS04 make 1% solution and use 2.5 cc
Water 4 litres
Use the above solution in half strength
Prof. Abraham of Tropical Botanic Garden has been getting excellent results
by using inorganic fertilizer mixture (NPK 20:20:20) with trace elements
and coconut water (20-25%) applied every week for three successive weeks
followed by a 10 :30 :20 (NPK).
In general, pFi of the nutrient solution should be slightly acidic or
neutral but not alkaline.
Diseases and pests. Like all other plants orchids are also prone to
a number of diseases caused by fungi, virus, bacteria, insects and pests.
The most common diseases in each group are:
Fungal and Bacterial Diseases
Leaf spot—caused by Colletotrichum and Gleosporium
Leaf blight—caused by Pythium
Collar blotch—caused by Penicilium thomii
Collar rot—caused by Sclerotium
Orchid wilt—caused by Sclerotium rolfsii
Various fungicides like Captan, Dithane, Agrosan, and Ceresan are very
effective against these diseases.
Virus diseases
More than 32 diseases are known to occur on orchids. In some cases the
same virus has been known to produce more than one disease in different
species, the most common are Cymbidium mosaic virus (CYMV), Odontoglossum
ring spot virus (ORSV) and Dendrobium nobile mosaic virus (Den Mv).
As control measures all infected plants should be isolated to prevent
spreading of the disease.
Insect Pests
The most commonly reported insect pests on orchids are thrips, aphids,
spidermite, soft scale, mealy bugs, orchid weevil, snail and slugs. These
insect pests harm the plants in many ways. They feed on tender young shoots,
suck the sap and damage the young buds and shoots and also act as carriers
of different diseases.
Fortunately all these can be controlled by effective insecticides like
Parathion, Malathion, BHC, Aldrin, Dieldrin, etc. Metaldehyde has proved

to be very effective in killing slugs and snails.
PROPAGATION
Orchids, like other horticultural crops, may be propagated either sexually

or asexually. Since most of the commercial orchids are highly heterozygous
they are not raised through seed and are propagated through vegetative
means to get true-to-type plants. Conventional methods like cuttings, division of
shoots or Keikis, are followed along with mericloning through tissue-culture
techniques.
Vegetative Propagation
Cuttings. Orchids like Aerides, Arachnis, Epidendrum, Renanthera,
Phalaenopsis, Vanda and Dendrobium (nobile type) can be propagated by
cuttings. Orchid cuttings are usually much bigger (8-12 cm long) and
should possess one or more roots. Cuttings are usually potted in propagation
beds or directly in pots after treating the cut ends with fungicides to
prevent rotting.
Cuttings of the genera, like Aerides, Arachnis, Vanda etc., are very
hardy and can be directly potted in pots, whereas those of Dendrobium
(nobile type) and Phalaenopsis need special care to root and should
be potted in propagation beds.
The propagation of orchids through cuttings is getting popular again
and some of the nurserymen like to propagate their orchids through cuttings
to get uniform plants. The percentage of variation (mutation) through
this method is almost nill as compared to in vitro propagation through
tissue culture. Further some orchids like Anaectochilus respond more to
vegetative propagation through cuttings than any other method.
In 1983 Goh has very successfully demonstrated that the rooting of the
Aranda ‘Wandy Scott’ can be influenced by treating the cuttings with different
concentrations of NAA.
Most of the sympodial orchids, like Coelogyne, Cattleya, Dendrobium
and Cymbidium, are propagated through this method. The method involved
consists of dividing large clumps into smaller units. However, care should
be taken not to divide the plants unless there are 8-10 pseudo-bulbs.
Dendrobiums which are very fast growing can be divided every year.
In 1986, Nagabhushan and Singh studied the effect of different growth
regulators on the rooting of old back bulbs of Dendrobium aggregatum
var. majus. It was observed that IBA (2000 ppm) induced maximum rooting
(87%) followed by NAA and IAA.
ORCHIDS 137
Off-shoots and Keikis. In some monopodial orchids, 'ike Ascocenda
and Phalaenopsis, Keikis or off-shoots emerge frequent’y on the main
stem. This usually happens when the apex has !ost its effectiveness in
suppressing axillary buds. In most of the commercia' orchid nurseries
topping of the stem is commonly practised to induce Keikis formation.
Induction of Keikis can also be induced through the use of cytokinins
which forced the dormant buds to develop into Keikis (Kunisaki, 1975).
Stewart and Button (1977) studied the effect of Benzyladenine (BA) on
the development of lateral buds in PaphiopedHum. They observed that
single application of BA 1 mg-1 is adequate to stimulate the development
of axillary buds from near the stem bases. This helps in getting more
number of lateral buds for propagation of difficult-to-propagate genera
like Paphiopedilum which do not respond much to tissue-culture techniques.
Aerial shoots. Most of the dendrobiums produced aerial shoots or bulbs
on old back bulbs devoid of leaves. They usually arise on the upper part
of the back bulbs and grow out slowly. These aerial shoots take 90 to
120 days to develop roots. At this stage, they are detached along with
a portion of back bulb and potted as independent plant.
In genera like Goodyera, the rhizome gives off special lateral branches
which turn up and produce aerial shoots (Abraham and Vatsala, 1981). When
they are properly rooted they get detached from the mother plant and establish
separately. .
Other methods. In few genera, like Peristylus, and Nervillia, the roots are
produced from above the tubers, each of which ends in a tubercle.
These small tubers produce new plant the year after (Abraham and Vatsala,
1981).
Vanda and other monopodial orchids can also be multiplied by air-layering
or marcotage. A cut is given through the stem 20 to 25 cm below the apex
and moist sphagnum moss is wrapped around the cut portion. The rooting
media is kept moist and once the roots are formed, the layer is removed
from the mother plant and potted in small-sized pots.
ORCHID IMPROVEMENT
Flower and reproduction. The orchid flowers are irregular, extremely

variable in size and shape with sparkling texture. They may be solitary
or in spikes emitting the fragrance of lemons, cloves or fresh lavender
oil. A few are, however, highly malodorous.
The flower has its parts in threes, i.e. 3 sepals and 3 petals collectively
called as tepals due to their resemblance in texture and colour, similar
to each other and subsimilar to sepals. It is, however, the third petal
which is different and distinctive and is called labellum or the lip. The lip which is
highly polymorphous is responsible for the different names of the orchids like
‘Frog orchid’, ‘Dove orchid’, ‘Spider orchid’, ‘Lady slipper orchid’ etc.
The reproductive organs of the orchids, the stamens and the pistil, are
condensed and form a consolidated complex body, the column (gynostegium),
the male and female part being separated by a flap or projection of a
tissue called rostellum.
Orchids are cross-pollinated by insects and birds and to achieve this
they have adopted many contrivances like mimicry and twisting of the flower
on its stalk to almost 180° to face its pollinating agent (resupination).
A fine example of mimicry is shown by a Mediterranean orchid Ophyrus.
It resembles a female wasp and emits a similar odour to attack the male
wasp. In this attempt to mate with the plant, the male wasp picks up the
pollinia and eventually deposits it on another flower.
A large number of natural hybrids both intergeneric and interspecific
have been reported in different genera like Odontoglossum, Phalaenopsis,
Cattleya, Laelia, Miltonia and Oncidium. Cattleya guatemalensis collected
from Gautemala in 1861 by Skinner was found to be a natural hybrid between
Epidendrum aurantiacum and Cattleya skinned. It was later named as Epicattleya.
Similarly, Phalaenopsis intermedia is a natural hybrid between P. aphrodite and P.
rosea.
Breeding of new varieties. Since 1856 when the first orchid hybrid
Calanthe dominyi (C. masuca x C. furcata) flowered, a very large number
of artificial hybrids have been produced both at intergeneric and interspecific
level. To date, more than 45,000 hybrids have been registered with an
average of 1,000 more every year.
The success and ease with which such a large number of hybrids are
produced every year depends upon the fact that most of the orchid genera and
species have no genetic barriers and they cross freely with each other. It must
be mentioned that most of the orchid genera are still in the process of
evolution and most of the orchid groups are in reality only artificial
constructs. The other two factors which have played a major role in the
development of orchid hybrids are polyploidy and introgressive hybridization.
In some genera, like Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum, Phalaenopsis, Cattleya,
Laelia, Sophronitis, polyploidy has been of extraordinary effect, and coupled with
intergeneric compatability has culminated in the formation of hybrid groups
which show both greater size and hybrid vigour as compared to parental species.
The important genera which have given maximum number of man-made
hybrids are Cattleya, Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum, Vanda, Dandrobium etc. Some
of the important intergeneric hybrids are:
Ascocenda (Ascocentrum x Vanda)
ORCHIDS 139
Aranda (Arachnis x Vanda)

Aeridovanda (Aerides x Vanda)
Brassocattleya (Brassovola x Cattleya)
Vandaenopsis (Phalaenopsis x Vanda)
Laeliocattleya (Cattleya x Laelia)
Sophrocattleya (Cattleya x Sophronitis)
A few other hybrids evolved for cut flower production on commercial
scale are (Kamemoto, 1980) (Fig.3).
Arachnis—‘Maggie Oei’
Aranthera—‘James Stone’
Aeridochnis—‘Bogor’
Aranda—‘Wendy Scott’
Aranda—‘Christine’
Dendrobium—‘Pompadour’
Dendrobium— ‘Walter Oume’
Dendrobium—' Tomie’
Dendrobium—‘Spell Bound’
Dendrobium— ‘Caesar’
Vanda—‘Miss Joaquim’
Vanda—4Rothschildiana’
Ascocenda—‘Yip Sum Wah’
Oncidium—‘Golden Shower’
The above hybrids are very well suited for Indian climatic conditions
and can be grown on commercial scale.
SEED GERMINATION
Seed structure. The most interesting and adaptive feature of the family
Orchidaceae is the physiology of its seed germination (Arditti, 1977).
Orchid seeds are unique in several respects. They are exceedingly small
and dust like and are produced in very large numbers. As many as 1,300
to 4,000,000 seed per capsule are produced. Their colour may be white,
cream, pale green, reddish, orange or dark-brown (Arditti, 1967) and have
very diverse shapes. Clifford and Smith (1969) arranged all the orchid
seeds in five different standard forms.
Orchid embryo consists of relatively undifferentiated, mostly isodiametric
cells with dense granulated cytoplasm and lose their viability very fast.
Singh (1981) has developed a rapid staining technique to ascertain the
viability of different seed samples (Fig. 4).
Symbiotic seed germination. Under natural conditions, the orchid seeds
germinate after being infected by a fungus (Smith, 1947), the orchid mycorrhiza
Tig. 3. Exotic orchids: (1) Dendrobium ‘Pompadour’, (2) Vanda hybrida. (3) Cattleya trianae.
ORCHIDS 141
Fig. 4. Orchid seed germination: fl) Orchid seed showing embryo and seed coat, (2) Germinated
orchid seedlings on VW medium.
Fig. 5. Suspension culture of orchid embryos: (1) Epidendrum radicans seed on solid VW medium,
(2) Suspension culture showing faster germination.
which term was coined by Frank in 1885 (Mycorrhiza=Root fungus) (Withner,

1959).
Most of the mycorrhizal fungi of orchids fall into a non-sporing group
known as Rhizoctonia (Arditti, 1981), the major species being R. repens,
R. mucoroides and R. languinosa. Subsequent isolates were known as
Mycelium radicis. For quite some time these fungi were called as Orcheomyces.
Later on, however, other fungi were also isolated from orchid cultures
In Japan 54 different fungi were isolated from 20 orchid species (Nishikawa
and Ui, 1976).
Orchid seeds cannot utilize their own reserves or do so very slowly,
they can also not hydrolyse large molecules like starch or cellulose. As a result
asymbiotic germination in the absence of sugar proceeds only to the early
protocorm stage, after which they wait for the external supply of simple sugars
through the help of mycorrhizal fungus.
Until the middle of 19th century European growers had no method for the
germination of orchid seeds, and no hybrids could be produced, the only
method followed was sowing of seeds at the base of the mother plant but
in most of the cases the seeds either did not germinate, got mixed up
or took too long to germinate. This was later followed by Bernards method
(Bernard, 1909) in which culture tubes were inoculated both with seed and
fungi but the method was very elaborate and left much to be desired.
Asymbiotic seed germination. While working on the influence of
carbohydrates on green plants, Lewis Knudson in 1916 also started
experimenting with the germination of orchid seeds (Withner, 1959) on the basis
of the analysis of orchid salep which contained starch, protein, sugars and
minerals, he formulated a medium and successfully germinated seeds of Cattleya,
Laelia, Epidendrum and concluded that fungus was not necessary for orchid
seed germination.
This was the breakthrough in orchid seed germination and was followed
by others who tried to improve the original media of Knudson in order
to germinate other orchid species.
When the seeds are planted on a nutrient medium in vitro not only the
percentage of germination is improved in some cases to 100% but it also
takes less time for further development. It may be mentioned here that
an orchid seed while growing differentiates both bio-chemically and
morphologically (Fig 4).
Different media. Since the advent of Knudsons medium, a large number
of modified media have been standardized and are available in market even
with pre-adjusted pH. The most common media used are Knudsons C. medium
and Vacin and Went medium, the composition of both these media are given
in the following pages (Table 1).
ORCHIDS 143
Table 1. Composition of Knudson C. Medium
Components Quantity
Calcium nitrate, Ca (N03)2 4H2O 1,000 mg

Monopotassium phosphate. KH2PO4 250 mg
Magnesium sulphate, Mg SO4 7H2O 250 mg
Ammonium sulphate, (NFLO2 SO4 500 mg
Ferrous sulphate, FeS04 7H2O 25 mg
Manganese sulphate, MnS04 7H2O 7.5 mg
Sucrose 20 g
Distilled water to make up to 1,000 ml
Agar 9 g
Most of the orchid seed germination media are solid. Recently Singh and
Prakash (1985) have developed a new technique of suspension culture for
the growing of orchid embryos in liquid media (Fig. 5).
In addition to standardizing media for different species, effect of different
growth regulators, auxins, additives etc. have been investigated (Sangamma and
Singh, 1986).
Composition of media. Different media range from simple three-salt
solutions to complexes containing 20 or more salts. Some media are designed for
specific genera like Paphiopedilum, while others for a broad spectrum. Sugars, are
the most common carbon source in different media. Most of the orchids utilize
disaccharides such as sucrose. Some of the species of Cymbidium, however, prefer
glucose to sucrose. After a certain stage of germination the orchid seedlings do
not require any exogenous supply of sugars.
Appropriate sources of nitrogen are the essential features of a balanced
medium. It may be given in the form of nitrates, ammonia, urea etc. Auxins were
the first growth hormones added to the orchid cultures (Withner, 1947) in
majority of cases. IAA, IB A and NAA enhance seed germination and seedling
growth. Bose and Mukheijee (1974) found that Knudson C.supplemented with 1
ppm NAA or IAA resulted in callus formation in Vanda seeds.
Cytokinins have different effect on different species (Arditti, 1967). BAP
(Benzyl amino purine) has known to retard development and differentiation of
Cymbidium protocorms.
Chennaveeriah and Patil (1975) have reported that germination of
Spathoglottis plicata was maximum on the medium supplemented with casein
hydrolysate, coconut water, 2, 4-D, IAA and NAA.
Among vitamins, thiamine only appears to be essential. Pyridoxine,
nicotinic acid and myo-inositol frequently improve cell growth.
Micro-elements like boron, cobalt, copper and iodine are known to induce
faster growth in orchid seedlings.
A large number of complex additives like coconut water, banana pulp
peptone, tomato juice, salep honey and beef extract have been used in different
media to see their effect on orchid seed germination. Withner (1959) reported
that the addition of coconut water to the nutrient media enhanced seedling
growth.
Singh and Prakash (1985) have reported that coconut water 150 ml (v/v) and
banana pulp (100 g/1) was most ideal for the production of robust and healthy
seedlings in most of the tropical orchids.
Preparation of media. All the components of a medium should be dissolved
one at a time to distilled water. Finally agar is added and the solution is warmed
till agar is dissolved. The pH of the media is maintained between 4.5 to 5.2 and
the media is autoclaved at 15 lb pressure for 20 minutes.
Sowing of seeds and transplanting. Seeds are sown on the media under
aseptic conditions. Seeds can be either sterilized or sown directly from the green
capsules. After 15-20 days, the embryo starts swelling and after 30-35 days 2-leaf
stage can be seen. At 4-leaf stage the seedlings are taken out of flasks and after
thorough washing are planted in community pots in a 1:1 mixture of shredded
tree fern fibre or charcoal.
TISSUE CULTURE
Tissue-culture techniques were applied to orchids in 1960 when Dr G.

Morel, the distinguished French botanist, while trying to figure out a way to
prevent virus in potatoes hit upon the idea that the techniques of tissue culture
can be highly successful in cloning of orchids and to get virus-free plants. Since
then the technique has been variously modified and extended from Cymbidium to
56 other genera (Conger, 1981).
This technique was carefully exploited by commercial growers for rare plants
and hybrids which while could not be propagated by any other means, responded
very well to tissue culture at a much faster speed. Vacherot (1966) of Vacherot and
Lecoulfe firm in France has developed a new technique of virus-free plants of
Cymbidium. Today tissue culture is preferred for commercial propagation of
orchids. There are many laboratories which propagate orchid plants on
commission basis and earn million of dollars (Reinert and Bajaj, 1977).
Medium. Both liquid and solid media (Arditti, 1977) are used for the orchid
tissue culture. The explants after being isolated from the shoot are cultured in or
on the desired medium. In most of the cases the simple media used for orchid
seed germination are also used for tissue culture. The same nutrients are used for
both liquid and solid media, with the omission of agar in the former.
Morel (1960) at first used Knudson C. medium for meristem culture of
Catt/eya, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, MUtonia and Phaius. Later, however, he
reduced calcium nitrate substituting it by ammonium nitrate (Table 2). He also
ORCHIDS 145
Table 2. Composition of some important nutrient media used in orchid tissue culture (g)
Chemical Knudson C. Morel Vacin and Wimber

1946 1965 Went 1963
Ammonium sulphate 0.50 1.00 0.50 0.50

Ferrous sulphate 0.025 0.025 - —
Magnesium sulphate 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Manganese sulphate 0.0075 0.0075 0.0075 -
Ammonium nitrate - 0.50 - -
Calcium nitrate 1.0 0.50 - -
Potassium nitrate — - 0.525 0.525
Monopotassium acid phosphate 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Dicalcium phosphate - - 0.20 -
Tricalcium phosphate - - 0.20 -
Potassium chloride - 0.25 — -
Ferric tartarate — — 0.028 0.03
Tryptone - - - 2.0
Sucrose 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
Agar 17.50 17.50 16.00 12.00
Distilled water 1,000 cc 1,000 cc 1,000 cc 1,000 cc
Only inorganic salts are mentioned
found out that plant extracts like tomato juice and coconut water at a
concentration of 10% along with IAA, IB A or NAA were helpful in the
subsequent growth especially after the division of protocorms. Sagawa (1966)
used Knudsons C. medium along with Vacin and Went medium. Scully (1967)
cultured explants of Cattleya on Vacin and Went medium which was modified by
adding 15% (by v/v) coconut water.
Propagation material, explants. In sympodial orchids like Cattleya,
Cymbidium and Dendrobium, a young shoot arising from back bulb provides
suitable material for tissue culture. On longer shoots, there may be several
axillary buds as well as the apical bud, while the monopodial orchids like Vanda,
Aerides, Phalaenopsis, nodal sections, shoot apex, Keikis or offshoots or even
flower stalk cuttings can be used. The other parts of the plant like leaf and root
have also been used by various workers (Tabe 3).
Arditti (1977) has published a very comprehensive review of orchid tissue
culture. Tanaka and Sakanishi (1977) also obtained protocorm like bodies (PLB)
from leaf segments of Phalaenopsis on Ms medium. Stewart and Button (1978)
were able to get callus from Epidendrum roots.
Singh and Prakash (1985) successfully propagated Thunia alba through the
use of flower stalk cuttings. They were also able to get multiple plantlet formation
in liquid Vacin and Went medium supplemented with IBA 2mgl_1, NAA 0.5 mgr1
and coconut water (15% v/v). The technique is well suited for other monopodial
orchids like Epidendrum, Vanda, etc. (Figs. 6, 7, 8).
Table 3. Propagation of orchids through tissue culture
Name of the species Tissue used Medium Results
Arundina bambusifolia Nodal sections from seed-Raghava and Torrey Shoot and root development
lings and from mature (1964) takes place simultaneously after
plants 32-45 days.
Calanthe masuca Nodal sections Modified Vacin & Went Plantlets are formed directly after
(Intuwang & Sagawa, 45-55 days.
1973)
Cattleya hybrids Lateral bud meristem Modified Vacin & Went Meristem grows well in liquid
(Intuwang and Sagawa, medium on shaker and can be
1973) sub-cultured, transferred to solid
medium to get protocorm like
bodies which develop into
plantlets.
Cymbidium hybrids Explants from shoots Vacin and Went liquid Protocorm like bodies are formed
growing on pseudo bulbs(Sagawa, Shoj and Shoji,after 8 weeks, which can be
1966) sub-cultured and put in solid
medium for differentiation.
Dendrobium hybrids Explants from new Vacin and Went liquid Protocorm like bodies are formed
growth (Intuwang and Sagawa, within 3-4 months.
1973)
Nodal sections with 12 Vacin and Went solid Plantlets are formed within
dormant buds (Intuwang and Sagawa, 47-52 days.
1973)
Flower stalk cuttings Vacin and Went solid Plantlets are formed with 60-75
(Intuwang and Sagawa, days.
1973)
Epidendrum radicans Leaf tips Murashige-Skoog, 1962 Callus is formed after 60-75 days.
liquid Plantlets are formed on solid K.C.
medium
Flower stalk cutting Vacin and Went mediumPlantlets are formed after
(Intuwang and Sagawa, 47-52 days.
1973)
Nodal sections Vacin and Went Plantlets are formed within
1973)
Phalaenopsis hybrids Flower stalk cuttings Vacin and Went Plantlets are formed within
1973)
Rhynchostylis retusa Apical meristem from Vajrabhaya and Explants are produced after
shoot tips Vajrabhaya (1970) 140-160 days
Vanda hybrids Terete Nodal sections Vacin and Went Plantlets are formed after
type cv. ‘Miss Joaquim' (Intuwang and Sagawa, 2-3 months
1973) without sucrose
Axillary buds 1. Vacin and Went Plantlets without roots are formed
(Intuwang and Sagawa,
1973)
2. Whites medium Roots are found
ORCHIDS 147
Fig. 6. Tissue culture of orchids—Use of flower stalk cuttings: (1) Flower stalk cutting,
(2) Initiation of rose and elongation of shoot, (3) Young plantlet, (4) Multiple plantlet
formation.
Eig. 7. Tissue culture of orchids: (1) Young mericlones in flask, (2) Transplanted mericlones in the
field.
ORCHIDS 149
Fig. 8. Tissue culture of orchids: (1) Young Phalaenopsis mericlones in flowering, (2) A Vanda
hybrida mericlone flowering.
DEVELOPMENT OF ORCHID INDUSTRY IN INDIA
The Indian orchid industry is not well organized. There are a few exporters
from Kalimpong and Daijeeling and the sale does not exceed Rs 5,00,000 per
annum. The value of the export can be increased considerably if the export is
enhanced and well organised. Due to various climatic conditions which are
available in India based on elevation and rainfall patterns, it is not difficult to grow
different orchid species at different centres for commercialization.
The vital secret behind the commercialization of orchid lies with the orchid
enthusiasts and hobbyists who are the ultimate buyers of the plant, and who
always go for novelty, uniqueness and rarity. A species with moderate type of
flower which is abundant in one region can be a piece of pride and create an aura
of fascination in a different region where the species is introduced for the first
time. There can be two broad categories for commercialization.
Sale of plant material. Novelty, uniqueness and rarity are the basic requisites
for the sale of plants.
All available orchid species which have the above requisites should be
collected, cultivated and properly identified. It has been observed that the selling
rates of Indian species are not fixed and so a committee consisting of
representative from growers and Government organizations should decide the
price of each species for export. The present prices are too low and result in the
loss of valuable foreign exchange.
Export of cut flowers. The cut flower industry in orchids is fast catching up
and the cut flowers produced in tropical and sub-tropical regions are regularly
exported to European and American countries. Singapore and Thailand export
orchids to England and Germany.
In India some of the native genera, like Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum, Vanda,
Arachnis and Dendrobium, can be grown on a large scale for cut flower
production. Only those species should be selected for commercial flower
production which flower in winter and spring as it is only during those months
that India can capture the European and American markets. The best time of the
year to export flowers to temperate regions is from December to May. The main
pre-requisites of developing a successful orchid cut flower industry are (i)
attractiveness and long shelf life of flower, (ii) high productivity and right season
of bloom, and (iii) easy in packing and transportation.
Although the major aim for the development of orchid industry in India
should be export oriented, the domestic market should not be neglected as the
demand for orchid cut flower is likely to increase. Further action needs to be
taken on the following lines.
Introduction of exotic species and hybrids. Instead of depending solely on the
native species and hybrids it is recommended that a large number of modern
ORCHIDS 151
hybrids which are used for cut flower production should be imported. At present
a lot of bottlenecks are imposed on the import of orchid hybrids such as currency
restrictions, quarantine and custom clearance and often plants which are
introduced through considerable effort and expense reach the indentors in non-
viable condition. The procedure for the introduction of plant material should be
simplified and the import of species and hybrids can be achieved through
exchange of native germplasm as also with the help of foreign exchange
generated from the sale of native species.
The imported species and hybrids should be carefully evaluated at different
Indian centres before commercial multiplication. It is also recommended to
import a large number of hybrid seedlings of outstanding parents in order to
provide the diversity in genetic types for subsequent selection.
Breeding of Orchids
It takes on an average, 3-4 years from germination of seeds to first flowering.
The production of new hybrids is therefore a long-term project.
In view of this it is necessary that care is excercised in the selection of
parents for hybridization programme. Genera, like Cymbidium, Dendrobium,
Paphiopedilum, which have their centre of origin in India, are likely to be more
amenable to immediate genetic improvement both for sale of plant material
and for cut flower than the exotic species.
The growing popularity of Cymbidium hybrids in the international market
can be very well exploited by launching a well-planned breeding programme.
Moreover, it is now possible to have cymbidiums in bloom from early October-
June,a period when the Cymbidium cut flowers are in great demand in Europe.
Demand can further be increased throughout the world if certain hybrids are
produced which will flower well in warmer areas as the late bloomers are
receiving considerable attention. Cymbidium simonsianum (a late blooming
species) can be used as one of the parents for the production of late-blooming
hybrids.
There is also very good scope for breeding of maniature cymbidiums which
have a great demand in the international market. Fragrance is another important
feature which can be exploited in Cymbidium breeding.
Standardization of Techniques for Embryo/Seed and Meristem Culture

The growing of orchid seed with the help of culture media has revolutionized
the commercial orchid growing and hybridization, as every viable seed can be
turned into a new plant. This has put orchid growing on par with other
commercial greenhouse crops and has become a highly commercial proposition
in countries like the USA, Europe, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. A few
growers from Kalimpong and Bombay have started seed culture for the
propagation of different species. The meristem culture which enables the

production of a much higher number of plantlets of the same clone in a short time
as compared to old method of pseudo-bulb separation or off-shoot method has
not been tried yet by any commercial grower in India.
Good work in this regard has been carried out by the Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research, Bangalore, National Botanical Research Institute,
Lucknow, and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay. There is a strong need
to start some more units for the propagation of orchids through meristem culture,
and a selected group of orchid growers can be given training for the same at
different centres.
Conservation of Indian Orchids

Deforestation through burning of forest trees (Jhumming) and falling of
forest trees for timber have been the major cause for the depletion of our orchid
wealth.
A large number of orchid species which were present in plenty in our forests
are now at the verge of extinction and some of them have become so rare that a
large number of botanical teams were unable to trace them. To cite an example
Paphiopedilum druryi which was once found in plenty in Agastaya Hills in south is
now difficult to locate and a stage has reached when we may be getting this very
species from some foreign nurseries. Steps should therefore be taken to conserve
our national wealth.
REFERENCES
Abraham, A. and Vatsala, P. 1981. Introduction to Orchids. Tropical Botanic Gardens and Research Institute,
Trivandrum
Arditti, J. 1967. Bot Rev. 33:1-97.
Arditti, J. 1977. Clonal propagation of orchids by tissue culture—a manual. In Orchid Biology. J. Arditti (Ed.), pp.
203-293, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, USA.
Arditti, J. 1981. Adv. Bot. Res. 7:422-638.
Bhattacharjee, S.K. 1985. Cultural management in Orchids. In Progress in Orchid Research. Ed. Chadha and
Singh, I.I.H.R., Bangalore.
Bose, T.K. and Mukheijee, T.I.P. 1976. Orch. Rev. 84:105-108.
Bernard, N. 1909. Ann. Sci. nat. Bot. 91:1-196.
Chadha, K.L. and Singh, Foja 1985. Progress in Orchid Research. I.I.H.R./UNDP, Bangalore.
Chennaveeriah, M.S. and Patil, S.J. 1975. Proc. Sixtieth Indian Sci. Cong. III. 410-11.
Clifford, H.T. and Smith, W.K. 1969. Phytomorphology 19:133-39.
Conger, B.V. 1981. Cloning Agricultural Plants via in vitro Techniques. CRC Press, Florida, USA.
Dodson, C.H. 1962. Ann. Mo. bot. Gdn 49:35-36.
Garay, L. 1960. On the origin of Orchidaceae. Proc. 3rd World Orch. Conf. 172-195.
Goh, C.J. 1983. Ann. Bot. 51:145-47.
Kamemoto, H. 1980. Breeding dendrobiums for cut flower production Natl. Symp. Orch. IIHR, Bangalore.
Jain, S.K. 1980. Orchids and Mountain Flora of India. 67th Session Indian Sci.Congr. Assoc., Calcutta.
ORCHIDS 153
Jain, S.K. 1985. Conservation of orchids in India. Progress in Orchid Research. Ed. Chadha and Sing, IIHR/
UNDP, Bangalore.
Kunisaki, J.T. 1975. Am. Orch. Soc. Bull. 44:1066-67.
Larson, R.A. 1980. Introduction to Floriculture. Acad. Press, USA.
Morel, G. 1960. Am. Orch. Soc. Bull. 29:495-497.
Morel, G. 1985. Cymb. Soc. News 20:3-16.
Nighabhushan, S.R. and Singh, F. 1986. Orchid Digest (communicated).
Northen, R.J. 1970. Home Orchid Growing. Van Nostr, New York.
Nishikawa, T. and Ui, T. 1976. Trans, mycol. Soc. Japan 17:77-84.
Rao, A.N. 1977. Orchids. In Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture. (Ed.) Reinert & Bajaj, Springer Verlag, New
York.
Rao, A.V.N. 1985. Endangered paphiopedilums. In Progress in Orchid Research. (Ed.) Chadha and Singh, IIHR/
UNDP.
Reinert, J. and Bajaj, Y.P.S. 1977. Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture. Springer Verlag, New York.
Sagawa, Y. 1966. Clonal propagation of orchids through shoot meristem culture. Proc. 17th Int. Hort. Cong. 1:239.
Sampolinski, J. 1983. Orchid Review 91:1077.
Sangamma and Singh, F. 1986. Orchid Review (communicated).
Scully, R.M. 1967. Am. Orch. Soc. Bull. 36:103-08.
Singh, F. 1981. Am. Orchid Soc. Bull. 50 : 416-19.
Singh, F. and Prakash, D. 1984. Scientia Hortic. 24:385-90.
Singh, F. and Prakash, D. 1985. Garten bau Wissen schaft. 50:5, 236-238.
Smith, S.E. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 3:275-313.
Stewart, J. and Button, J. 1977. Am. Orch. Soc. Bull. 46:415-18.
Tanaka, M. and Sakanishi, Y. 1977. Am. Orch. Soc. Bull. 46:733-37.
Vacin, E.F. and Went, F.W. Bot. Gaz. 110:605-13.
Vacherot, M. 1966. Meristem tissue culture of orchids. Proc. 5th World Orch. Conf. 23-26.
Withner, C.L. 1959. Orchids—A Scientific Survey. Ronald Press, New York.
Withner, C.L. 1974. The Orchids, Scientific Studies. J. Wiley, New York.
11
Bonsai Culture
Leila Dhanda
Sunder Nagar, New Delhi
B ONSAI culture, a recent development in India, is an important branch of

ornamental horticulture. The present-day garden in most residential areas
may be barely of “postage-stamp size” and the garden lover reduced to exercising
his skillls and love of plants in a balcony or on a terrace. In such a situation, a tree
lover has to give up the idea of growing trees unless they are grown as bonsai
which can be accommodated in a small space.
The history of bonsai is very old indeed, dating back to many centuries in
China where it originated, as most Chinese arts, and from where it spread to
Japan and became highly developed. In fact, bonsai culture is in the present day
more known as Japanese than a Chinese art.
The idea that the Japanese and Chinese people convey to the rest of the
world is of a small beautiful tree growing in a container as in nature, with all its
parts performing their natural functions throughout the year. Indeed, the
onlooker is under the illusion that the tree being observed is either a large adult
or an ancient tree which has somehow been shrunk to occupy a small space. The
keyword in this art is therefore ‘illusion’; surely the tree cannot have the same
number of branches, twigs or leaves as its adult in the ground and yet it appears to
be a copy of such a tree. How does this illusion occur in the beholder’s eye?
The answer to this question lies in the very detailed rules which have been
formulated to enable the grower to develop a natural looking and beautiful tree
growing in the small space of a container. There are many classifications of these
rules but the simplest for a neophyte in the bonsai art is that in which the form of
the future tree may be divided into styles according to the way in which it is
grown, e.g. formal upright, informal upright, slanting, windswept, semi-cascade,
cascade, broom, tree with more than one trunk, more than one tree planted as a
group, rock plantings and mame (‘baby’) bonsai. The names of these styles are
self explanatory and the rules are almost identical for many of them. The ‘formal
upright’ style describes a tree which has spreading large roots on the surface of
the soil, a straight tapering trunk, which when divided into three equal parts has
the bottom one-third bare of branches, the middle one-third carrying the three or
154
BONSAI CULTURE 155
four main branches and the top one-third is occupied by numerous small
branches ending in the tip which may be pointed or rounded according to the
type of tree grown. The main branches of an adult tree, contrary to a
juvenile tree spread in a horizontal manner, slightly downwards or slightly
upwards, therefore the three main branches in this style of bonsai will spread in
like manner, one to one side, the other to the opposite side both slightly forwards
and the third to the back of the tree giving the necessary appearance of depth and
defining the front of the tree from which side it should be viewed. This style will
be seen to depict a tree of conical shape. The trunk is visible fully in the bottom
one-third and is seen partially through the main branches in the middle one-third
and is not seen at all in the top one-third. The same basic rules will apply to the
‘informal upright’ and ‘slanting’ style but the trunk in the former style is not
straight and in the slanting style, as its name implies is slanted. The ‘windswept’
style has the branches growing from one side of the tree, all swept in one direction
by the force of the wind. The two ‘cascade’ styles have a similar arrangement of
branches as in the first three styles except the branch to give depth is in front
instead of to the back of the tree. These styles represent a tree growing over a cliff
or a rock in a fountain-like manner. The trunk grows upwards for a short distance
and then falls over the side of the container to a point above its bottom in the
‘semi-cascade’ style and below the bottom of the pot in the ‘cascade’ style. Other
styles, as already mentioned are the ‘broom’ style where the branches grow
approximately from the same spot on the trunk and spread in the form of an
inverted broom, the ‘multi-trunked’ style, the group plantings of two or more
trees, the ‘rock’ plantings and ‘mame’ or ‘baby’ bonsai. The ‘rock’ plantings are of
two types; in one of which all the roots of the tree are accommodated in a hollow
in the rock and the second type in which the roots clasp the rock and pass down
into a container holding the rock and soil. The ‘mame’ bonsai is not more than 15
cm in height.
HOW TO START A BONSAI
The methods of starting a bonsai are the same as for any plant. A seed may
be grown and the plant started on its bonsai career from an early stage, or
cuttings, layerings or grafts may be made according to the type of plant being
grown. A favourite way of starting a bonsai is to buy a suitable plant
from a nursery and to shape it immediately into the particular style desired. A
small ready-made bonsai may sometimes be dug up from rocky areas where the
tree has been growing almost as a bonsai in a small space restricted by rocks. All
these procedures for starting a bonsai are naturally undertaken during the
growing seasons which vary slightly in different parts of the country but are
roughly the spring season of February-March and the monsoon season of July-
August. An indication of when to start the bonsai is when the plant to be grown is
budding. There are certain exceptions to these rules, for instance pines, plums,
peaches if being grown in places other than the hills are not started in the
monsoon but in the spring seasons and bougainvilleas are not planted in spring
but in the monsoon season.
Soil. The soil used for a bonsai would resemble as much as possible the type
of soil where the plant usually grows. It is better to use a soil of coarse texture in
which the oxygen content is high and in which the drainage is adequate. The soil
should be able to retain enough moisture to last for the plant until the next
watering but should not remain waterlogged. Suitable compost would contain
loam to which some leaf mould may be added as well as coarse builder’s sand
which will increase the porosity of the soil, and, therefore its draining properties.
Steamed bone-meal as well as sludge in small quantities may also be added to the
compost for flowering and fruiting tree.
Choosing a container. There are two important points to be borne in mind
while choosing a container for a bonsai. Firstly, the drainage holes should be
adequate for the size of the pot and secondly, in shape, size and colour it should
harmonise with the tree being grown. Only then will it be aesthetically acceptable
to the viewer. The dark earth colours are preferable to light or bright colours
though these may sometimes be used for flowering and fruiting trees as matching
or contrasting colour to the flowers or fruit. Considering the shape of the
container, a rectangular or oval one is suitable for the ‘formal upright’, ‘slanting’
and ‘windswept’ styles and the tree is planted at the junction of one-third and two-
thirds of its length. Other styles look well in round or square pots when the tree is
planted approximately in the centre. Tall containers are used for the ‘cascading’
styles. The materials used for making containers are cement, clay and ceramic.
Cement pots are apt to be heavy and clumsy unless carefully made. Terracotta
clay pots are excellent for beginners as they are cheap. Ceramic pots are usually
used for mature bonsai. Rocks and stones of various shapes and sizes are also
used as containers and look natural and suitable to the subject if carefully chosen.
CHOICE OF PLANT
When selecting a plant to be grown as a bonsai it is essential to choose a

variety hardy in the climate where it is to be grown. Besides this it is more
appropriate to the small size of the bonsai to choose the type of tree which has
small leaves, flowers and fruit. The leaves of many trees will reduce in size owing
to repeated pruning of the bonsai but the flowers and fruits will not go smaller
unless the bonsai has been underfed.
Among the conifers available to the enthusiast, there are very few which
grow well in most climatic zones in this country. In the north, the Pinus roxburghii
BONSAI CULTURE 157
Fig. 1. Bougainvillea ‘Lady Mary Baring
Portulacaria afra are examples of these.
GENERAL ASPECTS
Selection of a plant. The purchase of a nursery plant for the purpose of

is hardy and grows well but will occasionally require a clipping of its needles
which otherwise grow excessively long. In many parts of the subcontinent the
Juniperus prostrata remains the ideal conifer for growing as a bonsai in most
styles. Its only defect appears to be the slow thickening of the trunk. Araucaria
excelsa may also be tried, though it is hardly a beginner’s tree. The broad-leaved
trees offer ample choice for the bonsai grower. The genus Ficus has many suitable
species such as the Ficus benghalensis (barh) with its interesting aerial roots, Ficus
virens (pilkhan) which is very easy to grow, Ficus religiosa (peepal) known to every
one, Ficus microcarpa (retusa) with small leaves and Ficus benjamina—perhaps
the best of all, which also has many suitable varieties. Besides these, there are
many other species in this genus appropriate for bonsai including Ficus carica (the
edible fig) which produces delicious fruit. In the same family there is the genus
Morus (mulberry) which with care develops into beautiful bonsai. Other
attractive plants are the peach and plum which flower and fruit in colder climates,
the tamarind which grows all over the country, as likewise the Pithecellobium
dulce (jungle jalebi) with its small leaflets. Certain wild trees such as Celtis
australis, Holoptelea integrifolia and many of the acacias are also excellent bonsai
subjects though not so easily available in nurseries because they are not used as
shade or decorative trees. Many more trees are available to the bonsai grower
besides those listed above.
Malpighia coccigera is an extremely attractive shrub bearing small white or
light pink flowers in many profuse flushes. The leaves are small neat and shining,
like miniature holly leaves and the plant lends itself to shaping in many styles.
The Chinese orange and miniature pomegranate both produce pretty flowers and
the small proportionate, variegated Duranta and Chinese X\me(Triphasia trifolia)
are all useful shrubs for bonsai. The last mentioned develops a large number of
small red fruit. Murraya paniculata and its more free-flowering varieties are also
deservedly becoming popular.
The creeper of choice for the bonsai grower is the Bougainvillea where the
choice of colour and style is great. It would be better not to choose a very
rampantly growing variety as its control would be more difficult than one with a
neat habit of growth like the small-leaved variety ‘Sanderiana’. A visit to a
Bougainvillea-growing nursery during the flowering season would help in the
choice of colour and growth pattern. A favourite creeper in Japan is the Wisteria
which can only be grown in cooler parts of this country but the Petrea volubilis is a
fairly adequate replacement. Banisteria laurifolia with its elegant Malpighia-
shaped, bright yellow flowers is a cheerful addition to the bonsai collection as
also the white-flowering star jasmine (Trachelospermum jasminoides) and the
honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica). The last mentioned is eminently suitable for the
‘rock-clasping’ and ‘cascade’ styles. Several herbaceous plants are also used in
bonsai culture. Bamboo, Nandina domestica, Crassula argentea Cade plant) and
BONSAI CULTURE 159
Fig. 2. Bougainvillea ‘Sanderiana
forming it ultimately into a bonsai needs care and discrimination on the part of
the buyer. An old plant naturally would have a desirably thicker trunk. The trunk
would need examination to determine if it could be bent in any direction,
alternately if without bending it would lend itself to shaping into the style to be
made. It is always better to have a number of branches within 10-25 cm of the
base of the trunk from which to choose the three main branches of the future
bonsai.
Training. The health of the plant and freedom from pests is also to be
assessed. Before potting the plant, a suitable style is to be decided on.
Unnecessary branches are removed, the tip of the tree is chosen and the rest of
the plant is cut off above this level. Copper wire is used to arrapge the branches in
the correct position and with any necessary curves. The wire used must be thick
enough to hold the branch or trunk being wired in the position chosen, but not
thicker than desired. The length of wire is measured against the part to be wired
and is cut off. For the trunk the wire is pushed into the soil at the back of the tree
for about 4-5 cm and coiled round the trunk in evenly-spaced, firm, but not tight
spirals to well above the last curve desired. When a branch is to be wired the
beginning of the wire must be fixed over the fork,where the branch separates
from the trunk, by passing a loop of wire firmly round it and then continuing the
wiring as described for the trunk. The bending of either trunk or branches is to be
carried out with extreme care placing the thumbs in the concave side of a curve to
support it and prevent breakage. When the whole tree has been shaped with wire
the branches and twigs are shortened if necessary in proportion with the height of
the tree. Other methods of changing the position or direction of the branches may
be also improvised by tying polythene tape to the branch and the pot or any other
object. Wire has to be removed in approximately three months after application
to avoid permanent disfiguration of the part wired, whereas tape may be left on for
any length of time.
The next step is to prepare the container decided upon by covering the
drainage holes with plastic netting and spreading a layer of soil over the bottom of
the pot. The plant is taken out of its pot with the soil intact, and with a pointed
stick (a No. 8 or 9 metal knitting needle is suitable). The soil, which should be
fairly dry, is carefully removed from the outside of the ball of earth, inwards and
downwards until about two-thirds of it has been removed. The tap root is then to
be identified and if the fine fibrous roots are plentiful it should be completely
removed. If the small roots are not sufficient to supply the tree with sustainence a
portion of the tap root is cut off and the remainder left till the tree is re-potted.
Any other thick roots may also be proportionately removed. The remaining fine
roots are clipped back if too long and the plant is now positioned in its container.
Soil is poured in around the tree to fill the pot and is poked under and around the
remaining ball of earth with the pointed stick to eliminate air pockets and to firmly
settle the tree. If air pockets are not filled carefully as described the fine roots will
die off when they reach such a pocket and this inevitably endangers the safety of
the tree. The ball of earth, if too large to fit into the depth of the pot, may project
above the level of its top, but this may easily be covered over with soil. An uneven
surface frequently looks natural and attractive. The top of the soil may be finished
off with green moss which is thinly removed from the damp shady places where it
grows and placed on the soil surface, being carefu’ to press the edges firmly onto
the soil to prevent them from curling up and drying. A tastefully chosen and
positioned rock may add to the aesthetic appearance of the tree. Watering is now
carried out by placing the planted tree in a basin of water which reaches within 1
cm of the top of the pot. The water will pass through the drainage holes and the
bonsai may be removed from the water when all the soil is soaked. The bonsai is
now to be kept outside in such a place that it is shaded from the sun and sheltered
BONSAI CULTURE 161
from wind.
Aftercare. Many people feel that once they have started a bonsai or been
given or bought one nothing further is to be learnt. This is far from the truth
because the correct care of the bonsai is what leads to its healthy growth. The
bonsai needs fresh air and sunshine, food and water, pruning and pinching,
removal of weeds and dealing with pests and diseases besides repotting when
necessary. The bonsai is an outdoor plant and depending on the species, needs its
full share of sunshine. Morning sun for a few hours will suffice but most bonsai
prefer sunshine for a greater part of the day if they are shaded between the hours
of 12 a.m. and 4 p.m. in summer. If sunshine is only available from one direction
the bonsai must be turned round once a week to avoid lopsided growth.
Irrigation. The art of correct watering has to be learnt by the owner of the
bonsai. Water has to be given when the top-soil begins to dry and if given from
above by the use of a spray attachment to a water-pipe or from a watering-can it
must be given in such quantity that excess comes out through the drainage holes.
A few bonsai may be watered by the method used in the first potting of a bonsai
but for a larger number this would become cumbersome. A few points about the
watering of bonsai deserve special mention. It is the wind more than the sun that
dries the plant whether it is cold or hot wind, therefore greater care in watering is
needed on windy days. Plants, like pines, which use less water need watering less
often than broad leaf trees, but when watered some water should flow out of the
drainage holes otherwise the bottom roots will suffer from drought which may
ultimately kill the plant. Dormant plants need water but much less frequently
than when not dormant. During rainy weather a shower may have been
insufficient to completely water the bonsai and in such cases water should be
supplied as usual. Plants which are due to produce flower buds benefit by less
frequent watering. It is better not to water during the mid-day hours of summer or
at least it should be seen that water does not fall on the leaves at this time of the
day.
Nutrition. Some of the safe fertilizers to use on bonsai are the various
oilcakes like rapeseed cake or neem cake. The method of using them is to soak the
oilcake in the proportion of 1 kg per ten litres of water in a well covered vessel
until fermentation has taken place which is in approximately two to four weeks
depending on the season. The liquid is then used diluted one in fifteen with
water, on plants which have been watered a short while before. This may be used
once a week in about a month after potting or repotting when the roots are
growing well. The periods in which to avoid the use of fertilizers are during the
monsoon and the tree’s dormant season. Alternatively a good mixed NPK
fertilizer can be used though very sparingly. Superphosphates may be applied to
encourage flowering as also bone-meal which may be added to the compost while
potting or repotting.
Pruning and pinching. These are the techniques used to shape the tree and to
reduce the size of the leaves. After the new growth has developed to four or five
new leaves, the twig is pinched off just beyond the first or second leaf depending
on which way the leaf behind the cut is pointing. This leaf is chosen to indicate
the future growth of the new twig as it will grow in the same direction as this leaf.
Repeated pinching in this manner is carried out through the growing season.
Pruning is done when the tree is first planted and is repeated whenever found
necessary to retain or improve the shape of the tree.
Daily care of the bonsai includes removing weeds, unnecessary new buds,
and dealing with pests and diseases as they wou’d be dealt with in the trees
growing in the ground.
Repotting. Repotting of the bonsai is done once a year at the same time as
the trees are normally potted, that is when they are budding. As a bonsai grows
older, the repotting process needs to be performed once in two, three or more
years depending on the age of the tree. To find if the tree needs repotting see if
roots are protruding from the drainage holes and if much resistance is met to a
finger or thumb pressed on the surface of the soil. This denotes the presence of
very little soil and a large number of roots. These two points besides the sudden
need of the bonsai for excessive water without much change in weather are
indications that it needs repotting. The bonsai with the soil intact is taken out of
the container which is washed, dried and prepared with plastic netting over the
drainage holes and a layer of soil covering the bottom. Starting from the outer
edge and proceeding inwards and downwards, the soil is removed from between
the fine roots till it is approximately one-third of its original quantity and the
fine roots are exposed. These roots are clipped back almost to the remaining ball
of earth and also from its lower surface. Any thick roots that have grown are cut
off. Fresh compost is added as described from potting and the bonsai is watered.
It will hopefully be clear from this description that to develop a bonsai
simple horticultural techniques are used. The tap-root and other large roots are
cut off to encourage the growth of fine fibrous roots. This is done when the buds
are beginning to swell and the clipping of the roots stimulates the buds to grow
and the growth of the buds in turn stimulates the roots to grow. Besides, the
development and retention of shape and size of the bonsai is accomplished by
pruning, pinching and wiring.
12
Propagation of Ornamental Plants
Amitabha Mukhopadhyay
P ROPAGATION is an important aspect in ornamental horticulture. In nature

plants multiply themselves by means of seeds and different vegetative parts.
In the garden a horticulturist or a gardener has to learn the different methods of
propagation by which the plants are multiplied, either to replace an old or
diseased stock or to meet the increasing demands of an expanding garden or
nursery. Broadly, the different methods of propagation are divided into 2
categories: (a) Sexual propagation and (b) Asexual or vegetative propagation.
SEXUAL PROPAGATION
Plants are sexually propagated by seeds and spores. However, a spore

is basically an asexual body; but when it falls on a moist surface, it
produces small plant bodies (prothallia), which develops the sex organs
(archegonia and antheridia). These two organs in due course of time develop
the sex elements (gametes), which fuse and the resulting body develops
into a plant. This type of propagation is common in ferns.
In India sexual propagation is followed mostly in the cases of flowering
annuals (seasonal flowers) and most of the shade, flowering or ornamental
trees. Some annual creepers, like Clitoria ternatea, Cobaea scandens, Lathyrus
odoratus, Ipomoea spp., Quamoclit pennata, Thunbergia alata, Tropaeolum majus
etc., are also cultivated from seeds (Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay, 1986). The
other type of plants which are also commonly propagated in our country from
seeds are palms and different cacti and succulents. It is the commercial nurseries
in India which propagate these plants from seeds.
Several ornamental shrubs like Adenium obesum, Asclepias curassavica,
Bauhinia acuminata, B. galpinii, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Cassia biflora,
Cotoneaster, Galphimia gracilis, Holmskioldia sanguinea, Memecylon edule,
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Ochna squarrosa, Rauwolfia canescens, Sophora
tomentosa and Thevetia neriifolia are also propagated from seeds. While
163
some of the above shrubs are normally multiplited by seeds only (eg. Cassia
biflora), but others can both be multiplied by seeds as well as other
vegetative means (eg. Adenium obesuni). Besides, some shrubs which are
normally used as hedge in the garden are also multiplied by seeds. These
are Lawsonia alba, Malpighia coccigera, M. glabra and Murraya exotica.
It may be noted that some of these can also be propagated by one of the
vegetative methods.
Several other ornamentals, which are not normally propagated from seeds
by horticulturists in the garden, are multiplied by seeds by breeders
to get new hybrids. Some of these plants are rose, chrysanthemum, gladiolus,
hippeastrum, bougainvillea, hibiscus, crotons etc.
Some seeds which have hard seed coats need external treatments to
facilitate quick as well as better germination. The methods employed are cracking
or chipping of seed coats by mechanical means, abrasion, soaking in water,
scarification (in acid) and stratification. Mechanical scarification of sandal seeds
reported to have improved their germination (Rao and Reddy, 1980). Removal of
the mesocarp (hard shell) in sandal seed also accelerated germination (Srimathi
and Rao, 1969). Seeds of many tree species (e.g., Mimusops elengi, Delonix regia)
need pre-soaking in water for about 24 hours for better germination. A comer of
these seeds could also be chipped (or cut) carefully, before sowing for better
penetration of water. Seeds of other plants like palms, canna and rose also have
hard seed coats and need pre-treatment before sowing. In rose, to obtain good
germination the seeds are subjected to cold treatment before stratification. To
improve the germination percentage of rose seeds, a procedure had been
developed at the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (Alexander, 1977),
which may be described. After the rose hips (i.e. fruit) ripe and turn pink, these
are harvested and dried for 2-3 days. The seeds are extracted from the hips and
immersed in concentrated sulphuric acid for 30 minutes and then washed in
running water for about a couple of hours. This procedure is known as
scarification. After scar fication, the seeds are mixed with fine sand or vermiculite
and transferred into a plastic bag, whose mouth is sealed after the proper
identification levels are put inside. The packets are then placed in a refrigerator at
3°C for 3 months. Thereafter, these are sown. Some improvement in germination
was reported following this treatment.
It has been observed that treatment with various growth regulators
improved seed-set in many ornamentals. Thus Bose and Kapur (1969) observed
that GA3 spray at 1 ppm, 24 hours after pollinat on increased percentage of seed-
set. Similarly, Bose and Mukherjee (1968) noted that application of GA3, IBA,
and Naphlnalene acetamide (NAd) spray at concentrations of 1, 10 and 100 ppm
after 6,24 and 48 hours of pollination, improved seed-yield in cineraria. An earlier
work (Rao and Rao, 1963) also showed the effects of gibberellic acid on fruit
PROPAGATION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 165
development in Hibiscus rosa-sinensis.
The effects of pre-sowing treatment of seeds with growth regulators on
growth, flower ng and seed-yield had also been studied on some ornamentals.
Agnihotri and Srivatsava (1964) reported that when seeds of Impatiens balsamina
were soaked in 5 ppm IBA solution before sowing for 20 hours, the resultant
plants produced more seeds over the control. The work of Bankar (1980) on the
effects of pre-sowing soaking of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum indicum L.)
seeds with gibberellic acid indicated that plants produced from gibberellic acid-
treated seeds (80 ppm) flowered early. Several other parameters were also
affected. Rao and Reddy (1980) studied the effect of pre-soaking of sandal seeds
(Santalum album L.) on germination. According to them higher concentrations of
these chemicals accelerated germination. Venkatarayappa et al. (1982) studied
that treatment of seeds of Chrysalidocarpus lutescens (a palm) with 50 ppm
sodium cyanide and 50 ppm GA3 resulted in early and higher percentage of
germination with vigorous seedlings. Mulick and Chatterjee (1967) and Ravel and
Chatterji (1971) studied the beneficial effects of sodium cyanide on germinat on
in other ornamentals.
Climatic factors and nutritional status of the soil affect seed production in
many ornamental flowers, especially the flowering annuals. According to Bose
(1984) transplanting of China aster seedlings during first week of October, in
West Bengal improved seed-yield. Whereas, early (September) or late planting
affected seed-yield adversely. Similarly, planting of China aster during October in
Pune, significantly produced highest yield of seeds (Anon., 1981). Marked
difference in yield of seeds was noticed in Tagetes erecta (African marigold) in
West Bengal due to variation in time of planting (Bose, 1984). Research
conducted in Pune (Mahatma Phule Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya) also indicated that
time of planting had a bearing on the seed-yield of this crop. According to Bose
(1984) carnations yielded higher quantities of seeds, when sown during October
in West Bengal. Das et al. (1981) also observed the effect of environment on the
seed-yield of Echium plantagineum.
Both nitrogen as well as phosphorus appears to have influenced seed yields
in marigold, China aster and carnation. Yadav (1982) reported that application of
300 kg of nitrogen and 200 kg each of phosphorus and potassium improved seed-
yield in African marigold. While Bose (1984) reported improved seed-yield in
China aster as a consequence of application of 300 kg/ha of nitrogen; Yadav
(1982) concluded that seed-yield of this crop could also be improved over control’
with the application of 200 kg/ha each of phosphorus and potassium. The
s gnificant effects of increased seed-yield as a consequence ofN (200 kg/ha) and
phosphorus (400 kg/ha) application on China aster was also studied at Pune
(Anon., 1981). Improved seed-yield as a consequence of mineral nutrition was
also noticed in carnation (Bose, 1984).
Amongst some other factors which affect seed production in various

ornamentals, self and cross incompatibility are also important. It is reported
(Karihaloo, 1986, personal communication) that crop like tuberose cv ‘Single’
and some cultivars of Hamerocallis are self incompatible.
Another important stride made in India in the field of seed propagation is
the cryo-preservation of seeds (i.e., preservation in liquid nitrogen), as a result of
which the seeds remain viable for years together. A gene bank facility has been
created at the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, which is one
of the only few such facilities in the world. Here seeds will be preserved for up to
20 years, without loss of viability, at a temperature up to -40°C. Thereafter, the
seeds could be sown again and from the resultant plant a new generation of seeds
will again be stored in the gene bank and thus the progeny will be perpetuated.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Vegetative propagation may be defined as a method in which a complete

plant is produced from one vegetative bud or several such buds. This broad
definition will include all asexual methods such as cutting, layering, division,
separation, budding and grafting. A large number of ornamental plants, are
multiplied by the one method or other of vegetative propagation.
Cutting
Cutting is a process by which a plant is produced by severing a vegetative
portion from the plant and rooting it in a favourable medium under optimum
conditions. Various plant parts such as stems, roots, leaves and modified
stems such as corms, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs and runners, are used for
this purpose. Raising plants by cuttings is the cheapest and most convenient
method of vegetative propagation and is also the most popular amongst
the gardeners.
The stem cuttings can be categorised into 3 types:
Soft-wood cuttings. These types of cuttings can still be sub-divided
into two groups. In the first group comes those cuttings which are taken
from herbaceous plants such as coleus, carnation, dahlia, chrysanthemum
etc. The second group consists of cuttings taken from the unripened tips
of woody plants, such as most of the ornamental shrubs and some trees.
The cuttings should be detached from the mother plant from below a node.
Semi-hard-wood cuttings. Semi-hard-wood cuttings are those which have
passed the soft-wood stage but yet to ripen fully. Jasmines and hydrangeas
are example of plants from which such cuttings are taken for propagation.
Hard-wood cuttings. The cuttings which are taken from the mature current
years growth, as in some shrubs and trees. While in the first two categories
of cuttings the length of cutting remains between 2.5 to 10 cm and 15
to 25 cm, but in case of hard-wood cuttings the length depends upon the
nature of plants and prevailing climatic conditions. In trees like Gliricidia
maculata, Ficus benghalensis, Citharexylon and certain Erythrina sp., 1- lj m
long cuttings root easily when planted in warm humid weather (Randhawa and
Mukhopadhyay, 1986). But normally, for many other hard-wood cuttings the
length varies between 15 and 30 cm.
The stem cuttings are further categorised into 3 groups:
(i) Terminal cuttings. Such cuttings are obtained from terminal portion
of a shoot. The leaves from the lower portion of the cuttings are removed
by snipping (and not by tearing off), while 2-4 leaves are retained in
the apex. If the size of the leaves is very large, these may be cut into
halves. Most of the cuttings are to be inserted in the rooting media as
early as possible, after being detached from the mother plant. But in
case of cacti and some other succulent plants, these are air-dried for
2-4 days before inserting in the rooting media (Das and Mukhopadhyay,
1976: Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay, 1986).
(ii) Heel cuttings. When lateral shoots are pulled off from the stem with
a portion of the stem attached to it, these are called heel cuttings.
Heel cuttings root more easily. If needed, the basal end could be smoothened
off with a sharp knife. Sometimes carnation cuttings are taken in this
way.
(iii) Node cuttings. Plants like Dracaena and Dieffenbachia are propagated
from single or multiple node cuttings. Such cuttings are normally placed
horizontally on the rooting media.
It is important to note the end of the cutting, which is nearest to the
root of the parent plant, should be inserted in the rooting media, as
roots will develop from that end only. This phenomenon is known as polarity.
If a cutting is put upside down, either it does not root, or when in some
cases it roots, the roots are few and short-lived.
The success of rooting depends on several external and physiological
factors. The external factors are season, light, temperature, photoperiod,
humidity, rooting media and aeration. In our country the rainy season
in the plains appears to be the best time for striking cuttings or taking
layers. Just before detaching the cuttings from the mother plant, if the
mother plant was receiving optimum photoperiod, then the cutting would
have accumulated good amount of carbohydrates, which in turn would be
helpful in root generation. Cuttings root poorly if placed in shade compared
to a lighted place. The formation of callus may be helped by a cool temperature,
but root growth is promoted by higher temperatures. Since a detached cutting
cannot draw enough water, a humid atmosphere in the cutting zone is helpful
for root formation. A good aeration in the rooting zone is also helpful
and hence choice of media for striking cutting is important (Bose and
Mukherjee, 1972; Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay, 1986).
Amongst the physiological factors which have bearing on rootings are
presence of leaf and active bud (vegetative) in the cutting, polarity, nutrient level
and amount of auxin present in the cutting. Polarity and the presence of leaf on
cutting had already been emphasised. The presence of active bud or leaf is
essential as auxins are produced in the buds. Atleast in certain species, the
presence of flower buds have antagonistic effect on rooting. Low levels of
nitrogen, rather than high is beneficial for root formation. A complete absence of
boron may result in the total failure in root formation.
There are three methods of application of auxins. The more orthodox
method, which is not followed much now is the prolonged soaking for 24 hours at
low concentrations of auxins (10-100 ppm). The advanced method is to
dip the basal portion of the cutting in high concentrations of auxins
(1,000 to 10,000 ppm) for 5 seconds to 2 minutes depending upon the nature
of cutting. In the third method, cuttings are treated with talc mixed
with 500-12,000 ppm of auxins. The commonly used root-promoting auxin
is Indolebutyric acid (IBA). Next in order of importance are Naphthaleneacetic
acid (NAA) and Indoleacetic acid (IAA). However, the latter two are less
uniformly effective. Sometimes a mixture of two hormones may be more
effective. Bhujbal and Kale (1973) conducted a rooting experiment with Rosa
multiflora, R. bourboniana and R. moschata involving the auxins IAA, IBA or
combination of both. It was observed that R. multiflora produced the maximum
percentage of rooted cuttings, and number and length of roots in response to
1,000 ppm of IAA+IBA. R. moschata also responded well to a combination of
IAA and IBA treatment.
The relevance of rooting media has been mentioned earlier. A porous media
which holds enough moisture (but at the same time drains excess water),
and permits good aeration is congenial for root formation. Patil and Verma
(1965) studied the effect of different media on the rooting of cuttings
in Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Hard-wood cuttings from this species were rooted
in different media like sphagnum moss, shredded sphagnum, vermiculite,
saw-dust, soil and sand. According to them the highest percentage of rooting
was obtained in sphagnum (a highly porous media, which retains good moisture),
followed by shreded sphagnum. The first-mentioned media also produced
more number of roots.
The effect of season and photoperiod on rooting of cuttings has also
been studied in some ornamentals like chrysanthemum (Shanmugam et al.,
1973). Chrysanthemum cuttings were subjected to 39 days supplementary
lighting from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. starting either immediately after planting

or 1 or 2 months later. The first two treatments increased the shoot/root
ratio and the third treatment reduced it by enhancing root growth. According
to Yadav et al. (1978), Bougainvillea cv, ‘Mary Palmer’ cuttings planted
in middle of August produced highest percentage of rootings, average root
numbers per cutting and maximum root length. Several other authors
emphasised the importance of the rainy season for obtaining highest success in
rooting of cuttings (Bose and Mukherjee, 1972; Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay,
1986).
The success of rooting in a cutting depends much on the juvenility
of the cutting and presence of leaf or vegetative bud in the cutting.
Cuttings taken from young plant, root easily, compared with those taken
from an old plant (Bose and Mukherjee, 1972). Similarly cuttings taken
from a recently matured wood will root better compared with those taken
from old wood. The presence of leaf in the cutting for the promotion of
root formation had been mentioned by many workers (Satpathy, 1961; Hore,
1962; Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay, 1986). Experimental evidences are
available with several ornamentals in this regard. The presence of leaves in the
cutting markedly promoted rooting and percentage of rooting as well as
the number of roots per cutting, whereas leafless and budless cuttings
failed to produce roots in plants like Jasminum auriculatum, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
(Mukhopadhyay and Bose, 1979) and Bougainvillea cv ‘Mary Palmer’ (Yadav et
al., 1978).
A survery through the literature on rooting of cuttings showed that a
large number of works were concentrated on two plants, viz. Hibiscus
rosa-sinensis and bougainvilleas. Some of the earlier works on Bougainvillea
were carried out by Mukhopadhyay and Bose (1966), Rao (1967) and Srivastava
(1966). While Mukhopadhyay and Bose (1966) and Rao (1967) used IB A, NAA
and Seradix B-3 ( a commercial hormone preparation) by the prolonged soaking
method with weak concentrations, on the other hand Srivastava (1966) used
both the soak and quick dip and talc methods with IAA and NAA using
concentrations up to 20,000 ppm. He observed that prolonged soaking with IAA
(50 ppm) or NAA (50 and 100 ppm)produced 100% rooting. Hundred per cent
success was also obtained with quick dip at 8,000 ppm NAA. Not much of success
was obtained with the dusting method with talc, but this treatment was
better than the control. Mukhopadhyay and Bose (1966) concluded that the
maximum success of rooting was obtained with IBA compared with NAA.
Amongst the other workers who studied the rooting of cuttings with
bougainvillea mention may be made of the works carried out by Bose and Bose
(1968), Chakravarty (1970), Misra (1971), Nathulal et al. (1972), Mauraya et
al. (1974), Yadav et al. (1978) and Mukhopadhyay and Bose (1979). In
a recent work Chaudhari et at. (1982) observed that Bougainvillea cv

‘Shubhra’ rooted well when treated with IAA, IB A or NAA at 150-750 ppm
by quick-dip method. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis appears to be another popular
plant on which several experiments on rooting of cuttings were undertaken.
The effect of different growth regulators and their mode of application
on softwood (Shanmugavelu, 1960), semi-hardwood (Shanmugavelu, 1960a)
and hardwood (Shanmugavelu, 1961) cuttings of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is
discussed here. Seventy per cent success was obtained when the roots
were soaked in IBA (25 ppm) and quick-dip treatment with IBA (2,000 ppm),
while 75% success was obtained when the roots were given dust treatment
with NAA (1,000 ppm). The semi-hardwood cuttings of the same plant responded
well to produce 90% rooting with a 5 seconds quick-dip treatment either -
with IBA or NAA compared with 10% obtained with untreated cuttings.
Prolonged soaking or dust treatment with either of the hormones produced
intermediate responses. Hardwood cuttings were subjected to treatment with
IBA, NAA or IAA. Maximum rooting success and length of roots were obtained
by treatment with NAA, followed by IBA. The success obtained with IAA was
comparatively less. The author concluded that for hardwood cuttings prolonged
soaking was preferable to a quick dip or dusting. However, it may be mentioned
here that now-a-days workers prefer a quick-dip method as this is less
time-consuming and cumbersome. Moreover, it is said that in case of prolonged
soaking some nutrients and possibly auxins leak out of the cuttings, which
is detrimental for rooting. Mukhopadhyay and Bose (1979) emphasised the
presence of leaves in Hibiscus cuttings for proper rooting.
Factors responsible for rooting in Hibiscus were studied by various workers.
In an investigation vegetative twigs of a shy-rooting white-flowered variety were
girdled at a distance of 20 cm from the tip and held on the mother plant for 10, 20,
30 and 40 days before cuttings were taken and planted. Rooting was poor and only
8% of the cuttings detached 30 or 40 days girdling produced roots. Analysis of
amino acids from the cuttings indicated that alanine, arginine and glutamine were
present in larger amounts 40 days after girdling and histidine 30 days after
girdling. In the easy-to-root red variety concentrations of these four amino acids
increased progressively after girdling. This investigation indicated the possible
role of amino acids in rooting of cuttings. Choudhury and Gaur (1953) studied the
beneficial effects of certain amino acids and growth regulators on the survival and
rooting behaviour of Duranta plumieri cuttings. Further work had been done by
Bose et al. (1973) on the physiology of rooting of easy-to-root and difficult-to-root
cultivars of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Bougainvillea. They observed a significant
decrease in auxin level during the course of root formation in the easy-to-root
cuttings of Bougainvillea cv ‘Partha’ and Hibiscus cv ‘My Beauty’. No significant
auxin activity could be detected in the cuttings of the difficult-to-root materials
like Bougainvillea cv ‘Formosa’ and Hibiscus cv ‘Sweet Heart’, either initially or

during root formation in the presence of or absence of IB A. Further they also
noticed that in the easy-to-root materials the phenolics, like p-hydroxybenzoic
acid, ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid, which are known synergists for promoting
rooting, were present in appreciable quantities. In the difFicult-to-root cultivars
only /?-hydroxybenzoic acid was present in high concentrations, and the other two
phenolics were not present in detectable quantities. This finding may well
explain why some cultivars root easily whereas others do not. Some other works
on effects of auxin synergists on rooting may be quoted here. Many synergists
when used in combination with auxins induce much more rooting than when the
auxin is used singly. But treatment with a synergist only may not improve
rooting. Basu et ah (1969) observed that tannic acid and gallic acid promoted
rooting in leafy cuttings of Eranthemum tricolor in combination with IBA and
NAA. Salicylic acid in combination with IAA, IBA and NAA greatly promoted
rooting in the same species. Synergism was also noted between p-hydroxybenzoic
acid and IAA or NAA. Results of similar nature were obtained by Bose et al.
(1972). They observed that ^-hydroxybenzoic acid and salicylic acid were
effective synergists of IAA, IBA and NAA in forming roots in cuttings of a
number of ornamental shrubs. In some cases gallic acid and tannic acid also
showed synergistic effects with auxins. It will be interesting to quote here that
Mitra et ah (1982) obtained marked promotion of rooting by using ethylene (from
ethrel) and acetylene (from calcium carbide) in cuttings of Tagetes patula cv ‘Red
Brocade’. They inferred that ethylene proved more effective than acetylene. In an
earlier work similar response of root formation was reported by Bose et ah (1977),
using ethylene and acetylene in number of semi-woody and herbaceous plants.
Effects of growth regulators on the rooting of several other ornamental

shrubs has been studied. One of the earliest work (Bajpai and Parmar,
1958) on rooting of cuttings with Jasminum sambac indicated that 0.04%
IAA with hardwood cuttings and 0.02% NAA with semi-hardwood type, gave
the highest percentage of success. It was found that the presence of leaves
markedly promoted rooting in cuttings of Jasminum auriculatum (Mukhopadhyay
and Bose, 1979). Bose et ah (1973) observed good success of rooting
in Jasminum with IAA, NAA and IBA. Singh (1979) also studied the effect
of rooting media and Indole-3-butyric acid on root formation in Jasminum
sambac cv ‘Motia’ semi-hardwood cuttings under intermittent mist.
It is difficult to summarize all the works on rooting of cuttings undertaken

in India. However, a short discussion on the cross section of works done
on a number of ornamentals will give some insight into the trend of research
on this aspect. Lagerstroemia indica and the hybrid L. lancasteri are two
important and beautiful shrubs of India. They bear very attractive flowers. It is
reported that the latter shrub totally fail to produce roots from cuttings when
planted outdoors and less successful under mist even if hormones and improved
rooting media are used. A rooting experiment carried out with this hybrid showed
that if ringing (or girdling) is carried out at different intervals (one, two and three
weeks) before detaching the cuttings from mother plant and these are treated
with 400 ppm IB A and rooted under mist, a 80% success on rooting was obtained
with 90% survival of rooted cuttings (Gupta, 1982). Bose and Mukherjee (1968)
also obtained good success with unringed one-year-old cuttings of Lagerstroemia
indica when treated with commercial preparations of hormones (Seradix)
and IBA or NAA under field conditions. Samantarai and Pattanaik (1952)
obtained good success in rooting of stem cuttings of Dracaena angustifolia
when treated with synthetic hormones
Poinsettia pulcherrima or the Christmas shrub is a most ornamental
shrub when in bloom. The showy bracts are its main attraction. Though
this plant is not so widely grown in India, but in the USA this is the
most widely grown during Christmas and its a real commercial success.
Narayan Gowda et al. (1982), reported that rooting of this shrub was
improved by Indoleacetic acid, Indolebutyric acid and Naphthaleneacetic
acid under intermittent mist. They concluded that IBA at 500 ppm and NAA
and IAA at 400 ppm recorded maximum rooting. Another beautiful foliage
plant belonging to Euphorbiaceae is the Euphorbia caracasana which is
a difficult and slow-to-root species. In a rooting experiment (Swami Rao
et al., 1982) with shoot cuttings it was observed that percentage of
rooting, root-length and number of roots per cutting increased with 5,000
ppm NAA followed by IBA and IAA. Reduction in length of roots was observed
above 7,500 ppm in all the treatment.
Mussaenda philippica is an ornamental plant, which is commonly
referred to as ‘Double’ Mussaenda because of the multi-whorled flowering
bracts. It has several cultivars out of which ‘Pink’ and ‘White’ are very
popular. These are normally propagated by air-layers, and hard-to-root
with stem cuttings. One-year-old mature shoots of these cultivars were
treated with different concentrations (0, 2,000, 4,000 and 6,000 ppm) of IBA or
NAA and rooted under intermittent mist (Kumar and Vijay Kumar, 1984). The
results showed that different concentrations of IBA and NAA promoted rooting
in both the varieties. The effect of IBA was found to be more pronounced than
NAA. Further the easy-to-root cv ‘Pink’ responded better to growth-regulator
treatment. However, the percentage of rooting decreased with increase in the
concentration of IBA and NAA. Shanmugavelu (1980) was successful in raising
Allamanda cathartica from cuttings with the help of growth regulators. Tiwari et
al. (1968) successfully raised cuttings of Murraya exotica by treating the cuttings
with NAA.
In rose some work on rooting of cuttings, mostly with rootstocks, was
undertaken. One significant step in the propagation of rose was the development
of a ‘Thornless’ mutant which is used as a rootstock (Mukhopadhyay et
al., 1980). This rootstock roots with 90-100% success in the open without
even being treated with hormones (Mukhopadhyay and Bankar, 1980). The
other rootstocks with which the same authors succeeded in getting good
rooting in the open without any hormonal treatment are Rosa multiflora,
R. indica and ‘Dr Huey’. But according to them R. bourboniana and
R. damascena performed poorly in comparison under Bangalore conditions.
The works of Bhujbal and Kale (1973) on rooting of cuttings of different
rootstocks has been mentioned earlier. According to Das et al. (1978)
different Rosa species behaved differently when treated with various root-
promoting hormones. Thus Rosa indica var. odorata rooted best when treated
with IAA at 1,000 ppm. Whereas R. multiflora responded well to treatment with
1,000 ppm IBA.
Not much research work was carried out to grow some modern rose hybrids
(Hybrid Tea or Floribunda) on their own roots (i.e., raising the plants by stem¬
cutting or air-layering), rather than being budded. The first such work was carried
out by Iyengar (1961) with basal cuttings and he obtained some success.
Mukhopadhyay and Bankar (in press) treated cuttings of‘Happiness’, ‘Super Star’
(both Hybrid Tea) and ‘Queen Elizabeth’ (Floribunda) with either 1,000 or 2,000
ppm IBA and planted them in mist. Only ‘Queen Elizabeth’ cuttings treated with
2,000 ppm IBA rooted well (88%) and rooted cuttings survived. These were put on
a replicated trial with budded plants. The plants raised from cuttings were shorter
in length with less branches compared with budded plants. However, the plants
raised from cuttings flowered well and were found to be good enough for garden
display purposes.
The use of intermittent mist for the propagation of stem cuttings has
brought a revolutionary change in the field of propagation in ornamental
horticulture in India. By using this method, now it is possible to propagate
many difficult-to-root shrubs, creepers or trees which were so far being
propagated by seeds or air-layers. The pioneering and extensive work on rooting
of cuttings of 62 different types of trees, shrubs and creepers in mist were
reported by Bose et al. (1970) and Bose (1972).They used apical leafy cuttings
and treated the semi-hardwood cuttings with 3,000 ppm of IBA or NAA in talc
and for hardwood cuttings 6,000 ppm of the hormones were used. There was a set
of controls (no treatment with hormones). It was observed that IBA was more
effective than NAA. They observed that in 25 species there was no rooting in the
control. In 48 species 80-100% rootings were obtained with IBA or NAA. In
another 13 species 50-80% rootings were obtained. Difficult-to-root cuttings of
Saraca indica also rooted well. The work of Bose and Mandal (1972) on the
propagation of ornamentals under mist may also be mentioned here. The

successful raising of stem cuttings of Lagerstroemia lancasteri under mist (Gupta,
1982) has already been discussed. Mukherjee et al. (1976) and Singh (1979)
also obtained great success in propagating various ornamentals under mist.
The use of mist and root-promoting hormones had made it possible to raise
some trees by cuttings. Bose et al. (1970) could successfully raise cuttings of
Saraca indica, Peltophorum ferrugineum, Thespesia populnea etc., in mist when
treated with hormones. Mishra and Majumdar (1982) obtained good successes in
rooting of trees like Spathodea campanulata, Plumeria alba and Lagerstroemia
flos-reginae when treated with two or three combinations of IAA, IB A or NAA. In
some difficult-to-root tree or shrub species good success in rooting may be
obtained if the would-be-cutting is girdled (ringed) for 2-4 weeks before being
detached and the ringed portion is treated with high concentrations of a growth
hormone (eg. IB A) dissolved in lanolin paste. Within about 3 weeks callusing will
be observed, when the twig is detached and placed in mist chamber for rooting.
At the IIHR good success was obtained in rooting of Delonix regia (gulmohar)
cuttings by this method using IBA at 8,000 to 12,000 ppm in lanolin paste.
Surprisingly, Chaudhuri (1965) reported good rooting performance of cuttings
of Gliricidia when treated w th 2,4-D (2, 4-d chlorophenoxyacetic acid).
According to him treatment with 100 ppm solution produced the maximum roots
and the hardwood cuttings responded better.
Samantrai (1955) obtained good rooting in ringed cuttings of Magnolia
grandiflora when these were treated with the hormone NAA. Earlier in this
article it has been mentioned that many trees root easily from cuttings without
the aid of any root-promoting hormone or mist chamber.
There are some shrubs, herbaceous plants which can be propagated by root
cuttings. Some of these are Gypsophila, Gaillardia, Salvia, Aralia, Lagerstroemia
sp. etc. Many ornamentals like African violets (Saintpaulia), gloxinia, rex
begonia, Kalanchoe etc., are easily propagated by leaf cuttings. The propagation of
rex begonia by leaf cuttings had been described by Desai (1958) and Randhawa
and Mukhopadhyay (1986). The procedures for taking leaf cuttings of African
violet or Kalanchoe had been dealt with by Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay (1986).
Another method of propagation by cutting is the ‘leaf-bud cuttings’ in which
many ornamentals like hydrangea, geranium and camellias are propagated
(Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay, 1986).
Layering
The next most commonly used method of propagation is layering. The
plants which are difficult to multiply by cuttings can be raised by one or the other
method of layerage with or without the help of growth hormones. Since the twigs
still remain attached with the mother plant, so the supply of food and water is not
hampered. As a result the chances of rooting in layerage is better than in cuttings.
Simple or ground layering is the simplest form of layering. Many of the variegated
plants which do not root easily from cuttings like Bougainvillea cv ‘Thimma’ or
Duranta plumieri variegata could be rooted by this method of layering. Some
climbers are also rooted by this method.
Air-layering or gootie is one of the most widely used method of layerage
in ornamental plants. A large number of shrubs, foliage plants and even trees are
raised by this method (Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay, 1986).
There are some research findings on rooting of air-layers of some
ornamentals. Amherstia nobilis is one of the most beautiful ornamental tree,
which is difficult to propagate by vegetative methods. Bhandary (1962) studied
the effect of some hormones on the rootings of air layers of this beautiful tree.
Bose (1964) noted marked improvement in rooting in air-layers of Amherstia by
application of growth substances. Nalwadi et ah (1982) obtained better rooting in
layers of Callistemon when treated with a mixture of IB A and NAA rather than
treating with IBA or 2,4-D alone. The rooting performances of several shrubs
were studied by various workers. It was observed that gooties of Carissa carandas
rooted well when treated with 7,500 ppm, IBA + NAA mixture in equal parts
(Jauhari, 1960). Similarly gooties of Althaea rosea (hollyhock) rooted well when
these were treated with IBA or NAA at 2,000 to 4,000 ppm individually or in
combinations. Hulmani et al. (1968) recorded good success in layers of Dracaena
rosea ferrea L. when these were treated with IBA and NAA in equal
concentration of 20,000 ppm. Mitra et ah (1980) reported that when air-layers of
Gardenia florida L. were treated with IBA and NAA in lanolin paste at 50,100 and
150 ppm, all treatments including control produced roots. However, 100% rooting
were obtained with the treatment of IBA and NAA at 50 ppm each.
According to Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay (1986) certain ornamentals like
Deutzia sp. and Cestrum nocturnum can be raised by mount or stool layering.
In India Chrysanthemum is normally propagated either by suckers or
cuttings. However, Mukhopadhyay and Das (1976) observed that atleast certain
cultivars can be propagated by air-layers. It was concluded that propagation by
air-layers shortened growing period and layers produced better flowers compared
to cuttings. This method may be followed atleast for exhibition purposes.
Grafting and Budding

In ornamental horticulture grafting is followed only for few crops like cactus
and in some other rare cases, where some species cannot be propagated by other
means or they do not perform well on their own root. Budding is a form of grafting
and is mainly followed to propagate rose.
In the nurseries around Bangalore, the ornamental tree Michelia champaka
is universally grafted on Michelia rootstocks. Generally, the method of approch
grafting is followed. In eastern India around Calcutta, sometimes the delicate and
rare shrub Allamanda violacea, which does not perform well on its own root, is
approach-grafted on A. cathartica var. schottii. Similarly the shrub Petrea arborea
which is difficult to propagate by other methods is grafted on P. volubilis. In West
Bengal and Bihar, sometimes rose is propagated by approach grafting.
The other two methods of grafting followed mainly for propagation of cacti
are ‘Flat’ and ‘Cleft’ grafting. There are some cacti (eg. Gymnocalycium
mihanovichii cv ‘Rubrum’) which lack chlorophyll and hence has to be grafted on
a green rootstock. Some delicate species like Espostoa plumosa cristate and
Cephalocereus senilis cristate do not perform well on their own root and have to be
grafted. Moreover, many cacti flower better (e.g. Lobivia famatimensis) when
grafted. Then there are some trailing type of cacti, like Aporacactus flagelliformis,
Chamaecereus silvestrii etc., which when grafted on a high rootstock, form into
half standards and look nice. The commonly used rootstocks are Trichocereus
tephracanthus, Myrtillocactus geometrizans, Cephalocereus palmeri, C. albispinus
etc. Das and Mukhopadhyay (1976) had done some elaborate work on rootstock-
scion relationship in cacti.
Some of the delicate Hawaiian Hibiscus cultivars are propagated by approach
grafting or budding as this gives better results. Sharma (1962) suggested
propagation of Hibiscus by grafting on a vigorous and hardy rootstock. The
cultivar ‘Alipore Beauty’ may well suit for this purpose.
In India roses are normally budded by ‘T’ or ‘Shield’ budding. Maiti (1974)
compared the methods of chip-budding and T-budding. According to him the
method of budding had no effect on plant growth. Nanjan and Kumar (1982)
compared patch-budding and shield-budding in rose and observed that it is
possible to bud more plants at a given time by the patch budding method. The
methods of buddings were described by Nanjan et al. (1971) in an earlier work.
Maharana and Singh (1978) observed better bud union in direct sunlight than in
shade or dark.
Effect of rootstock on the growth of scion had also been studied. It is
common knowledge that in the north the usually used rootstock is Rosa
bourboniana. But now-a-days the rootstock R. indica var. odorata is more
commonly used there. In the south and eastern India, R. multiflora is more
commonly used as a rootstock. The newly developed ‘Thornless’ rootstock
(Mukhopadhyay et al., 1980) is becoming quite popular in Bangalore and
elsewhere. According to Swarup and Malik (1974) Rosa indica var. odorata is
performing as a better rootstock compared to R. bourboniana or R. multiflora in
the north. But Mukhopadhyay and Bankar (1982) observed that R. multiflora is a
better rootstock for the south. According to the latest observations of these
workers, the ‘Thornless’ rootstock is performing well.
The method of bench-grafting in roses is now being advocated (Gill, 1984)
for faster multiplication. In this method, the scion cultivar is first budded on the
cutting of the rootstock and then these are rooted in the propagation bed.
Mukhopadhyay (1985) also advocated bench-grafting in roses for fast
multiplication.
Propagation of Bulbous Plants

The word ‘bulb’ in commercial horticulture means much more than the
strict botanical interpretation. Besides bulbs, this includes rhizomes, corms and
tubers.
The important plants which are propagated by bulbs are Hippeastrum,
tuberose, Hemerocallis, football lily etc. Plants like tuberose and Hippeastrum
produce both bulbs and bulblets (small bulbs), and both are used for
multiplication. Similarly plants like gladiolus produce corms and cormels (small
corms) and both are used for propagation. However, bulblets or cormels do not
flower in the first year of planting. There are several enviornmental and
physiological factors which influence the production of a bulb or corm.
Temperature and photoperiod influence cormel production in gladious. Research
conducted at the IIHR indicated that bulb production in tuberose
(Mukhopadhyay and Bankar, 1981) and corm production in gladiolus (Bankar and
Mukhopadhyay, 1980) is affected by time of planting.
The other factors which influence corm or bulb growth are the size of
transplant planted, spacing (or plant density), and the depth of planting and
nutrition. Most of the works in India on these aspects are on tuberose and
gladious. In gladiolus, large-size corms when planted 5 cm deep with a spacing of
10 cm x 30 cm produced maximum number of corms and cormels (Bose, 1984).
Though Bankar and Mukhopadhyay (1980) did not find any effect of corm size in
gladiolus on corm or cormel production but they observed high density of
planting adversely affected cormel yield, while shallow depth of planting of corm
improved cormel yield. The beneficial effect of large bulb size, wider spacing and
shallow depth of planting had also been studied in tuberose by Sadhu and Das
(1978), Bhattacharjee etal. (1979), Mukhopadhyay (1981) and Yadav etal. (1983).
Nutrition also improved bulb-yield in bulbous plants. The effect of nitrogen
appears to be important in this regard. Bose (1984) observed that in gladiolus
a balanced dose of N, P and K improved corm and cormel yield. Under the All-
India Co-ordinated Floriculture Improvement Project (Anon.,1983-84) research
conducted at Delhi and Bangalore indicated the role of nitrogen and phosphorus
in increasing corm and cormel yields in gladiolus. Bhattacharjee (1981) also
observed increased cormel-yield with nitrogen nutrition. The influence of
nitrogen in improving bulblet-yield in tuberose was studied by Jana et al. (1974),
Mukhopadhyay (1981) and Yadav et el. (1983).
The role of growth regulators on the yield of bulbs or corms was also studied.
Soaking of corms with gibberellic acid improved cormel yield in certain cultivars
of gladiolus (Bhattacharjee, 1984; Dua et al., 1984), while in others no significant
effect was observed (Mukhopadhyay and Bankar, in press). The effect of soaking
gladiolus corm in Ethrel (50-1,000 ppm) improved cormel y eld (Mukhopadhyay
and Bankar, 1981), while in tuberose opposite results were observed with spray
application of GA3 or Ethrel (Mukhopadhyay and Bankar, 1983). Moreover, the
work of Mukhopadhyay (1981) also confirmed that soaking of tuberose bulb with
GA3 reduced the number of bulbs produced. Improvement in cormel production
as a result of soaking of corm with IAA was reported by Bhattacharjee (1984).
TISSUE CULTURE
Bajaj et al. (1983) was successful in obtaining complete plants of

gladiolus from the in v/7ro-cultured cormels, cormel tips and axillary buds. They
were able to multiply 6 plants from the segment of one cormel, whereas in nature
only one plant was obtained per cormel. The works on micro-propagation of
gladiolus, rose and bougainvillea are also going on at the IIHR, Bangalore, and
elsewhere.
CONCLUSIONS
Although good amount of work has been done in the past in the field
of propagation of ornamentals, much more remains to be done. Efforts should
be made to propagate some of our beautiful flowering trees, which are
difficult to propagate (e.g. Gustavia), by some vegetative propagation methods or
tissue culture. Mass propagation of many ornamentals should be taken up by
tissue culture as is done in the USA. It is heartening to note that the National
Horticulture Board is planning to mass-propagate rose by tissue culture. Anther
culture and protoplast fusion techniques should also be perfected.
REFERENCES
Agnihotri, B.N. and Srivastava, J.C. 1964. Indian Agric. 8(2) : 183-84.
Alexander, M.P. 1977. Personal Communication on Rose Hybridization.
Anonymous, 1981. Annual Report. All-India Co-ordinated Floriculture Improvement Project.
Anonymous, 1984-84. Annual Report. All-India Co-ordinated Floriculture Improvement Project.
Bajaj, Y.P.S., Sidhu, M.M.S. and Gill, A.P.S. 1983. Scientia Hortic. 18 : 269-75.
Bajpai, P.N. and Parmar, A.S. 1958. Sci. Cult. 23(9) : 489-90.
Bankar, G.J. 1980. Lal-Baugh. 25(3) : 9-12.
Bankar, G.J. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 1980. Indian J. Hort. 37(3) : 305-09.
Bankar, G.J. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 1980. Indian J. Hort. 38(4) : 403-08.
Bhandary, K.R. 1962. Lal-Baugh 7(3) : 3-5.
Basu, R.N., Bose, T.K., Roy, B.N. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 1969. Physiologica PL 22 : 649-52.
Bhattachaijee, S.K. 1981. Singapore J. Primary Industries 9(1) : 23-27.
Bhattachaijee, S.K. 1984. Gartenbauwissenschaft. 49(3) : 103-06.
Bhattachaijee, S.K., Mukhopadhyay, T.P. and Yadav, L.P. 1979. Lal-Baugh 24(4) : 37-43.
Bhujbal, B.G. and Kale, P.N. 1973. Punjab Hort. J. 13(1) : 50-53.
Bose, S. and Kapur, P. 1969. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 11(3 & 4) : 445-47.
Bose, T.K. 1964. Sci. Cult. 30 : 198-99.
Bose, T.K. 1972. Indian Fmg 22(8) : 13-18.
Bose, T.K. 1984. Indian Agric. 28(1) : 53-72.
Bose, S. and Bose, T.K. 1968. Proc. 55th Indian Sci. Congr.
Bose, T.K., Mandal, D.P. and Pramanik, D.K. 1973. Progve Hort. 5(1) : 43-51.
Bose, T.K. and Mandal, D.P. 1972. Punjab Hort. J. 12(4) : 228-34.
Bose, T.K. and Mukheijee, D.P. 1968. Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 22(1) : 41-44.
Bose, T.K. and Mukheijee, D. 1972. Gardening in India. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., India, 385 pp.
Bose, T.K., Mukheijee, T.P. and Basu, R.N. 1977. Indian J. PI. Physiol. 20 : 134-39.
Bose, T.K., Roy, B.N. and Basu, R.N. 1972. Indian Agric. 16(2) : 171-76.
Bose, T.K., Singha Samanta, P.K. and Bose, S. 1970. Indian J. Hort. 27 : 213-17.
Chakravorty, R.K. 1970. Curr. Sci. 39 : 472.
Chaudhari, S.M., Desai, V.T., Rane, D.A. and Patil, A.V. 1982. Lal-Baugh 27(1) : 76-78.
Choudhari, R.S. and Gaur, B.K. 1953. J. Indian bot Soc. 32(1 & 2) : 46-53.
Choudhari, R.S. and Basuroy, N.C. 1965. Sci. Cult. 31(6) : 303-04.
Das, P., Mahapatra, P. and Das, R.C. 1978. Orissa J. Hort. 6(1&2) : 31-33.
Das, P. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 1976. Indian Hort. 20(4) : 19-21.
Das, P., Mukhopadhyay, T.P. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 1981. Orissa J. Hort. 8(1 & 2) : 40-45.
Desai, B.L. 1958. Indian Hort. 2(4) : 16-18.
Dua, I.S., Sehgal, O.P. and Chark, K.S. 1984. Gartenbauwissenschaft. 49(2) : 91-94.
Gill, A.P.S. 1984. Indian Hort. 29(2) : 37-42.
Gupta, V.N. 1982. Lal-Baugh 27(1) : 26-30.
Hore, B.K. 1962, M.Sc, (Ag.) Thesis, Calcutta University.
Huamani, N.C., Sulikeri, G.S., Pattanshetty, H.V. and Kologi, S.D. 1968. Mysore J. agric. Sci. 2 : 147-150.
Iyengar, Krishna, C.V. 1961. Lal-Baugh 6(1) : 15-18.
Jauhari, O.S. 1960. Curr. Sci. 29 : 69.
Karihaloo, J.L. 1986. Personal Communication on Tuberose and Hemerocallis Breeding.
Kumar, D.P. and Vijay Kumar, N. 1984. Indian Hort. 32(6) : 373-74.
Maharana, T. and Singh, S.B. 1978. Orissa J. Hort. 6(1 & 2) : 74-75.
Maury, A.N., Singh, S.P. and Lai, S. 1974. Punjab Hort. J. 14 : 82-86.
Maiti, R.G. 1974. Indian Hort. 22(3 & 4) : 125-26.
Misra, A.K. 1971. Indian J. Hort. 28(1) : 68-69.
Misra, A.K. and Majumdar, A. 1982. S. Indian Hort. 30(4) : 285-87.
Mitra, S.N., Chatterjee, B.K., Pal, G. and Datta, D. 1980. Indian Agric. 24( 3 & 4) : 161-63.
Mitra, S.K., Mukhopadhyay, T.P. and Bose, T.K. 1982. Indian Hort. 39(3 & 4) : 264-68.
Mukheijee, T.P., Roy, Tapash and Bose, T.K. 1976. Punjab Hort. J. 16(1 & 2) : 153.
Mullick, P. and Chatteijee, V.N. 1967. Osterr. Botan Zeitschriff. 4 : 354-56.
Mukhopadhyay, A. and Das, P. 1976. Indian Hort. 21(1) : 13-16.
Mukhopadhyay, A., Bankar, G.J. and Shukla, K.S. 1980. Indian Hort. 25 : 1-2.
Mukhopadhyay, A. and Bankar, G.J. 1980. Lal-Baugh 25(4) : 59-63.
Mukhopadhyay, Amitabha, 1981. Ph.D. Thesis, Calcutta University, 154 pp.
Mukhopadhyay, Amitabha 1985. Ranchi Rose Society Souvenier.
Mukhopadhyay, A. and Bankar, G.J. 1981. Indian Agric. 25(2) : 131-134.
Mukhopadhyay, A. and Bankar, G.J. 1981. Lal-Baugh 26(1) : 10-13.
Mukhopadhyay, A. and Bankar, G.J. 1982. Indian Hort. 30(2) : 61-63.
Mukhopadhyay, Amitabha and Bankar G.J. 1986. Rose cv ‘Queen Elizabeth’ can be grown on own root — A
preliminary report. The Rose. London (In press)
Mukhopadhyay, Amitabha and Bankar, G.J. 1986. Pre-planting soaking of corn with gibberellic acid modified
growth and flowering of Gladiolus cv. ‘Friendship’. Indian Agric. (In press).
Mukhopadhyay, D.P. and Bose, T.K. 1966. Indian J. Hort. 23 : 185-86.
Nalwadi, U.G., Hulamani, N.C., Madalageri, B.B., Modashi, A.N. and Bojappa, K.M. 1982. Indian J. Hort. 39(3
& 4) : 273-74.
Nanjan, K., Hiriyan, M.A. and Ravindran, R. 1971. Madras agric. J. 58 : 526-28.
Nanjan, K. and Kumar, S. 1982. S. Indian Hort. 30(4) : 291-92.
Narayanagowda, J.V., Swami Rao, N. and Muthappa Rai, B.G. 1982. Lal-Baugh 27(2) : 74-77.
Nathulal, Yadav, S.N. and Srivastava, L.S. 1972. Punjab Hort. 12 : 235-36.
Patil, A.V. and Verma, R.M. 1965. Indian Sci. Congr. (Abstr.) 1 : No. 9834.
Randhawa, G.S. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 1986. Floriculture in India. Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 654 pp.
Rao, L.M. 1967. J. Jap. Soc. hort. Sci. 36 : 445-48.
Rao, S.N. and Rao, Bhaskara 1963. Indian Hort. 11(1 & 2) : 37-38.
Rao, N., Swami and Srinivasa Reddy, V. 1980. Lal-Baugh 25(3) : 68-70.
Ravel, B. and Chatteijee, U.N. 1971. Indian J. Hort. 28 : 60-62.
Sadhu, M.K. and Das, P.C. 1978. Indian J. Hort. 35(2) : 147-50.
Samantarai, B. 1955 Indian J. Hort. 12(1) : 32-33.
Samantarai, B. and Pattnaik, H. 1952. Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. 39 : 26-27.
Satpathy, B.S. 1981. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Calcutta University.
Shanmugam, A., Muthuswamy, S. and Rao, V.N.M. 1973. Madras agric. J. 60(2) : 129-31.
Shanmugavelu, K.G. 1960. Sci. Cult. 26 : 136-37.
Shanmugavelu, K.G. 1960. Madras agric. J. 47 : 221-23.
Shanmugavelu, K.G. 1961. Indian J. Hort. 18(2) : 169-70.
Shanmugavelu, K.G. 1980. Sci. Cult. 28 : 136-37.
Srimathi, R.A. and Rao, P.S. 1969. Indian Forester 75(2) : 500-01.
Srivastava, V.K. 1966. Rajasthan Agric. 6 : 21-22.
Swami Rao, N., Narayana gowda, J.V. and Patil, N.M. 1982. Lal-Baugh 27(1) : 62-65.
Swarup, V. and Malik, R.S. 1974. Indian J. Hort. 31(3) : 268-72.
Tiwari, M.D., Singh, P.N. and Singh, M.P. 1968. Farm J. Calcutta 10(2) : 27-28.
Venkatarauappa, T., Nalawadi, U.G., Madalageri, B.B. and Hulamani, N.C. 1982. Lal-Baugh 27(2) : 43-52.
Yadav, L.P., Bhattacharya, A.P. and Pandey, H.S. 1978. Progve Hort. 9 : 72-77.
Yadav, L.P. 1982. Ph.D. Thesis, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Kalyani.
13
Physiology of Ornamental Flowers
H.Y. Mohan Ram, I.V. Ramanuja Rao and P. Pardha Saradhi

Department of Botany
University of Delhi, Delhi
M AN has selected flowers for their beauty, hues, shapes, scent and
keeping-quality. Flowers have become symbolic of his sentiments and an
essential part of his religious and social ceremonies. In India, flowers
are generally cut without stalk and used fresh. Wreaths of jasmine, marigold,
crossandra, tuberose, rose and champak are offered in temples and also
used for personal adornment. Our knowledge of the physiology of senescence
of flowers grown in India is meagre. It is only recently that floral decorations
as practised in the developed countries have gained popularity in our
country. Urbanization, tourism and trade have been mainly responsible
for the increasing demand for cut flowers in hotels, conference halls,
offices and homes.
With its varied agro-climatic conditions and relatively low cost of production,
India has immense opportunities not only to meet the local demands of
both traditional and vase flowers but also a high potential for export
trade. Several attempts have been made sporadically to establish an export
flower market. Lack of enterprise, technical know-how, standardized methods
of growing and harvesting flowers of internationally acceptable quality,
problems of packing and transport and a practically non-existent production
base have been major impediments in realizing this goal.
Improvement in the quality of blooms has necessitated research into the
basic and applied aspects of flower physiology in some of the major international
centres of flower production such as Netherlands, the UK, the USA
and Israel. Even in the developing countries such as Brazil, Columbia,
Kenya, Thailand and Singapore export of flowers has assumed an important
place in their economy.
There is a resurgence of interest in India to broaden the technical base
and enthuse enterpreneurs to take up export of flowers. Research in several
aspects of flower initiation, flower-bud development and opening, sex
181
expression, pollination biology and physiology of senescence in a large

number of plants, especially ornamentals, has been carried out for the
past two decades in this Department. In this paper, the main findings
on flower-bud growth and on post-harvest physiology of flowers are summarized.
FLOWER-BUD GROWTH
Mechanism of Flower-Bud Growth in Gladiolus

A spike of gladiolus presents what may be termed nature’s own flower
arrangement. It is an ideal material for bud-opening studies. The occurrence
of an acropetal sequence of stages of bud development on a single axis
makes it possible to carry out several studies. The spike bears buds in
two rows (distichous arrangement) with the telescoping of the outer bracts
over one another. The elongation of the flowering axis between the buds
loosens and separates the outer bract from the axis.
The fresh weight of the corolla increases 16 times, and the dry weight
by seven times between the time the outer bract separates out until the
corolla attains its full expansion (Rao, 1979; Bala, 1982). A machinery
has to be built up and sustained in the corolla to support the large inflow
of materials, since it is a non-photosynthetic organ. Thus spikes harvested
one week before the first floral bud opens need exogenous supply of sugars
for subsequent flower growth and opening (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1981). The
growing corolla continues to import sugars throughout its development.
Probably only a small proportion of the sugar is used metabolically. The
function of sugar which is not directly involved in metabolism is unknown.
A part of the accumulated sugar in the petals is secreted as nectar. In
gladiolus, this occurs at anthesis (Rao, unpublished work).
The petals belonging to the buds with unseparated outer bracts were
observed to contain abundant starch in the ground parenchyma only (Rao and
Mohan Ram, 1980). With the separation of the outer bract from the axis, a gradual
dissolution of starch starts in the tissues located at the tip of the petal. With
increasing age of the bud, starch hydrolysis eventually reaches the base of the
petal.
In gladiolus, a-amylase and acid invertase activities increase with
the progression of corolla development and have a positive correlation
with the amount of carbohydrates (Bala, 1982). The decline in starch in
late developmental stages can be correlated with the sharp rise in a-amylase
activity and reduc ng sugar content. It may be inferred that the reducing
sugars being osmotically active cause an influx of water, resulting in
turgescence of the expanded corolla (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1980).
In gladiolus, the system of overlapping outer bracts which completely
PHYSIOLOGY OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 183
enclose the flower buds and their gradual separation represents a system
programmed for sequential exposure of successive buds to light and stimulation
of a-amylase, to permit an orderly development of buds. The outer bract
acts as a natural qualitative light filter and regulates the production of a-amylase
and petal growth by a red/far-red control (Rao, 1982; Rao and Mohan Ram,
unpublished work), a-amylase is formed exclusively in the petal epidermis on
perception of light. The enzyme is transported to the ground parenchyma where
it hydrolyzes the extensive starch reserves (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1980). The
production of a-amylase is also regulated by the sequential basipetal
differentiation of the epidermal cells (Rao, 1982).
A crucial structural and biochemical role of the epidermis in the percept on
of light leading to petal growth has been recognized. Rao (1979, 1982)
has observed that the epidermal cells of petals of gladiolus possess microlenses.
These are formed by the outward growth of the outer radial wall of the
epidermal cells causing the formation of curved structures which are thicker
in the middle than at the edges. These microlenses act to focus light
specifically on to the nucleus which is situated in the central zone of
the inner radial wall of the epidermal cells. The development of the microlens
is characteristic of differentiated cells; undifferentiated cells have a flat surface.
Importantly, it is only after the formation of the microlens that the epidermal cells
become competent to be induced by light (Rao, 1982). These cells then start
producing a-amylase which is transported to the ground parenchyma where
hydrolysis of the accumulated starch takes place (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1980).
A critical stage in flower-bud growth in the spike of Gladiolus which
is initiated by gibberellic acid and sustained by sucrose has also been
identified (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1982a). This corresponds to the stage at
which separation of the outer bract occurs, leading to the induction of
a-amylase by light (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1980). Buds not induced by light
respond more significantly to GA3 and sucrose than those induced by
light. Since the separation of the outer bract results in light-induced
a-amylase production and starch hydrolysis leading to petal growth, it is inferred
that growth promotion by GA3 is related to light-induced petal growth at this
specific stage (Rao amd Mohan Ram, 1982a). The demonstration in gladiolus
(Rao, 1982) that the growth of petals at different developmental stages is a
function of the levels of a-amylase in those stages strengthens the conclusion that
sugars released through a-amylase activity are directly involved in petal growth.
Light-mediated a-amylase production could thus be an important step in the
formation of an active sink to draw materials from the rest of the plant. One
important role of continued and sequential basipetal starch hydrolysis in the
gladiolus petal (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1980) could be to maintain a constant
osmotic as well as a sink potential in the growing area of the petal, in spite of water
uptake.
Growth of Capitulum in Chrysanthemum

Studies on cell and organ expansion have been mostly confined to vegetative
parts. Information on cell expansion in floral organs is scanty. This may be traced
to lack of good experimental systems rather than to absence of interest. As
production of large and showy blossoms has been an important concern of
florists, an understanding of the physiology of flower expansion would certainly
merit serious study.
Chrysanthemum is only next to rose in importance as cut-flower in world
trade. It comes in various sizes and shapes and has an unmatched wholesomeness
and elegance. Pardha Saradhi (1985) had made a detailed study of the growth
of Chrysanthemum capitula using different stages. His findings reveal that the
fresh and dry weights of the ray florets increase until the capitulum
is fully open. The soluble protein content declines after opening. Ray
florets contain the highest amount of protein. Acid phosphatase activity
is very high in the ray florets followed by that in the disc florets.
The maximal activity of this enzyme and of acid invertase coincide with
the period of highest increment in fresh and dry weights. Amylase activity
increases in the florets till the half-open flower stage. Interestingly peroxidase
activity registers a continuous enhancement with a major increment during
senescence. Ethylene production is low during the initial stages of development
of the capitulum and increases with age in all the components.
In most investigations on flower growth, emphasis has been on the growth
of corolla as it generally constitutes the most conspicuous part of a
flower and since the changes occurring in it are rather dramatic. An elegant
method has been developed in this laboratory to study the expansion of
ray florets. This consists of floating ray florets (9 to 9.5mm) of Chrysanthemum
morifolium var. ‘Jyotsna’, removed from the outer-most whorl of young
capitula in petri-plates containing 30 ml of the test solution (Pardha Saradhi and
Mohan Ram, 1982). Using this technique it has been shown that KC1 causes up to
33% increase in elongation. The values for GA3 and sucrose when used
individually are 39.8 and 28.9% respectively. Maximal growth response (82.8%) is
recorded in KC1+GA3 + sucrose. It is inferred that the increased turgor resulting
from sucrose-promoted potassium uptake along with GA3-caused tissue
extensibility accounts for the enhanced floret growth.
N,N'-dicyclohexyl carbodiimide (DCCD), a potent inhibitor of membrane-
bound ATPase strongly inhibits the growth of ray florets of Chrysanthemum even
under in vivo conditions. Ray floret expansion is also retarded by (2-chloroethyl)
trimethyl ammonium chloride (CCC), an inhibitor of gibberellin biosynthesis
(Pardha Saradhi,1985), implying that endogenous gibberellins are involved in ray
floret growth. The CCC effect can be overcome by simultaneous application of
GA3.
Role of Other Floral Organs in Corolla Expansion
By and large, the role played by other floral organs in petal expansion has
been overlooked. Historically, the stamens were the first floral organs shown to
influence corolla growth (Lang, 1961).
In gladiolus intact stamens promote the growth of isolated corollas. The
increasing independence of the older stages of corolla on stamens in this plant
suggests that the influence of stamens decreases as corolla growth advances,
although it does not stop. The influence of stamens on corolla growth appears to
be through the production of gibberellins since the critical effect of stamens can
be completely replaced by GA3 or GA3 + sucrose. It appears that in an intact
spike the gibberellin required for corolla growth is supplied by the stamens until
the stage when separation of the outer bract occurs (Bala et a/., 1986). If, however,
the harvested spikes are subjected to water stress the younger buds with
unseparated outer bracts fail to open and show an obligate requirement for GA3.
This requirement has been shown to be a consequence of the sensitivity of the
unseparated flower buds to water stress which causes a disruption in the
endogenous gibberellin supply system from the stamens to the petals (Rao and
Mohan Ram, 1986).
POST-HARVEST PHYSIOLOGY OF FLOWERS
Flowers age with time; they lose moisture and their colours fade. While
flowers like jasmine and tuberose turn brown and dry, in some plants mass
shedding of petals occurs. For instance, the petals of linseed and corolla of Ruellia
drop within a few hours of pollination. The petals of gulmohar (Delonix regia) and
amaltas (Cassia fistula) are shed more leisurely. Corolla abscision may be a
rhythmic phenomenon in flowers such as Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. Although a
majority of flowers are short-lived, there are orchids such as Phalaenopsis
shilleriana in which a flower may stay fresh on the plant for as long as four months
as it waits for the specific insect pollinator (Molisch, 1938). In most plants, the
petals wither, the sepals drop and the stamens dry up following pollination.
A clear understanding of the causes of senescence should help in developing
methods of harvesting, transporting and increasing the longevity of ornamental
flowers.
Two factors which play a major role in regulating the vase-life of a cut flower
are carbohydrate supply and water balance. Injury at the cut end or growth of
micro-organisms in the lumen of xylem vessels (physical blockage) or
accumulation of microbial secretions and/or metabolic by-products
(physiological blockage) could prevent absorption, resulting in severe water
deficit. Cut-flower longevity is also curtailed by ethylene (Chandra and Mohan

Ram, 1980).
Investigations on flowers such as roses, chrysanthemums, gladioli,
carnations, snapdragons, lupines and narcissus have shown that addition of a
respirable substrate such as sucrose, and antimicrobial agents such as
streptomycin and 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate to the holding solution prolongs
vase-life (Mohan Ram and Rao, 1977; Rao and Mohan Ram, 1982b).
Spikes of gladiolus are ordinarily harvested at the tight-bud stage when
the corolla of the lowermost bud has elongated and is expected to open
the following day. During long-distance transport, however, spikes of this stage
are damaged considerably and their market value is reduced. If, however, the
spikes are harvested in the bud condition (green-bud stage—harvested one day
before the corolla of the lowermost bud has emerged from the enveloping bracts
and the tip has just become visible) the disadvantage of damage to buds is
overcome but only 50% of the buds open out. A pre-storage treatment of the bud-
cut spikes with sucrose ensures good opening. As a post-storage treatment,
however, sucrose is only partly effective and treatment with GA3 along with
sucrose causes opening of all the buds. The need for supplying sucrose to the
green-bud spikes (as pre-or post-storage treatment) to ensure good opening as
against the tight-bud spikes in which all the buds open in water appears to result
mainly from lower carbohydrate reserves. Under field conditions it takes one
week for the green-bud spike to attain the tight-bud stage. In this period the spike
continuously accumulates carbohydrates. The presence of low amounts of sugars
and starch in the green-bud spike as compared with the tight-bud spike supports
this conclusion, when considered along with the finding that exogenous supply of
sucrose to the green-bud spike causes a much larger number of flowers to open
(Rao and Mohan Ram, 1981).
The flower buds in the tight-bud spike are nearly twice as heavy as those
on the green-bud spike. Thus most of the growth (gain in fresh weight)
between the green-bud and the tight-bud stages occurs in the flower buds.
Much of the fresh weight gain in the spikes in sucrose solution is due
to the flowers (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1981).
In the developed countries it has become a common practice to harvest
flowers of commercial importance in bud condition for easy handling, minimal
damage and reduction in freight charges. Whereas such bud-out flowers
can be caused to open by placing them continuously in sugar solution,
a pulse treatment is preferable since it precludes the need for any additional
treatment by the customer (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1982c). Pulsing of freshly
cut buds of chrysanthemums and gladioli with a sucrose solution of high
concentration before shipment or storage has been shown to cause enhanced
flower opening and longevity. A method of opening the buds after storage
is, however, important in places where the growers do not have adequate
facilities or training to implement such a treatment and it is easier for the
wholesaler or the retailer to provide it. In comparison with the pre-storage
treatment, in which a pulse with sucrose is sufficient for achieving satisfactory
opening, in the post-storage treatment the use of GA3 along with sucrose has
been found essential for obtaining full opening of the buds in the spikes of
gladiolus. This has also been found effective for spikes kept in cold storage after
harvest. In the spikes pulsed after storage, greater turgidity and larger size of the
flowers was noted over spikes subject to continuous treatments due to higher
solution uptake and a better balance between uptake and loss. The amount of
sucrose taken up markedly influenced flower longevity. However, no effect on
flower opening was noted. The longevity of spikes pulsed for 48 hr with sucrose
and GA3 exceeded that of intact spikes in the field by one day (Rao
and Mohan Ram, 1982c).
Flowers on a gladiolus spike open and wither in flushes. Premature
withering and sometimes stem-break occur in cut-spikes in which water uptake is
impaired. The former was shown to be the result of internal competition
for water in which owing to lowered water uptake through the cut end,
the opening buds extracted water from the older flowers and promoted their
withering. The process of blooming, however, is fairly independent of
free water availability through the cut end, as the flowers are able to
obtain water from the withering flowers. Stem-break may result from reduced
uptake caused by vascular blockage and a strong water requirement by the
newly opening flower buds. The latter not only draw out water from the
older flowers and cause their withering, but also are able to extract
water from the flowering axis and peduncle and cause stem collapse (Rao
and Mohan Ram, 1982b).
In comparison to water, the availability of sucrose was found to be a
major factor in promotion of bud opening because of the ability of the
newly opening buds to draw water from the flowers. Water stress pronouncedly
affects water uptake and fresh weight of the spike but not the percentage
of flower buds opening. Water stress also does not curtail flower longevity
at any given concentration of sucrose (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1982d).
The property of sucrose to act as an antidesiccant when supplied before
storage, in addition to its metabolic role is still not clear. It appears,
however, that sucrose may protect the internal system for supply of gibberellins
from the stamens to the petals from water stress (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1986).
Thus gladiolus spikes given a pulse-treatment with sucrose before dry
storage, enable the buds to open satisfactorily on subsequent transfer
to water. However, if the spikes are first stored dry and subjected to
water stress, it becomes necessary to provide gibberellins in addition
to sucrose to ensure full opening (Rao and Mohan Ram, 1979; 1982c).
FLOWER SENESCENCE
Senescence of flowers is strongly promoted by ethylene. Ethylene-induced

senescence of carnation flowers was reported as early as 1908 by Crocker
and Knight. It prevents opening of young blossoms, causes closure of opened
flowers and discolouration and fading of petals. Pollination also causes
fading of flowers and it has been inferred that the senescence of the
flower is triggered by pollen-auxin stimulated ethylene production (Burg
and Dijkman, 1967). Being autocatalytic, ethylene once formed stimulates
further production of ethylene. It may be inferred that the longevity
of flowers can be enhanced by preventing ethylene biosynthesis, accumulation
or activity.
Antiethylene compounds such as CoCl2, NiCl2 and FeCl2 promote the
vase-life and increase the size of the cut-capitula in chrysanthemum and
marigold (Chandra et al., 1981; Pardha Saradhi, 1985). Use of sucrose
along with CoCl2 or NiCl2 causes a further increment in vase-life by 20-24 days as
compared to 7-8 days in water.
A spray application of CoCl2, NiCl2 or AgN03 to potted plants bearing
fully opened capitula of chrysanthemum was effective in delaying their
senescence by 10-15 days (Pardha Saradhi, 1985). Whereas silver nitrate
causes formation black spots on the florets, CoCl2 does not impair the
appearance of the blooms. Thus the life-span of cut as well as intact
chrysanthemum capitula can be extended by using CoCl2 or NiCl2. This
finding needs to be put to practical use.
CONCLUSIONS
The brief account of the work carried out by our research group at the
Department of Botany, University of Delhi, has shown that experimenting with
flowers is a rewarding, intellectual and an aesthetic experience. It is our hope
that the enthusiasm with which we have studied the physiology of flowers would
turn the horticulturists in need of this knowledge to solve practical problems of
flower-growing and trade. We also recognized the need to understand the science
behind empirical indigenous practices of growing, harvesting and storage of
native flowers to put it on a sound basis for exporting oriental flowers to the rest
of the world.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Dr I. Usha Rao for the help received in the preparation of the
manuscript. We acknowledge the financial assistance received from the Council

of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, which enabled us to carry out
the experiments.
DEDICATION
A flower bud opens, displays its splendour and withers away in due course.
We watch these events with wonderment day after day and season after season.
Yet, when we try to understand the basis of flower growth and wish to develop
techniques to prolong the life of harvested flowers, we find little information
available in India based on experimentation and systematic analysis. We have
summarized our findings of experimenting with flowers and offer it to Dr B.P. Pal
as a tribute to his deep interest, knowledge and love of flowers.
Much of the inspiration for doing this work, has come from Dr Pal, who
teaches by example. Our joy in including this work in the volume to be presented
to him has become greater by the fact that our Guru, Professor Panchanan
Maheshwari was a close friend of Dr Pal and they have both played a monumental
role in promoting the growth of plant sciences in India.
REFERENCES
Bala Rajan 1982. Growth and Opening of Flower Buds in Gladiolus : Some Physiological and Biochemical Aspects.
M. Phil. Dissertation, Univ. of Delhi, Delhi, India.
Bala Rajan, Rao, I.V. Ramanuja and Mohan Ram, H.Y., J. PI. Physiol. 122 : 87-92.
Burg, S.P. and Dijkman, M.J. 1967. PI. Physiol. 42 : 1648-50.
Chandra, G. and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1980. J. sclent, ind. Res. 39 : 337-41.
Chandra, G., Reddy, K.S. and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1981. Indian J. expl Biol. 19 : 150-54.
Crocker, W. and Knight, L.I. 1908. Bot. Gaz. 46 : 259-76.
Lang, A. 1961. Auxins in flowering. In Encyclopaedia of Plant Physiology. (Ed.) W. Ruhland. (Berlin: Springer-
Verlag) 14 : 909-50.
Mohan Ram, H.Y. and Rao, I.V. Ramanuja. 1977. Sci. Hort. 7 : 377-82.
Molisch, H. 1938. The Longevity of Plants. Science Press, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA.
Pardha Saradhi, P. 1985. Physiology of Development and Senescence of Capitula in Chrysanthemum. Ph. D. Thesis,
Univ. of Delhi., Delhi, India.
Pardha Saradhi, P. and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1982. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (PI. Sci.) 91 : 101-06.
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja, 1979. Post-harvest Physiology of the Spike and Regulation of Flower Development in Gladiolus.
Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Delhi, Delhi, India.
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja 1982. Mechanism of flower-growth and opening, a case study of Gladiolus. Sci. Acad. Medals
for Young Scientists - Lectures : pp 125-47 (New Delhi : Indian National Science Academy).
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1979. Indian J. expl Biol. 447-48.
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1980. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (PI. Sci.) 89 : 323-30.
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1981. Indian J. exp! Biol. 19 : 1116-20.
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1982a. Ann. Bot. 50 : 473-79.
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1982b. Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad. B 48 : 505-12.
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1982c. Indian J. expl Biol. 20 : 714-18.
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1982d. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (PL Sci.) 91 : 371-78.
Rao, I.V. Ramanuja and Mohan Ram, H.Y. 1986. J.PI. Physiol. 122 : 181-86.
14
Essential Oils From Ornamentals
Akhtar Husain
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Lucknow, UP
A LL higher plants have some kind of aroma or flavour in their various

parts, which include roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. The flavour
and aroma in a particular plant part is due to the presence of essential
oils present in special glands in it.
Although all ornamental plants, specially those which have scented flowers
or leaves, have essential oils, only a few of them are used commercially
in perfumes, flavour or cosmetic industries. The number of plants having
sweet-smelling flowers is more than a thousand. However, an attempt has
been made here to discuss only those plants which have considerable
commercial importance.
Essential oil from roses. In all the perfumes used in the world today,
oil of rose is one of the costliest and the best known perfumery raw materials
used by human beings for thousands of years. The first recorded reference
of rose perfume is in Charaka Sanghita. However, rose water and rose
perfume were probably known in the Indian sub-continent prior to Vedic
Civilization. Results of archaeological excavations in Mohenjodaro and Harappa
indicate that probably rose water and rose oil were distilled by the people of Indus
Valley Civilization more than five thousand years ago. An intact terracota
equipment for distillation of floral waters has been recovered during the
excavations, which is kept in Taxila Museum, Pakistan. According to a romantic
account, which is based on a book written by Mohd. Achem of Kang Jehangir’s
regime, the credit for discovery of rose perfume was given to Queen Nur Jehan.
According to this account, canals of the palace garden were filled with rose water
on the occasion of the royal wedding when Queen Nur Jehan noticed some drops
of oil floating on the surface of water. She got it collected and gave it the name
‘Attre Jehangiri’. However, this story even if it is correct, does not seem to
be the first record of discovery of rose oil.
According to the Ibne Khal Doon, a well-established industry for production
191
of rose water was existing in Persia during A .D. 800-900 and Iran was
the centre for production of rose water apparently during a .d. 1600 Rose
water was a common item of trade between Iran, India, Spain, China and
Europe.
As regards the credit of discovery of rose oil, history shows that the
Arabs who were great alchemists and who developed the art of distillation,
probably discovered the rose oil. Apparently, Avi Cena, the great discoverer,
would have probably discovered the art of distillation in late nineth century.
Whatever may be the historical truth, it is well established that rose perfume has
been one of the most valued items of perfumery and flavour for thousands of
years.
There are three species of roses which are used for commercial production
of rose oil, concrete and absolute.
Rose
Rosa damascena Mill. var. ‘Trignitiptala’ Diek (pink damasc rose).
This species is most common and gives the highest quality of oil. It is
cultivated in Bulgaria, Turkey and India for production of rose oil. Oil
of damasc rose also fetches the highest price. According to Darlington
(1963), it is a hybrid between Rosa gallica L. and Rosa moschata Hook.
(Fig. 1).
Rosa centifolia L. (light pink or cabbage rose). It is cultivated for
production of essential oil as well as concrete and absolute in Southern
France and Morocco. This variety yields inferior-grade oil and fetches
a lesser price.
Rosa gallica L. Cultivated in South Russia. This variety also gives inferior-
grade oil.
Although it is very difficult to give exact figures of rose oil production,
it is estimated that about ten tonnes of rose oil is produced in the world
today, of which Bulgaria produces more than five tonnes followed by Turkey,
Morocco and the rest. India produces a very small quantity of rose oil
which does not exceed more than 10 kg. Most of the Indian production of
rose is converted into rose water. The actual estimate of production of
rose oil in Russia is difficult to be made, as it does not enter the world
market. However, as indicated during personal discussions 2-3 tonnes of
rose oil is produced in Russia.
Most of the rose oil is obtained by steam distillation and cohobation
using modern stills. Russians employ a combination of steam distillation
and solvent extraction. However, quality of the product is poor.
Uptil recently most of the rose oil/rose water in India was produced
in very primitive copper stills. However, recently the Central Institute
ESSENTIAL OILS FROM ORNAMENTALS 193
Fig. 1. Rosa damascena. Fig. 2. Jasminum grandiflorum.
of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants has developed modern technology which

is equivalent to Bulgarian technology and a semi-commercial plant has
already been installed in Hasayan Block of Aligarh District.
A small amount of rose perfume is also produced in the form of rose
concrete. In this process roses are treated with petroleum ether. R. centifolia
is ideally suited for production of rose concrete. R. centifolia is cultivated in
Southern France and Morocco.
The most important constituents of rose oil are: citronellol, nerol,
geraniol, linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, farnesol, citral, eugenol and some minor
constituents like damascone, rose oxide and rose furan. Rose oil is one of the
main constituents of some of the most costliest and refined perfumes and
cosmetics. In fact no high-grade perfume is possible without certain amount of
rose oil or its constituents. It gives depth to the odour and also gives
characteristic floral top notes to the perfumes. Certain amount of rose oil is also
used in snuff and chewing tobacco, alcoholic drinks, etc. Rose water is extensively
used in flavouring foods and confectionery.
Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum L.)

Jasmine has been one of the most delicate perfumes used since the
beginning of human civilization. Next to rose, jasmine has been the most
important perfumery raw material in modern perfumery industry (Fig. 2.)
Species of jasmine are probably indigenous to foot-hills of Himalayas.
Jasmine flowers have been used for religious purposes and making scented
oils and attars or several thousand years. This plant was probably brought to
North Africa by Arabs.
The word jasmine comes from Arabic word, ‘Yasmine’. Although there are
several species of Jasmine which have scented flowers and which are used
in India for making garlands and attars, only one variety, viz. Jasminum
grandiflorum L., called Spanish Jasmine, is employed for making modem
jasmine perfume in the world today.
Another species of jasmine, Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait., often referred
in India as beta, motia or mogra, is also employed for making oriental
attars in India. However, it does not have any international market.
Oil of jasmine is so delicate that it cannot be steam-distilled and it
is obtained in the form of concrete by solvent extraction. Jasmine concrete
is produced in Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, France, Italy and India. Egypt
is the major producer accounting for more than 10-15 tonnes concrete per
year, followed by Morocco, Algeria, France, Italy and India.
Production of jasmine concrete started in India only recently and a limited
amount is produced by two firms in Madras. The variety of jasmine used
for processing in India is a strain of Jasminum grandiflorum which was
introduced from France. The main constituents of jasmine concrete are:
benzyl acetate, benzyl benzoate, geraniol, terpeniol, eugenol, benzaldehyde,
nerol, indole, benzyl alcohol, jasmone, methylanthanilate and methyl jasmonate.
Jasmine perfume is used in most of the high-grade perfumes and cosmetics
and no high-quality perfume can be made without certain amount of jasmine
concrete or absolute.
Tuberose (Polianthus tuberosa F.)

Tuberose is native of central America. It is one of the most common
sweetly scented ornamental plants, which grows in tropical and sub-tropical
areas. Most of the tuberose is grown for ornamental purposes, for use
as cut flowers. However, to a limited extent it is used for production
of concrete and absolute in Southern France, Mexico, Morocco and India.
Concrete is prepared by extraction of flowers with petroleum ether, which
can be converted into tuberose absolute by alcohol washing. Only single-flower
variety is preferred for production of concrete and absolute for perfumery
purposes, as the double-flower variety is not suitable for extraction of concrete
absolute, because of its lower essential oil content.
It is one of the most valuable and expensive perfumery raw materials
obtained from flowers and used in very high-grade perfumes, specially
to give a floral note with sweet aroma.
The most common constituents of tuberose concrete/absolute are geraniol,
nerol, benzyl alcohol, methyl benzoate, methyl salicylate, eugenol, benzyl

benzoate and methyl anthranilate.
Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.)

Next to rose and chrysanthemum, carnation flowers are the most commonly
used and highly valued cut flowers used throughout the world. Most of
the carnation flowers are grown in the world for ornamental purposes and
find wide use in the cut flower industry.
However, carnation flower also has sweet aroma, which is used to a limited
extent for extraction of concrete. Carnation perfume is extracted with
petroleum ether in the form of concrete, which can be converted into absolute
by alcohol washing. Its concrete content varies from 0.2 to 0.3%.
Carnation flower is cultivated to a limited extent for production of
concrete absolute in France, Germany, Switzerland and Italy. It is used
in high-class perfumes mostly to intensify notes of roses, lily and other
floral notes. The main constituents of carnation flower are: eugenol,
phenylethyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, benzyl salicylate and methyl salicylate.
Champac (Michelia champaca L.)

Champac is a common ornamental tree having sweetly-scented flowers,
grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. This tree is native to
Philippines and is cultivated in Indonesia, India, South China and Re-Union
Islands. Only a limited amount of flowers is used for production of concrete and
absolute in China and Re-Union Islands. Total production of concrete and
absolute is not more than 300 kg per year. It is used in high-class perfumes for
giving a leafy floral note. It mixes well with rose and violet, etc. and concrete
content ranges between 0.16 and 0.2%.
Honey-suckle (Lochnera caprifolium)

It is one of the most commonly grown, scented ornamental plants in
temperate areas throughout the world, specially around the boundaries and gates
of houses. However, flowers are also used for production of concrete to a limited
extent. Flowers are extracted with petroleum ether for making concrete which
can be converted into absolute by alcohol washing. This is used in perfumes for
giving a fatty floral odour. It mixes well with jasmine and orange flavour and it is
used in very high-class perfumes. Honey-suckle is cultivated for production of
concrete to a limited extent in Southern France.
Hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis L.)

Hyacinth is one of the most commonly cultivated ornamental plants grown
throughout the temperate areas. To a limited extent, it is cultivated in Holland for
production of concrete. It is used in high-class perfumes to give a sweet, green

floral odour. However, the use of hyacinth concrete and absolute is only limited.
The important constituents of hyacinth oil are: isoeugenol, benzyl alcohol,
phenylethyl alcohol, benzaldehyde and cineol.
Orris root (Iris species)

Orris root is cultivated in the temperate areas of the world as an ornamental
plant. However, rhizomes of Iris germanica and I. pallida are used for production
of resinoids and perfumes. Iris perfume can be produced by steam distillation or
obtained in the form of resinoid by solvent extraction. Orris root resinoids are
used to a limited extent as perfumery raw material in France, Morocco, Italy,
England and the USA. It is used in high-class perfumes and soaps and blends well
with ionones of sandal wood, citronella and in tobacco type notes. The most
important constituents are: caprylic acid, pelargonic acid, capric acid, tridecylic
acid, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, linalool and geraniol.
In addition to above ornamental plants, other plants which are used only
in minor quantities for production of essential oils and perfumes are
as follows.
Plumeria (P. alba L. and P. rubra L.)

These flowers are extracted for production of concrete to a very limited
extent in China and used in perfumes to give honey-suckle- and tuberose-type
odour.
Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus L.)

It is a common garden plant used for ornamental purposes. To a limited
extent flowers are extracted for production of concrete in Southern France.
It is used in perfumes to provide a floral note and it mixes well with
honey-suckle, rose and hyacinth.
Narcissus (N. poeticus L.)

It is a common garden plant grown in the temperate areas of the world.
To a limited extent flowers are extracted for production of concrete,
which is used in high-class perfumes.
Gardenia (G. florida L.)

It is a common garden plant having sweet-smelling flowers. To a limited
extent flowers are extracted for production of concrete and absolute, which are
used in high-grade perfumes.
Magnolia (M. grandiflora L.)

Flowers of magnolia are used for production of concrete to a limited
extent, which is used in high-class perfumes.
Sweet violet (Viola odorata L.)

Violet flowers are used, to a limited extent for production of concrete
which is used in high-grade perfumes.
REFERENCES
Guenther, E. 1952. The Essential Oils. I-VI, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. New York.
Arctander, S. 1960. Perfumes and Flavour Materials of Natural Origin. Arctander, Elizabeth, New Jersey.
Lawrence, B.M. 1981. Essential Oils. Allured Publishing Corpn., Wheaton, Illinois.
Touw, Mia. 1982. Roses in middle ages. Econ. Bot. 36 : 71-83.
Krussman, G. 1977. Roses in art and history. Rose Annual, pp. 67-77.
Darlington, C.D. 1963. Chromosome Botany and the Origin of Cultivated Plants. George Allen & Union, London.
15
Hybrid Seed Production in Flowers
Manmohan Attavar
Indo-American Hybrid Seeds
Bangalore, Karnataka
D URING the World War II, in the early forties of the present century,
when Japan was undergoing through a critical period, a silent but most
significant revolutionary change occurred in floriculture. It was the exploitation
of hybrid vigour in Petunia when the technique for producing all double Fj
hybrids was developed for the first time. This paved the way later for introducing
numerous outstanding Fj hybrids not only in Petunia but in many other types of
flowers in several other countries like the USA, the Netherlands, Denmark, West
Germany and the United Kingdom. Now Fj hybrids are available in many flowers
from A (Antirrhinum) to Z (Zinnia), including Ageratum, Begonia, Calceolaria,
Cyclamen, carnation, Dianthus, Geranium, Gerbera, hollyhock, Impatiens,
marigold, Nicotiana, Petunia, Portulaca, stocks and a few others.
Although the first Fj hybrid in Petunia was produced in early 1940’s
it was only after about a decade that rapid advancement in development
of Fj hybrids in other flowers took place. There is a continuous creative
search for new F! hybrid flowers. As a result of the immense popularity
gained by the hybrid flowers, newer and more attractive hybrids are being
released year after year by many seed companies in the world. A few important
first hybrids in flowers are Petunia (1940-50), Geranium Single (1960),
Antirrhinum, pansy, marigold, Zinnia (1965), Ageratum (1966), Geranium
Double (1970), Dianthus, Begonia, Impatiens, Portulaca (1976-77), Gerbera
(1980) and carnation (1981).
ADVANTAGES OF Fj HYBRIDS
The main advantage in hybrids is the unique combination of appreciable

vigour and uniformity. Generally these two characters are opposed to each
other in open-pollinated varieties. When these varieties are selected for
uniformity they lose their diverse genetic make-up which produces vigour.
Besides having outstanding vigour, the F, hybrids if selected judiciously have
198
HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN FLOWERS 199
other advantages too, such as dwarf and compact plants, with basal branching,
extremely free-blooming, early flowering, doubleness, larger flowers, longer
duration of flowering, tolerance to heat and humidity and disease resistance. The
hybrids of Petunia, Dianthus, Impatiens, Begonia and Geranium are dwarf and
compact with basal branching. In most of the flowers the hybrids are very
floriferous with large flowers and early blooming. Geranium hybrids raised from
seeds are not likely to carry diseases transmitted by cuttings or slips as in standard
geraniums. Faster growth and a longer growing season are the characteristics of
hybrids in Petunia and Geranium. Doubleness in Petunia can only be produced
successfully through hybrids. In stocks (Hansen’s Double) by selecting
the pale green-leaved seedlings and discarding dark-green foliage under
cool conditions of growing, it is possible to grow 100% double-flowered
plants. Begonia and Gerbera hybrids are tolerant to heat and humidity.
The triploid hybrid Nugget, F! hybrid of the African marigold (Tagetes
erecta) and the French marigold (Tpatula), being sterile, the absence
of fertilization and seed-set has the unique ability of holding the flowers
fresh on the plant for a longer period. In the Butterfly hybrids of Antirrhinum
the flower shape is unusual, each floret is like a colourful butterfly exposing more
colour than the standard varieties.
HYBRID BREEDING TECHNIQUES
The Fx hybrid breeding process, though very fascinating and rewarding, is

long, costly and requires considerable skill. The breeding cycle is accelerated by
growing the breeding material out-of season at any other suitable location. The
process of developing inbred lines, making test crosses and testing the resulting
Fj hybrids are repeated several times to find a hybrid good enough to introduce.
Hundreds or thousands of test crosses are made to find one new hybrid. The
inbred lines come from the standard open-pollinated varieties or occasionally
from the wild related species, which is a time-consuming procedure but brings
out dramatic changes. New lines are developed from recombination of existing
lines. It is necessary to search for new sources of breeding material for further
improvement in hybrid varieties. The best plants from each inbred line are
selected for test crosses. The promising inbred plants are crossed with a large
number of plants from a different inbred line or lines. The Fj hybrids produced
from these test crosses are then grown and observed in extensive greenhouse and
field trials. A few most promising Fj hybrids are also tested in university or any
other agricultural experiment station and seed company trial grounds at several
locations, within and outside the country. The year before a new hybrid is
released, hundreds of samples are distributed to commercial plant growers. This
provides additional information on performance and cultural methods under
commercial conditions in each agro-climatic region.

There is a constant endeavour by flower breeders to produce new, more
attractive and brightly-coloured hybrids. With the advancements made in new
bedding plant technology in the USA such as automated systems, smaller
containers, shorter crop time, energy stress and singulated seeding, hybrid
varieties have been tailored to meet the requirements of commercial floriculture
and consumer demands as in Petunia. For instance, Petunia hybrids have been
bred for earliness in flowering, high, even and quick germination, seedling vigour
in plugs or ‘packs’, compactness, ease of handling and response to growth
retardants. However, improvement in these characters suited to bedding industry
have been made without sacrificing the superior performance in the garden. This
is ensured by testing the performance of a hybrid both in the pack and in the field.
Only those hybrids which show good performance in both the tests are selected
for further extensive trials.
MAINTAINING AND IMPROVING HYBRIDS
Once a new hybrid is produced, the work is not over. The parent lines must
be maintained and retested to make sure some of the desirable attributes of the
hybrid are not lost. The uniformity in hybrids depends upon the genetic purity of
parental lines.
PRODUCTION OF ^ HYBRID SEED
Most of the hybrid seed is produced by hand in greenhouse. Both

emasculation and pollination are done by hand which enables the breeder to have
a wider choice of parents for crossing. However, in flowers of family Compositae
where emasculation and pollination by hand are difficult, like marigold and
zinnia, male sterility is used for hybrid seed production. Collection of pollen with
the help of a vacuum pump, dehiscence of anthers for pollen under ultraviolet
lamp, storage of pollen at cool temperatures and use of pollen gun for pollination
are some of the useful innovations facilitating hybrid-seed production. In many
type of flowers like Petunia, Antirrhinum and Nicotiana, which have numerous
small seeds in a capsule, a single pollination produces a large number of seeds.
About 2,000 flowers of Petunia are needed to produce about 30 g of seed.
Harvesting of seeds at proper ripening stage, cleaning and grading of seeds are
essential processes before sale. At every stage of production care is taken to avoid
selfing or natural cross-pollination or both to ensure complete hybridity and
genetic purity. Harvesting, processing and storage of seeds are done carefully so
that there is no mechanical mixture.
HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN FLOWERS 201
WORK DONE IN INDIA
Pronounced hybrid vigour has been reported in some flowers like marigold,
Antirrhinum, balsam, hollyhock, Petunia, and a few others. These studies were
carried out mainly at research institutes. Seed companies like the Indo-American
Hybrid Seeds is engaged in commercial hybrid seed production in Petunia,
Antirrhinum, Geranium, Nicotiana, marigold and Gloxinia. Besides selling the
seeds in domestic markets F[ seeds are being exported to countries abroad. Other
seed companies and government agencies may also start production of Fj hybrid
seeds in future. In research institutes and agricultural universities, priority should
be given to heterosis breeding as it is undoubtedly a most rewarding and
profitable venture for both the floriculturists and seed producers. The hybrid-
seed production being labour intensive has a great potential for employment of
youths in rural and sub-urban areas. It may also generate gainful income by
setting up of ancillary industries dealing with equipments and other facilities
needed like greenhouse, small seed-processing machinery, seed packaging, etc.
16
Export Potentialities of Ornamental Plants
and Cut-flowers from India
Vishnu Swarup
Indo-American Hybrid Seeds
New Delhi
T HE offering and exchange of cut-flowers and their use in home decoration

have become an integral part of living in human society. Besides their
aesthetic importance, trees and other ornamentals planted in urban areas
contribute to amelioration of the polluted environment. Among the various
ornamentals, the cut-flowers have the biggest import-export trade in the world,
followed by live plants, cut foliage, seeds, bulbs, tubers, corms, etc.
The total imports of ornamentals in Europe at present are approximately
worth $2323 million comprising mainly cut-flowers ($ 1044 million), followed
by cut foliage ($ 143 million), bulbs, corms, etc. ($325 million), and live plants
($811 million). During a five-year period the floriculture trade increased from
$ 1278 million in 1976 to $ 2323 million in 1981, recording a growth rate of about
82%. In the world trade of ornamentals, the share of developed countries is 91%
whereas developing countries contribute only 9%. Among the exporters, the
Netherlands is the largest (64.3 %) in all items except cut foliage, for which Italy is
the biggest exporter. The annua! consumption of cut-flowers in the world is worth
about $ 13 billion. The Federa' Republic of Germany is the biggest consumer and
importer of cut-flowers. The demand of cut-flowers is increasing in the developed
countries. The per-capita consumption of flowers in the Federal Republic of
Germany has increased at the rate of 10% every year during the last decade. In the
European markets cut f owers are regularly imported to supplement the internal
production. For instance in the FRG the annual internal production worth about
DM 1000 million is sufficient to meet only 42% of its demand and the rest 58%
requirement is met from the imports, mainly from Holland, France, Italy, Israel
and South Africa. The import of cut flowers in European markets is maximum
during winter months (November to April) when there is a shortage and the
prices are at least 50% higher than in other months.
Several developing countries of the tropical region, where the climate is
202
EXPORT POTENTIALITIES OF ORNAMENTALS AND CUT-FLOWERS 203
warm during winter, therefore, have started exporting cut flowers to European
countries. The important exporting countries from developing region are Israel,
Columbia, Brazil, Kenya, Ivory Coast, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Singapore and South
Africa. Israel is the leading exporter of cut flowers, particularly rose and gladiolus,
to Europe, having a share of about 11% followed by Columbia (5.3%), Thailand
(2.7%) and Kenya (1.3%). There is a large-scale export of orchids from Thailand,
Sri Lanka and Singapore; rose, carnation and gladiolus from Kenya; rose,
chrysanthemum and carnation from Columbia and Brazil; and rose, Protea and
gladiolus from South Africa.
EXPORT FROM INDIA
The pioneering efforts of the floriculturists of the Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi in collaboration with the State Trading
Corporation of India, in successfully exporting cut roses to Paris, Rotterdam and
Frankfurt in 1969, paved the way to develop export trade of floriculture materials.
Unfortunately during the last 15 years there has not been any significant
advancement in the export trade of ornamentals from India, despite the fact that
the country has varied and suitable climate, low cost of labour and progressive
farming technology. The export of floriculture items from India were Rs 2.4
million in 1976-77 which increased to Rs 8.4 million in 1980-81 but declined to
Rs 6 million in 1981-82. Almost half of the exported quantity comprised foliage
and flowering plants (48%), followed by cut-flowers (38%) and other items (14%).
The cut flowers were sent mainly to the FRG, Holland, Italy (31%) and the USA
(19%) whereas live plants were exported to Gulf countries (UAE and Oman).
In view of the immense potential for export of ornamentals from the country
recently the Government of India and its other agencies like the Ministry of
Commerce, Processed Foods Export Promotion Council (now APEDA), State
Trading Corporation and Trade Development Authority have given encourage¬
ment and support to it. In the past there had been a few seminars and meetings to
discuss the various problems of export trade of floriculture materials and to have
useful interactions between different organisations concerned with export trade.
A trade delegation of growers, trade and marketing organized by the Processed
Foods Export Promotion Council (Ministry of Commerce) visited Moscow,
Amsterdam, Hamburg and Frankfurt to study the various aspects of production
and marketing of flowers and live plants for export and submitted a report along
with recommendations to the Government of India.
CONSTRAINTS IN EXPORT
There are several constraints in export trade of ornamentals from India at

production, transport and marketing levels which have been identified by various
agencies. These include poor production, both from the points of view of quantity
and quality, lack of planting material, high commodity, air freight rate, inadequate
incentives and financial assistance for export and absence of organized marketing
channels and monitoring system. Commercial floriculture is a recent
development in this country. Although almost all kinds of flowers and
ornamental plants are grown, there is no specific information on the level of
existing production in terms of area and production under floriculture crops in
India. Such information is useful in planning for increased production for export.
The importing countries have demands mainly for cut roses, chrysanthemum,
carnation, gladiolus, and some exotic flowers like orchids, anthurium, heliconia,
protea etc. Besides, there is a market preference for specific varieties and high
quality with standard specifications. However, in India large quantities of planting
material of export varieties of most of the flowers are not available. There are
rapid and continuous developments abroad in evolving better varieties of flowers
and other ornamental plants specifically for export markets. The export-oriented
varieties of flowers are rather short-lived and these are frequently replaced with
newer and better ones.
With the existing meagre facilities of infrastructure for floriculture research
available in government research institutes and agricultural universities as well as
in private nurseries and seed companies in India, it may not be possible to evolve
varieties suitable for export as expeditiously as some of the leading exporting
countries. It is therefore advisable to introduce the important export varieties of
flowers for rapid multiplication and production in the country for export trade.
However, simultaneously efforts should be made by floriculturists to develop
Indian varieties which may be suitable for export.
In the markets abroad cut flowers of high quality only are acceptable. The
inferior quality flowers are rejected and destroyed in some of the large flower
auction markets like Aalsmeer in the Netherlands. The cut flowers produced in
our country generally do not conform to the international quality specifications.
In roses only the flowers grown under glass-houses are in damand in the
European countries.
Packaging of cut-flowers and live plants for export which is specific for each
kind of flower and plant is not fully developed in our country. Besides, proper
type of packaging material, which is corrugated cardboard boxes in most cases,
similar to those used abroad, is also not available. Packaging should be functional,
economical and attractive besides being acceptable in foreign market.
The cut flowers and live plants which are highly perishable are transported
by air, invariably by direct flights without any transhipment to distant markets
abroad. Cut flowers are also given cold treatment before packing them. The
packed cartons are transported to airport in air-conditioned vans and kept in cool
place before loading in the aircraft. Such facilities do not exist here at present.
Flowers and live plants are not grown in large areas in the country. Hence,
small growers of flowers for export may require assistance in marketing their
produce. Since the importing countries generally have demands for very large
quantities of cut-flowers, it may not be possible for any individual grower to meet
these export requirements. Also the average area available with the grower near
international airport is not large, being about 0.4 ha to 2 ha or so. It may,
therefore, be necessary to make arrangements for collection of flowers from
several small growers through either a consortium or federation of growers or by
any export house. Export houses and big industrial organisations in Kenya and
Sri Lanka have developed export trade of cut-flowers. Similarly orchid coopera¬
tives of about 500 members each have been organised in Bangkok for export of
orchids. Each member grower grows orchids in about 2-4 hectares and delivers
each morning cut-flowers, to the co-operative. These are sorted, graded and
packed for export.
Recently the Government of India and other agencies, like the Ministry of
Commerce, Processed Foods Export Promotion Council, State Trading
Corporation and Trade Development Authority of India have paid greater
attention to export of ornamentals and have provided incentives to this new
enterprise. Cut flowers have been included in the select list of products and the
exporters of cut flowers are given the same benefits as allowed to other exporters.
They are allowed to import packing material, peat, seeds and bulbs and plant
material, fertilizers etc. against export of live plants. Similarly special commodity
air freight rates for export of flowers and live plants have been allowed by Air
India from Delhi or Bombay to a few selected destinations on some sectors.
SUGGESTIONS FOR PROMOTION OF

EXPORT OF ORNAMENTALS
1. It is necessary to have specific information on the present level of

production, area and locations of flowers and ornamental plants in the country.
Such information will be useful in planning production for export and in making
projections for export of floriculture items.
2. The flowers and plants that are in demand abroad and can be easily
produced in the country either in open or in greenhouse, glass-house or plastic
house under controlled environment may be identified. It may be worthwhile to
concentrate efforts on orchid, rose, carnation and chrysanthemum. Rose will have
to be grown either in greenhouse or glass-house or under partial plastic cover.
Since glass-house technology and production is almost unknown in the country,
it is suggested that the Government of India may allow import of 2 or 3 units of
climate-controlled glass-house from abroad without any duty. These may be used
for pilot trials of production for export and also serve as a prototype for fabrication
here.
3. Flowers are highly perishable, and in the beginning there may be rejection
of consignments of inferior quality or those damaged during transportation.
Hence the projets of flowers and live plants with 50% quantum of production
for export may be given the same benefits as those for 100% export-oriented
projects.
4. It is suggested that the air freight to destinations in Europe may be
reduced from the current rate to make it more competitive and thus encourage
exporters to send flowers and live plants to European countries. Foliage plants of
excellent quality can be exported from Bangalore and Pune to European markets
at competitive price if there is a reduction in air-freight.
5. Since floriculture industry is capital intensive, provision of bank loan on a
lower rate of interest (about 6%) may assist many floriculturists to take up
production of flowers and plants for export.
6. Small growers of flowers and live plants for export may require assistance
in marketing their products. The marketing and development of trade may be
undertaken by the State Trading Corporation, Processed Foods Export
Promotion Council and Trade Development Authority of India. Collection of
flowers and live plants from small growers may be arranged through a consortium
or federation of growers or by any export house. They can also assist in market
surveys and marketing intelligence for the guidance of growers and exporters.
Export houses and big industrial organisations may be induced to enter into the
export trade of floriculture items, like those in other developing countries such as
Kenya and Sri Lanka.
7. Research on flower crops for export should be intensified so that it may
assist in establishing and promoting export trade of ornamentals. Sustained
efforts must be made on introduction of popular export varieties from abroad and
rapid multiplication of plant material using latest techniques of tissue culture.
Studies may be undertaken on pre- and post-harvest physiology and technology,
packaging and control of diseases and insect pests of cut flowers and live plants
with a view to producing internationally acceptable quality products. The
research units may also help in testing of newly introduced plant materials
required for export. Regular interactions between research workers and
floriculturists engaged in export will be beneficial in the development of export
trade. Such research units may receive financial assistance from the central and
state governments as well as from export houses.
Presently a few research organisations are engaged in export-oriented
projects, like the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore; Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi; Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana; the National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh;
and the All-India Co-ordinated Floriculture Improvement Project of the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research at several locations in the country. The Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research at the CSIR Complex, Palampur (Himachal
Pradesh) is also initiating research on floriculture items for export.
8. There is an acute shortage of qualified and trained staff in floriculture,
especially those having experience of growing flowers and live plants for export.
The Central and State Governments and agricultural universities may consider
deputing floriculture staff for training abroad for this purpose.
17
The Japanese Garden
M.S. Randhawa
Garden House, Kharar, Punjab
T HE Japanese are a warrior race, who are fierce in combat but gentle
in the arts of peace. Like most warrior races, they have intense love
for nature and poetry. Their love of nature is born of the landscape of
Japan, with its green cascaded hills, its pine-girt shores, and purity of its silver air.
A lush dark-green vegetation clothes the shores of the sea bays, and the
trembling bamboos with their feathery leaves stand out from among the pines
conspicuously. In the bamboo groves, learned men retire to discuss philosophy
and the mysteries of life. Fujiyama, the peak of the white lotus, the changeless
home of peace, dominates life by its silent beauty. In the mist, the pine trees with
their twisted branches loom like ghosts in the horizon. The volcanic rocks and
mountains have a characteristic look and appear very ancient. The rice fields
appear like a mosaic of mirrors during the planting season when they are flooded
with water. The farmers wearing grass cloaks and umbrella-like straw hats
transplanting paddy give a quaint appearance to the countryside. The thatched
houses of the farmers harmonise with the landscape, and the beautiful
temple bells vibrate the music of love and repose.
Japanese poetry abounds in the intense adoration of nature, the worship
of great rivers, delight in clouds and lake-mists and in the flight of
wild geese. In it one hears the voice of the ocean, the music of the pattering
rain, and the roar of the water-falls. As Okakura says, “It is through
Toenmei and other poets of the South that the purity of the ‘dew-drooping’
chrysanthemum, the delicate grace of the swaying bamboo, the unconscious
fragrance of plum flowers floating on the twilight water, the green serenity
of the pine, whispering its silent woes to the wind, and the divine narcissus,
hiding its noble soul in deep ravines, or seeking for spring in a glimpse
of heaven, become themes of poetic inspiration, which, when blended with
Buddhist ideals in the great liberalizing Tang period, bursts forth again
in the Sung poets, who are, like Toenmei, a product of the Yang-tse mind,
everseeking the expression of the soul in Nature”,.
208
THE JAPANESE GARDEN 209
The Japanese is a great lover of plants and flowers. And in fact no nation
has such deep passion for flowers as the Japanese. The princesses loiter
with the peasant girls in their pleasure gardens without pride or vanity
or any class distinction, all equally self-inebriated, a sight which fills
the human heart with rare gladness. Speaking of offering flowers to the
Buddha, in one of her poems. Empress Komio says, “If I pluck them, the
touch of my hand will defile, therefore standing in the meadows as they
are I offer these wind-blown flowers to the Buddhas of the past, the present
and the future”. This simple poem indicates the love and reverence, the
Japanese people have for flowers, and it is no wonder that they created
gardens of such subtle beauty and charm. If cultural development of a
country is judged from its gardens, Japan no doubt, occupies a place at
the apex of the cultural pyramid.
Strange as it may seem the Japanese garden, the most beautiful and highly
developed of all the present-day gardens, in whose praise westerners have
written so much, has its roots in the Indian soil. India, the mother of
thought, has very close cultural links with China and Japan. It was through
the mountain passes of the North-West that India poured her intellectual
torrents upon the Far-Eastern world. A lively communication was maintained
between India and China through these passes, and travellers, pilgrims
and traders carried Indian art and religion to China. India, from sixth
to seventh century a.d., was the centre of the Buddhist universe, and
Indian monks carried the message of the Buddha to the Far East. From China,
Hindu ideas reached the remote island of Japan. There may have been earlier
contacts between the two countries, as the Japanese have traditions of
solar descent and a number of Hindu Gods have found place in the Japanese
pantheon. The Buddhist saints from India were the torch-bearers of culture
and progress, who adventured into Central Asia, and China, carrying the
message of the Buddha and also the idea of the temple-garden. Describing
the history of gardening in the Far-East, Mrs. Villiers Stuart writes,
“The Indian Buddhist garden, forgotten in the land of its origin, still
survives further East, although so transformed and tinged by the genius
of another climate and another people, that the garden history of the
plum and cherry trees, the wistaria and the morning glory, the lotus and
the Japanese iris, is often misunderstood and overlooked. For all that,
the Japanese garden, the most intimate and charming expression of Japanese
nationality, came like so many of their arts, from India through China
and Korea. And from the early temple gardens made by the Buddhist monks
and pilgrims, the whole beautiful and elaborate system of Japanese garden
craft has gradually been built up. The Indian Lotus-bearers reached China
both through Turkistan and by the Southern route through Burma and
Cambodia, and ‘Coal Hill’, near Tatar city in Peking, is a relic of the Pleasure
Hill idea. The style is supposed to have been introduced into Japan in
the sixth century by one, Yohan Loan Han, who constructed great mounds,
some of them a hundred feet high or more, and brought water in conduits
to form lakes and ponds. These hills and rockeries were planted after
the Indian fashion with flowering trees and shrubs.”
The Budhist temple garden flourished in the soil of China and Japan.
In the moist temperate climate of Japan so favourable to the growth of
vegetation, and in the hands of an artistic people, it evolved till it
was transformed into almost a new type of garden. The native genius of
the people asserted itself and the Buddhist temple garden developed into
the Japanese landscape garden.
The modern Japanese garden is the result of the efforts of priests and
garden-lovers of Japan spread over a period of eleven centuries. It aims
at providing in miniature the composition of a mountain-side landscape
with a characteristic cascade, a small lake with an island, a bridge,
characteristically arranged stones and rocks, and ornamental stone-lanterns
suggesting light. Garden designing was made a part of the ritual of their
religion by the priests of Zen sect of Buddhism, and the gardens designed
by the Zen priest Muso Kokushi in the early part of the fourteenth century
are preserved in Kyoto even now. Where water-supply is deficient, dried-up
rock gardens are in vogue and sand is strewn to suggest water. There is
no massing of trees and a solitary cherry tree planted at a suitable angle
against the background of evergreen trees appears far more beautiful
by contrast than clumps or avenues. Simplicity is the keynote of such
gardens. So far as possible trees are planted in an environment approximating
their natural habitat.
However, it would be erroneous to run away with the idea that a Japanese
garden consists of a few stones, bridges and stone-lanterns. The basic conception
of Japanese garden is calm and peace. It is a place where you come for meditation,
a place where you retire to forget the worries of the world, and the hurry and
bustle of modern life. As Mrs Basil Taylour so rightly observes, “The key to
understanding of the difficult, highly involved art of Japanese garden-making is
spiritual. It is an art which has for its conscious or unconscious aim the
refreshment of the body by raising the mind to another plane of feeling.”
You are not expected to hurry through a Japanese garden. The bridges, the
stepping stones and rocks are so placed that you simply cannot rush through. The
rustic shelters in the shade, the tea houses, the gold-fish in the pool, the soothing
patter of water from the water-fall all tempt you to linger on. You admire the
delicate rosy blossoms of cherry trees, and you open your heart to the beauty of
white plum blossoms which display their lovely flowers against a background of
deep green furnished by conifers, like cryptomerias and firs. Guarding the gate of
the garden are two venerable pine trees symbolic of long life. Crimson-red azaleas
lie bleeding on the rocks among the pine-needles. “If there were ever a flower that
personified colour then it is surely the azalea. It is the rainbow of flowers, and
there seems scarcely a shade of colour not to be found in its blossoms. To look at
the azaleas is to look into the very paint-box of Nature itself.” Irises display their
beautiful flowers, proud of their glamour as they see their reflection in the limpid
water of the pool. From your seat you watch the flight of birds, and contemplate
the beauty of delicate camelias and peonies. Delicately coloured flowers follow
each other in succession from month to month, and all the year round, there is
something to love and admire. Flowering trees are irregularly placed in happily
chosen spots to give the impression of natural landscape. Practically all gardens in
Japan are landscape gardens and are reproductions on a small scale of the scenery
of Japan.
Water is the life of a garden, Moghul or Japanese. Describing the use made
by the Japanese of water, apart from irrigation in their gardens, Mrs. Basil Taylour
writes, “The rocks and stones are the bones of the skeleton, the contour of the
land represents its features, the flowers and trees are the flesh and the
adornments of dress, but the water is the life and soul of the garden. No one
knows better than the Japanese landscape artist what compound interest in
beauty he reaps by the repetition and reflection of his earthly garden in his watery
one. Just as mirrors enlarge little rooms, as the sea beneath a sunset intensifies
the glory of the western sky, so water in a garden doubles the interest, the beauty,
and apparent size of the place in which it is put.”
Pine trees which are great favourites of the Japanese are trained into artistic
forms, and lean over the surface of the water in an attractive manner. Sometimes
trees are trained into fantastic shapes like sailing boats. Palm trees are grown near
houses to enjoy the music of pattering rain drops on their broad waxy leaves. In
winter these tropical palm trees are protected by covering them with close-fitting
jackets of rice-straw. Great attention is paid to the welfare of the trees, and when
fruits are not edible, they are plucked off at an early stage to prevent a drain
on the vitality of the tree.
The art of dwarfing and transplanting has considerably developed in Japan.
There are trees scores of years old which look no bigger than saplings
2-3 years old.
Bonsai, the art of cultivation of dwarf trees has considerable vogue
in Japan. Trees are dwarfed by growing in pots and mollusc shells and
cutting their roots and they are trained to assume the shape of old trees.
Thus the townsman can enjoy the beauty and feel the grandeur of ancient
trees in the house, and he can create the atmosphere of the forest in his
urban home.
Deciduous trees like cherries are transplanted even when as old as 30

years. When they are in a dormant condition and leaves have fallen they
are dug out, the branches are pruned and the trees with as much soil clinging
to the roots as possible are transported on huge carts to their new homes
and planted. It is not uncommon sight in the cities of Japan to see people
transporting their favourite trees along with their other belongings when
changing houses.
As in the Moghul garden-craft, we find rich symbolism in Japanese
gardening. The white blossoms of the plum are symbolic of spiritual beauty,
while the pink cherry blossoms signify bodily or sensuous beauty. The plum has
inspired beautiful poems of sadness and war. In the white flowers of the
plum, the Japanese sees the heart of a soldier, who has learnt the secret
of Nirvana. A Japanese women’s beauty is frequently associated with the
cherry-blossom, while her virtue is compared with the flower of the plum.
The poet Motoori wrote: “If one should ask you concerning the heart of
a true Japanese, point to the wild cherry flower glowing in the sun.”
‘Saki’ is drunk when viewing cherry blossoms, for wine, women and cherry
blossoms go together. Cherry blossoms have been popular for centuries
in Japan, and Shogun Yoshimura loved this beautiful plant so intensely
that he planted ten thousand cherry trees, along the banks of Tamagawa,
so that the purity of the flowers may keep water of this river pure, thus
safe-guarding the health of the inhabitants of Tokyo. Peach is the favourite
of little girls who use its flowers in their festivals. Hideyoshi made his palace on a
mountain which was planted with so many peaches, that it was called, “Peach
Mountain”.
Which one is prettier, the cherry or the plum blossom? It is said that
one day Kinto Fujiwara, Great Adviser of State, disputed with the Minister
of Uji which was the fairest of spring and autumn flowers. Said the Minister:
The cherry is surely best among the flowers of spring, the Chrysanthemum
among those of autumn.’ Then Kinto said, “How can the cherry blossom be
the best? You have forgotten the plum”. Their dispute came at length to
be confined to the superiority of the cherry and the plum, and of other
flowers little notice was taken. At length Kinto, not wishing to offend
the Minister, did not argue so vehemently as before, but said, “well,
have it so; the cherry may be the prettier of the two; but when once you
have seen the plum-blossom in the snow at the dawn of a spring morning,
you will no longer forget its beauty”.
The Chrysanthemum with the Plum, the Orchid, and the Bamboo
constitutes the “Four Floral Gentlemen”. With its numerous petals which appear
like sun-rays, chrysanthemum signifies the rising sun, the symbol of Japan.
The conifers like firs, pines, and cryptomerias signify long life and
devotion, and are planted near temples. All these conifers are regarded
as sacred, and are planted in avenues and clumps in the vicinity of the
Buddhist and Shinto temples.
Festivals are celebrated in different months when the favourite flowers
are at the height of their beauty. In the middle of April, when cherry
blossoms are at their best the cherry-viewing festival is held. In November,
when chrysanthemums are in their full glory, a festival is celebrated
in honour of these flowers.
Thousands of Japanese visit the shrine of the God Tenjin in Kameido in
February to enjoy the sight of the white blossoms of the plum trees. Hundreds
of couples sip tea on benches placed under the ancient trees. At dusk,
spherical paper lanterns swaying from the branches are lighted, and the
white blossoms appear colourful under the reflected light of these multi-coloured
lanterns. Poets write poems in praise of the plum blossoms on a special
paper Tanzaku and they tie these oblong strips to the branches. Thousands
gather at Kameido to admire the drooping purple flowers of wistarias in
May. There are many places in Tokyo which are famous for cherry blossoms,
particularly Mukojima, Arakawa, Uyeno, Asukusa Hill and the parks of Hikawa
and Shiba. In early April, these places are crowded with visitors who
come to admire the cherry blossoms and stay from dawn till late in the
night. Old cherry trees are given special names and are mentioned with
affection. Admirers of cherry blossoms carry flowers in the button-holes
of their coats, drink beer and make merry round the flower-laden cherry
trees glowing with electric lights. Giving his impressions of flower shows
and festivals, Puran Singh writes, “The flower shows are as soft revelations
of the Japanese soul, art and religion as the early dawn is of the mystery
of creation. They infused an unutterable spirit of true religion into me. Judging by
the way in which festivals are held in Japan, round the innocent saints—the
flowers, it seems the Japanese nation as a whole is immersed in deep prayer.
Every blossoming cherry tree is a Buddhist temple in Japan. There are national
holidays to honour the arrival of the cherry-blossom. The whole people are
literally drunk with the joy of the cherry. At the great fairs in Uyeno Park and the
cherry dances of Geishas in romantic Kyoto, the genius of great Japan can be seen
at its best and truest, and truly adored.”
The morning glory with its transient beauty typifies all that is loving
and beautiful in life. Recounting his experiences in Japan, Puran Singh
thus describes the pleasure a Japanese family receives on watching the
opening of buds of the morning glory. “A Japanese family sat round a flower
pot that had three buds of the morning glory just opening their soul to
the morning ray. It was as if the message came from Heaven to the travellers
who had strayed to earth from there. So thankful was the reception by
the buds of that love-letter of Heaven. And as the morning glories began
opening in the joy of that realised Nirvana, the mouths of the Japanese
daughter, her father and mother began opening. It took about half an hour
for the bud to blossom to fullness and by that time four Japanese mouths
were fully opened and all the eyes too were red with the melting of the
ray in those pools of wonder. It was religion, not merely an aesthetic
pleasure. Verily, verily no nation of the East or of the West has merged
itself so completely with the spirit of gods that is manifested on earth
in the fatal innocence of flowers.”
“Flower stories are endless.” says Okakura in his book of Tea. “In the
sixteenth century the morning glory was yet a rare plant with us. Rikiu
had an entire garden planted with it which he cultivated with assiduous
care. The fame of his convolvuli reached the ear of the Taiko, and he
expressed a desire to see them, in consequence of which Rikiu invited
him to a morning tea at his house. On the appointed day the Taiko walked
through the garden but nowhere could he see a vestige of the convolvulus.
The ground had been levelled and strewn with fine pebbles and sand. With
sullen anger the despot entered the tea room, but a sight awaited him there
which completely restored his humour. On the tokehname, in a rare bronze
of Sung workmanship lay a single morning glory—the queen of the whole
garden. In such instances we see the full significance of the Flower Sacrifice.
Perhaps the flowers appreciate the full significance of it. They are not
cowards like men. Some flowers glory in death, certainly the Japanese
cherry blossoms do, as they freely surrender themselves to the winds.
Any one who has stood before the fragrant avalanche at Yoshino or Arishyama
must have realised this. For a moment they hover like bejewelled clouds,
and dance above the crystal streams, when as they sail away on the laughing
waters, they seem to say: “Farewell, O Spring, we are on to eternity.”
This expresses the whole spirit of the Japanese race in a tragic story
of the cherry and the morning glory.
My ‘LumpyngnacT
Garden in Shillong
Pratibha P. Trivedi
Shillong, Meghalaya
CC13 EWARE of Gardening” - says my family, as my passionate fondness for

J3 it is a hindrance to their participation in it. When I entered my house
‘Lumpyngnad’* (which literally means “a pleasant hill”) in Shillong, I was excited
and commented, “I should check myself or otherwise this Garden will overpower
me.” Alas! I just lost my heart to it and immersed myself in it. It was diamond and
gold, silver and copper, ruby and jade all combined producing constantly
changing patterns of rainbows.
‘Lumpyngnad’ has age-old magnificent, graceful trees—some tall, some
short, some erect and some spread all over, some filtering light and the others
preventing it, some with flowers and some without. But each one with a
personality. One pine tree (Pinus khasiana) facing our main lawn and the living
room was our most favourite. It has the most unique formation—weather-beaten
and all curved and yet so graceful. A creeper Vitis in winter showed its crimson
glory resting on it and the golden morning light peeping through its branches
uplifted our hearts. A look at it and the day was made.
And then there was a tall tree Cupressus. One evening when all lights
suddenly went out, it seemed under the starlight to have grown like the “Jack and
the beanstalk”. Then only we realized how stately the tree was.
When the life stirred with the distant call of the spring, the birch (.Betula
alnoides) showed its tiny off-yellow leaves against the heavenly blue sky. Oh! it
was breath-taking.
The fussy little Acacia podalyriaefolia was a constant delight— in or out of
bloom. Its delicate grey-green, almost silvery grey, foliage was always attractive.
But with the silvery leaves combined with tiny globular fragrant canary yellow
flowers in masses, I was transported to heaven! And could easily say “if there is a
heaven, it is here, it is here, it is here.”
There was a wild peach tree. Its fruit was small, a little bitter and not too
*‘Lumpyngnad’ was the residence of the author during 1983-85.
215
palatable. But it gave clear rose pink flowers when no other tree was in bloom. It
made a picture against the frame of clear blue winter sky speckled with clouds. It
was a favourite of the bulbuls. But the most favourite of the bulbuls was the Bird
Cherry which displayed its full glitter in November-December only for a fortnight
but showed the real wealth of countless berries a month or so later. It was a happy
time when hundreds of bulbuls perched on its branches, frolicked and fluttered,
courted and played and filled the garden with their varying sweet notes. It was
abundant joy and gaiety.
The four camellias together in a row with rosy pink flowers and glistening
dark green foliage looked like sentinels of peace and harmony. The eyes just
rested on them and got soothened. The anxiety vanished.
The mimosas (Acacia decurrens). Oh! the delicately fragrant ones—it was
heartbreaking when their bloom faded. They brought freshness and joy and
spring wealth.
The young Magnolia grandiflora hardly had a couple of flowers, but it spoke
always, “I am the one who will reign here ultimately.” I paid obeisance to it.
The oldest kaiphal tree (Myrica esculenta) was hollow from within and
nested two colonies of bees. It was too risky to be too close to it. But it fed us with
luscious sour-sweet berries for almost three months. Rose petals are showered on
the royal ones and berries on the lesser mortals.
The weeping willow (Salix babylonica) was just beginning to weep. It had yet
to learn much. I had to shift it down below as I was afraid of its too much weeping
later.
There were many jacarandas but they were crowded over and never could
show their sombre beauty. Ligustrum robustum was an excellent host for the
orchids. But it was hollow with some pest attack and had to be chopped off. It fell
down near the bee box, which had to be shifted and what an attack we had to face
from them. We had respite only after the bee box was hastily replaced in its
original position.
The deodar presented a very beautiful branch during a thunder storm. When
the freshly dried white Dombeya flowers which had turned golden-brown were
tucked on it and it was placed in a corner. It looked like the plumage of a peacock
in dance.
The pomegranate with its scarlet blossom and yellow-green leaves with a
tinge of bronze, located near the water tub for the birds, was always striking with
its changing mosaic of hues.
The palm (Livistona) gave its dry leaves with long stalks. The joint-ends of
these turned upside down looked like snake heads. A V-shaped pine branch
turned upside down together with these stems gave an exotic look to the spacious
dining room. It looked as if the snakes were also demanding their share.
The rhododendrons, more than 100 years old, were initially reluctant to show
MY ‘LUMPYNGNAD’ GARDEN IN SHILLONG 217
their full glory. They were the most favourite hosts of the orchids. I talked to them
constantly and chee ed them up. They were fed with more than 100 kg of leaf
mould spread over a circumference of almost 10 metres radius and filled with
gallons of water. The blooms they gave- rich, red and shining and edible too.
A picture of glory!
The transfer of trees from one place to another was celebrated almost
like a change of house. The mobility of trees was very good provided they
were handled with care. May was found to be one of the best months when
light drizzle almost constantly kept the foliage moist. I owe an apology
to two plants I lost in such a transfer. One was because there was water-logging
below and the other—well, it just refused to respond to the change.
The deep mauve bougainvillea had gone up on a Cupressus to 25-30 metres
high and its brilliance in June inspired me to plant bougainvilleas around
all the tall trees at a distance from the house. Toona ciliata, a graceful tree 30-40
metres high, hosted one of the showiest ferns.
There were many more patient and dependable friends. There were
innumerable younger and smaller ones—some demanding and some resisting.
But I made friends with all of them over 3 months and thereafter it was easy
sailing. They got many friends from the wild and they together had individual and
mixed corners.
In this beautiful world of my own, I could spend nearly two years—walking,
talking, rain-soaked, winter-chilled, thom-tom, glass-cut. But I felt rich and warm.
I share this joy today with Dr B.P. Pal, who in his gentle and quiet manner led me
to the world of excellence in flowers and trees. His paintings, photographs and
drawings all constantly inspired me for more than three years when I closely
worked under him in the ICAR. Dr Pal is undoubtedly the doyen of modem
horticulture in India and I was fortunate to receive from him guidance and
inspiration. As Dr Pal turns eighty, I dedicate these thoughts to him. May many
such small or big friends pave his way with beauty, joy and harmony.
Floriculture today is a recognised
scientific discipline and a growing industry.
Many Indian botanists have made
contributions in this field during the last
one hundred years but the credit for its
present status goes to Dr B.P. Pal, the
doyen of ornamental horticulture. His
contributions have been outstanding and
many and today his name is almost
synonymous with ornamental horticulture.
This volume, which is dedicated to
Dr B.P. Pal on his 80th birthday, contains
articles on all facets of Ornamental
Horticulture by leading floriculturists in the
country. Some of the important subjects
covered are: Floriculture Research, Rose,
Chrysanthemum, Dahlia, Gladiolus,
Bougainvillea, Jasmine, Orchids, Bonsai
Culture, Essential Oils from Ornamentals,
Hybrid Seed Production in Flowers, and
Export of Ornamental Plants.
The lovers of Ornamental Horticulture
will find this volume informative and
interesting.
ISBN : 81-7164-026-5

Ornamental Horticulture in India

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ornamental Horticulture in India

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ornamental Horticulture in India

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURALlRESEARCH

Commemorative Volume Released on the

Project Director Dr Rameshwar Singh

All rights reserved

Published by Dr Rameshwar Singh, Project Director, Directorate of Knowledge Management

O RNAMENTAL Horticulture is of great antiquity. Eloquent references to

Dr B.P. Pal has played a pioneering role in promoting ornamental

It gives me great pleasure in complimenting the authors for their

T HE Horticulture Society of India decided to bring out a commemorative

The contributions of Dr Pal in the field of horticulture have been significant

Dr Pal has been associated with several Horticulture Societies. He has

It is my privilege to have been associated with the bringing out of this

Thanks are due to the distinguished contributors who responded with

16. Export Potentialities of Ornamental Plants ... 202

T HE Indian Institute of Horticultural Research was established by the ICAR

The germplasm collection, both from indigenous and exotic sources,

characteristics. Twenty cultivars were found suitable for various purposes.

of 5 cm and spacing of 20 cm gave good growth, flowering and bulb production.

N.K. Dadlani, R.S. Malik and B. Choudhury

R ESEARCH on floriculture started at the Indian Agricultural Research

For more than a quarter of a century, the work in ornamental horticulture at

flower colour and form, fragrance, floriferousness, disease and insect-pest

Fig. 1. Rose ‘Arunima’ (FI.)

Eig. 2. Rose ‘Chandrama’ (FI.)

‘Kavita’ (1972), ‘Kumkum’ (1971), ‘Loree’ (1969), ‘Madhura’ (1979), ‘Mohini’

Fig. 3. Rose ‘Prema’ (FI.)

‘Gulzar’ were developed from treatments, 5-10 Kr gamma-rays among the

As mentioned earlier, major programmes of work on ornamental crops at the

Swarup, V. and Singh, B. 1965. Indian J. Hort. 22 : 201.

F LORICULTURE has become a lucrative industry in many countries as a

INTRODUCTION AND CONSERVATION

Introduction, collection, and long-term preservation of germplasm of

promotion of shoot, promotion of rooting and transplantation of the in vitro-raised

Creation of new cultivars of ornamentals, especially of indigenous origin

Eig. 1. Chrysanthemum cv. ‘Guldasta’— a ‘no pinch no stake’ variety.

The following outstanding cultivars (Bud sports) of Bougainvillea have

caudatus complex involving a grain type and an ornamental type (Pal,

Fig. 2. Amaryllis cv ‘Jyoti’

Ornamental Mutant Characters Parent

Bougainvillea ‘Arjuna’ Variegated leaves ‘Partha’

‘Vibhuti’ Incurved flowers with white ‘Mukta’

Spontaneous mutations. Spontaneous mutations were detected in the rose

Vegetative propagation (cutting and grafting) is the universal method of

G. psittacinus ‘Sylvia’. They further observed that mechanical removal of sprouts

plantlets simply by withdrawing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid from the

Fig. 3. Proliferation of protocorms. Fig. 4. Bougainvillea cv. ‘Scarlet Queen’

Agro-techniques have been standardized to extend the blooming period,

Several viruses infect ornamental plants (Singh and Srivastava, 1981;

Eig. 7. Amaryllis— rapid multiplication by notching.

psittacinus, Amaryllis Ring Spot and Amaryllis Mosaic Virus in Amaryllis

The Institute has undertaken a major project on ornamentals. Using

“Oh no man knows

T HIS familiar quotation has a special relevance when we write of roses

Several rose species, as stated earlier, grow in the Himalayas. Among

PIONEER HYBRIDIZERS AND THEIR ROSES

The most prominent of early Indian hybridizers is undoubtedly B.S.

ROSE BREEDING IN THE SIXTIES

With the decline of the Bhatcharjis by the beginning of 1960s a fresh

Bhabha’, a seedling of ‘Virgo’ (1967), and to this day it remains perhaps