PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

If some procedure can be performed in n1 different ways, and if, following this procedure, a second procedure can be
performed in n2 different ways, and if following this second procedure, a third procedure can be performed in n 3 different ways, and so
forth; then the number of ways the procedures can be performed in the other indicated is the product (n1)(n2)(n3)…
Example:
 Suppose a license plate contains two distinct letters followed by three digits with the first digit not zero. How many different
license plates can be printed?

The first letter can be printed in 26 different ways, the second letter in 25 different ways (since the letter printed first cannot be
chosen for the second letter), the first digit in 9 ways and each of the other two digits in 10 ways.
 Suppose a car number plate contains three distinct English letters followed by three non-repeated digits. How many different
car number plates can be printed?

Note that there are 26 letters in the English alphabet and there are 10 digits in out number system, so the first box could be
filled in 26 different ways, and since the 3 letters used are distinct, hence the succeeding 2 boxes could be filled in 25 and 24
different ways, respectively. Then the 4th box could be filled in 10 different ways and again, since the digits should not be
repeated, then the succeeding boxes could be filled in 9and 8 different ways, respectively.
FACTORIAL NOTATION
The product of the positive integers from 1 to n inclusive occurs very often in mathematics and hence is denoted by the
special symbol n! (read in “n factorial”):

Examples

PERMUTATION
An arrangement of a set of n objects in a given order is called a permutation of the objects (taken all at a time). An
arrangement of any r ≤ n of these objects in a given order is called an r-permutation or a permutation of the n objects taken r at a time.
Examples: Consider the set of letters a, b, c, and d. Then:
a. bcda, dcba, and acdb are permutation of the 4 letters (taken all at a time) ;
b. bad, adb, cbd, and bca are permutation of the 4 letters taken 3 at a time;
c. ad, cb, da, and bd are permutation of the 4 letters taken 2 at a time.

Example:
 Find the number of permutations of 6 objects, say a, b, c, d, e, f, taken three at a time.

 How many permutations are there of 3 objects, say a, b, and c?

PERMUTATIONS WITH REPETITIONS

The number of permutations of n objects of which n1, are alike, n2 are alike, …, nr are alike is

CIRCULAR OR CYCLICAL PERMUTATION

The number of permutations of n objects in circular permutation is (n-1)!.
Example:
 How many ways could you arrange the letters of the word PROBABILITY? Note that some of the letters of the word are
repeated.

COMBINATION
An arrangement of a set of n objects where order does not count. So, as long as the elements in the arrangement are the
same, then with respect to combination this will mean one arrangement only.

Example:
 Find the number of combination of 6 objects, say a, b, c, d, e, f, taken three at a time.

More Examples:
1. If 15 people won prizes in a lottery (assuming that there are no ties), how many ways can these 15 people win first, second,
third, fourth, and fifth place?

2. How many ways are there to select 3 candidates from 8 equally qualified recent graduates for opening in an accounting firm?

3. A teacher forms a committee whose members come from her class consisting of 18 boys and 15 girls. How many committee
are formed consisting of 5 members of which 3 members are girls and 2 members are boys?

4. A developer of a new subdivision offers a prospective home buyer a choice of 5 designs, 3 different air conditioning systems, a
garage or carport, and a patio or screened porch. How many plans are available to this buyer?

PROBABILITY
A measure of certainty of a certain outcome or the likelihood of an event to happen.
SAMPLE SPACE AND EVENT
The set of S of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment is called a sample space. Each outcome in a sample space is
called an element, simply a sample point or a sample. An event is a subset of a sample space S.
PROBABILITY
If an experiment can result in any one of N different equally likely outcomes, and if exactly n of these outcomes correspond to
event A, then the probability of event A is

Example:
 Calculate the probability of getting a Jack from 1 draw of a well shuffled deck of cards.

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
P(A) = the probability of the event A
P(S) = the probability of the sample space
 1. Positiveness. For every event A, 0 ≤ P ( A ) ≤ 1
This means that the probability of an event happening is always positive.
2. Probability of a sure event, P ( S )=1
3. If is the empty set, the P()=0

ADDITIVE LAWS OF PROBABILITY

1. If A and B are any two events, then
Example: The probability that Albert passes Mathematics is 2/3, and the probability that he passes English is 4/9. If the probability
of passing both courses is1/4 what is the probability that Albert will pass at least one of these courses.

2. If A and B are mutually exclusive event, then

Example: What is the probability of drawing a 4 or a 7 from a shuffled deck of cards?

3. If Ac is the complement of an event A, then

Example: If the probabilities that an automobile mechanic will service 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more cars on any given workday are,
respectively, 0.12, 0.19, 0.28, 0.24, 0.10, and 0.07 what is the probability that he will service at least 5 cars on his next day at
work?

4. If A1, A2, … is a sequence of mutually exclusive events, then

Example: If the probabilities are, respectively 0.09, 0.15, 0.21, and 0.23 that a person purchasing a new automobile will choose the
color green, white, red, or blue, what is the probability tht a given buyer will purchase a new automobile that comes in one of those
colors?

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
Calculated when we need to know the likelihood of event A happening given that event B has already happened.

Example:
 Find the probability of drawing a 4 from a shuffled deck of cards given that you have already drawn a 7 from the deck.

INDEPENDENT EVENTS
Examples:
 Two cards are drawn at random from an ordinary pack of 52 cards. Find the probability that:
a) Both are spades
b) One is spade and one is heart.

 Three light bulbs are chosen at random from a box containing 15 bulbs of which 5 are defective. Find the probability if:
a) None is defective.
b) Exactly one is defective.
c) At least one is defective.
 SAMPLING METHODS AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR SAMPLES
Slovin’s Formula
Where: n=sample size
N= total of population
e= tolerance error (0.01 or 0.5)
SAMPLING METHODS
1. Probability Sampling
a) Simple Random Sampling
Each element has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample.
b) Systematic Sampling
Assign a number to every member of the population then sort them according to their assigned number.
c) Stratified Sampling
Grouping according to similarities.
d) Cluster Sampling
Grouping according to geographical location.
e) Multistage Sampling
Complex form of cluster sampling. Subgrouping until the final stage of the grouping process.

2. Non-Probability Sampling
a) Convenience Sampling
Samples are not selected at random. Based on convenience or what is favorable for the researcher.
b) Quota Sampling
Like stratified sampling but not randomly selected.
c) Judgement Sampling
Depends entirely on the researcher’s judgement.
d) Snowball Sampling
Data collected is based on referrals.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR SAMPLES

 LOCATION/MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
MEAN
MEDIAN
MODE
 VARIABILITY
RANGE

VARIANCE

STANDARD DEVIATION

Example: A tire manufacturer tested the life, in months, of sic randomly chosen tire sample. The test recorded below:

48 53 45 61 57 61
 DATA COLLECTION
STATISTICS
science which deals with data. It deals with the systematic collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
Two Categories:
a) Descriptive Statistics- refers to collection and presentation of data.
b) Inferential Statistics- analysis and interpretation of data.

Collection Presentatio Analysis of Interpretati

of Data n of Data Data on of Data

DATA
information which are usually facts or numbers collected to answer research problems or investigations.
Two Types:

PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA

Survey through interview Books
Survey through questionnaires Website/Internet
Experiments Newspaper
Observations Radio
Documents TV Reports

DATA COLLECTION

QUALITATIVE DATA QUANTITATIVE DATA

Non- numerical data and give qualitatively description. Numerical data, expressed in numbers.

PRESENTATION OF DATA
Example:
Example: Currently, the management of a department store gets comments that consumers must wait a long time to be served by the
salespeople. manager recorded the following observations atter making some observations regarding the wait times for 20 customers.

Customer Waiting Time (sec)

42 43 37 47 38
30 44 38 43 44
39 53 49 47 47
37 33 43 47 30

a) Textual- presented in form of words, sentences, and paragraphs

From the example:
"The 20 observations give a minimum waiting time of 30 seconds and a maximum waiting time of 53 seconds. The average
(mean) waiting time is 41.55 seconds. Most of the customers wait for 47 seconds."
b) Tabular- The data is arranged in columns and rows.
Table 1. Waiting Times of Twenty Department Store Customers

X, Waiting Time (sec) Frequency, f Percentage

30-35 3 15
36-40 5 25
41-45 6 30
46-50 5 25
51-54 1 5
We also call Table 1 the frequency distribution table of the waiting time or twenty department store customers. The table
shows that most of the customers wait for 41 to 45 minutes, since the waiting time gives the percentage in this time range.
Furthermore, the data shows that only 5% wait for more than 51 seconds.
 Parts of a Statistical Table
1. Table Number- identification and easy cross referencing
2. Title- indicates nature of information.
 3. Stubs- title of horizontal rows
4. Captions- placed on top of columns.
5. Body- comprised of numerical content.
6. Footnote- provides scope for further explanation.
7. Information Source- indicates the source where data is extracted.

c) Graphical- data is presented in the form of lines or curves.

 Types
1. Line Graph – the simplest method of graphical presentation, represented in the form of straight lines.
2. Bar Graph – presents data with rectangular bars whose height is proportional to the size of each group.
3. Pie Chart – a circular statistical graph, which is divided into slices.
4. Histogram – organizes a group of data points into under-specified ranges.

RANDOM VARIABLES
RANDOM EXPERIMENT - results/ outcomes cannot be anticipated beforehand with any degree of certainty.
SAMPLE SPACE - also called possibility space, is the set of all possible outcomes or results.
RANDOM VARIABLE – a function that assigns a real number to each outcome in the sample space of a random experiment.
RANDOM VARIABLES
1. Discrete Random Variables - has a countable no. of possible values.
Ex: Tossing of coin, as in the experiment, has countable outcomes.
2. Continuous Random Variables – takes all the values in an interval of numbers.
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION OF RANDOM VARIABLES
1. Discrete Random Variable

From Example 1:

Experiment Outcome HH HT TH TT
(Sample Point)
x 2 1 1 0

Probability Distribution: Graphical

x 0 1 2
f(x0 = P(X=x) 1/4 1/2 1/4

2. Continuous Random Variable

THE MEAN, VARIANCE, AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF RANDOM VARIABLES AND SAMPLES
Example: (Discrete)

X 13 17 21 25
f(x) 0.31 0.23 0.29 0.18

Example: (Continuous)
 PLANNING AND CONDUCTING SURVEYS

Data Collection Method Objective

Experimental To comply the requirements of the lab project.
Oral Interview to the classmates You want ti know his ideas about the answer to the assignment.
SURVEY – may be in the form of an oral interview or questionnaires.
QUESTIONNAIRES – paper and pencil instrument that is administered to the respondents.
INTERVIEW – includes the researcher (interviewer) and respondents (interviewee)

STEPS IN PLANNING A SURVEY

1. What is the purpose of the survey?
2. Decide on the target group.
3. How do you reach your target group?
4. Break down the purpose and limit the scope.
5. What questions should the survey contain and write a draft?
PLANNING AND CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS

Problem & Responses & Design the Conduct the

Objectives Factors Experiment Experiment

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN TERMINOLOGY

a) Treatment Group – design where the independent variable is manipulated (aka experimental group).
b) Control Group – experimental design not exposed to treatment.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS: Informal Experimental Designs

1. BEFORE AND AFTER WITHOUT CONTROL DESIGN
Level of Phenomenon Treatment Introduced Level of Phenomenon
Test Area
Before Treatment (X)  After Treatment (Y)
Treatment Effect = Y - X
A single test group or area is selected, and the dependent variable is measured before and after the introduction of the
treatment.

2. AFTER ONLY WITH CONTROL DESIGN

Level of Phenomenon
Test Area Treatment Introduced
After Treatment (Y)
Level of Phenomenon
Control Area  Without Treatment (Z)
Treatment Effect = Y - Z
Two groups or areas are selected, and the treatment is introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is then
measured in both areas at the same time.

3. BEFORE AND AFTER WITH CONTROL DESIGN

Test Area Level of Phenomenon Treatment Introduced Level of Phenomenon

Before Treatment (X) After Treatment (Y)
Control Area Level of Phenomenon  Level of Phenomenon
Before Treatment (A) After Treatment (Z)
Treatment Effect = (Y – X) – (Z - A)
Two areas are selected, and the dependent variable is measured in both areas for an identical time-period before the
treatment. Treatment is introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is measured in both areas for an
identical time-period after the treatment.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
1. Observational Study - Data is collected through observation from experiments.
a. Simulations - This procedure uses mathematical, physical, or computer models to replicate a real-life process or
situation. It is frequently used when the actual situation is too expensive, dangerous, or impractical to replicate.
EXAMPLE:
Experimental Study of Human Hair in Concrete as Fiber Reinforcement
 1. What is the research problem in the paper being presented?
Usage of human hair as a fiber reinforcement material.
2. What are the dependent (response) variables and the independent (factors) variables?
Dependent: Mechanical properties of concrete.
Independent: Various percentages of human hair in concrete.
3. What is the control group and the experimental or the treatment group?
Control: Mechanical properties of concrete of M-20 Grade.
Treatment: Various percentages of human hair.
DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION (Binomial and Poisson)
Statistical Experiments- experiments that have three things in common, they have more than one possible outcome, each outcome
can be specified ahead of time, and each outcome depends on chance.
Probability Distribution- a table or equations that links each different outcome of a statistical experiment with its probability of
occurrence.
Example:
For example, flipping a coin two times. An outcome of the experiment might be the number of heads that we see in two-coin flips. If we
let the variable X be the number of heads that come up, then X is termed as the random variable which could Lake a value of x = 1
(meaning of the two coins flipped only one head appears, so a tail appears on the other coin) or x = 2 (meaning of the two coins flipped
e heads appear, so no heads appear) or x = 0 (meaning no head appears and that 2 heads appears in flipping the 2 coins).
a) Tabular c) Graphical

No. of Outcomes; x Probability of x; P(X=x); f(x)

X=2 1/4
X=1 ½
X=0 ¼
b) Equation Representing the Prob Distribution

BINOMIAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION- describes the probability of a particular outcome in a series of experiments where the
outcome has two distinct possibilities, success, or failure. Binomial distribution is a series of independent and identically distributed
Bernoulli trials. In a Bernoulli trial, the experiment is said to be random and could only have two possible outcomes: success or failure.
X~B(n,p) where: n-total no. of experiments p-probability of success
P(x: n,p) = nCxpxor P(x: n,p) = nCpxqn-x where: q-probability of failure (q = 1-p)
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR A BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
Mean= np

Std dev (σ) = √ n∗p∗q Variance = σ2

Example:
A coin is tossed five times.
a) What is the prob distribution of this binomial experiment?

b) Find the probability that exactly 2 heads will appear.

c) Find the probability that no head will appear.

d) Find the probability that at most 2 heads will appear.

POISSON PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION- named after Simeon Poisson, a French mathematician. As n approaches infinity, the
binomial distribution also approaches Poisson distribution. The probability of occurrence of a success is always proportional to the size
of the specified region. It gives the probability of a number of events in an interval generated by Poisson process.
Where: e- Euler’s constant λ-mean of occurrences

Example:
A particular river overflows every 25 years on the average Find the prob that there are x=2 overflows in a 25 year interval.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR A POISSON DISTRIBUTION

Mean and variance of the Poisson Distribution is λ.
Example:
Some vehicles pass through a junction on a busy at an average rate of 300 per hour. Find out the prob that none passes in a given
minute.
a) What is the average no. of vehicles passing per minute.

b) What is the probability that no vehicles will pass in a given hour?

c) What is the expected number of vehicles passing in three minutes?

CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

X~N(µ, σ2) where: µ-mean σ2- variance
THE NORMAL PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION (PDF) THE STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Z-SCORE- number of std deviation from the mean. A positive z-score indicates raw score higher than mean average.
Formula:

Example:
1. The heigh of the male adults are normally distributed with a mean of 1.9 meter and a std dev of 0.22. What is the standard
score if the heights of these adults are x1=1.6 meter and 1.8 meter.

2. A machine produces electrical components. At 99.7%, z=±2.97 of the components have lengths between 1.176cm and
1.224cm. Assuming the data is normally distributed, what are the mean and std dev?

SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION AND POINT ESTIMATION

Point Estimate- estimate that is a single number.
Interval Estimate- estimate that is a range of scores, expressed in confidence intervals.
ESTIMATION refers to the process by which one makes inferences about a population based on information obtained from the sample.
STATISTIC refers to any measurable quantity calculated from the sample.
PARAMETER refers to the descriptive measures of the population.
ESTIMATOR is a quantity calculated from the sample data which are used to give information about the unknown quantity in the
population.
ESTIMATE is the value of an estimator that is obtained from a particular sample of data and used to estimate the value of the
parameter.
POINT ESTIMATOR/ ESTIMATE
For Normal Distribution

Sample Distribution- distribution of the point estimator.

Example:

distribution of the resistance is normal, find the mean, the variance and the standard deviation of the sampling distribution for 𝒏 = 𝟐𝟓
An electronic company manufactures resistors that have mean resistance of 120 ohms and a standard deviation of 12 ohms. If

resistors.

THE CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM states that the sampling distribution of the sample means (unknown population) approaches a
normal distribution as the sample size gets larger. This holds especially true for sample sizes over 30.
Properties of Point Estimators
1. Bias

𝜃, being estimated.
Bias is the difference between the expected value (the average or mean value) of a point estimator minus the value of the parameter,

A good estimator has a small bias. When the bias is zero then you may say that the point estimator is unbiased.
2. Consistency
Consistency shows how close the point estimator to the value of the parameter as the sample size increases.

3. Relative Efficiency
• The absolute efficiency of an estimator is the ratio between the minimum variance and the actual variance.
• An unbiased estimator is called efficient if its variance coincides with the minimum variance for all values of the population parameter.

efficient. An estimator 𝜃 is said to be more efficient than another estimator 𝜃2 for 𝜃 if the variance of the first is less than the variance
• If two competing estimators are both unbiased, the one with the smaller variance (for a given sample size) is said to be relatively more

of the second.
4.Standard Error
• Standard error is a measure of accuracy of a statistic. This is equal to the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of this
statistic.
• The standard error tells you how accurate the mean of any given sample from that population is likely to be compared to the true
population mean. When the standard error increases, i.e. the means are more spread out, it becomes more likely that any given mean
is an inaccurate representation of the true population mean.
where: SE = standard error of the sample

𝝈 = standard deviation of the population

n = sample size
Example:
In a certain property investment company with an international presence, workers have a mean hourly wage of 125 pesos with a
population standard deviation of 5 pesos. Given a sample size of 30, estimate and interpret the SE of the sample mean.