Pavement Analysis and Design

Pavement Types- overview

Pavement Types
• Road pavement – a structure of superimposed
layers of selected and processed material that
is placed on a foundation/ subgrade.
• Traditionally pavements are divided into two
categories - flexible and rigid
• This categorization is on the basis of how the
pavement responds to load and climatic
conditions
 Pavement Types

•Flexible pavements : bituminous surfacing

over base, subbase and subgrade
•Rigid pavement : Portland cement
concrete slab with or without base and
placed over subgrade
 Flexible Pavement
•Flexible pavements- surfaced with bituminous
(or asphalt) materials. These types of
pavements are called "flexible" since the total
pavement structure "bends" or "deflects" due
to traffic loads.
•A flexible pavement structure - composed of
several layers of materials which can
accommodate this "flexing
 Flexible pavements

Conventional flexible pavements- layered

systems with better materials at top where
intensity of stress is high and interior at the
bottom where stress is low.
Examples of flexible pavements
Surface layer of flexible pavement

Cross section of WBM

Load Distribution –
Flexible Pavement
Basic Structural Elements of Flexible Pavement
Material layers are usually arranged within a pavement
structure in order of descending load bearing capacity with the
highest load bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on
the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least
expensive) on the bottom.

•Surface Course- contact with traffic loads

•provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise
control, rut resistance and drainage.
•prevents entrance of surface water into the underlying
base, subbase and subgrade
•This top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided
into two layers: the wearing course (top) and binder course
(bottom).
•Surface courses are most often constructed out of HMA.
•Base Course- immediately beneath the surface course.
•provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage
•Base courses are usually constructed out of crushed aggregate
or HMA.
•Subbase Course- between the base course and subgrade.
•primarily as structural support but it can also minimize the
intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement
structure and improve drainage.
•Generally consists of lower quality materials than the base
course but better than the subgrade soils.
•A subbase course is not always needed or used.
•Subbase courses are generally constructed out of crushed
aggregate or engineered fill.
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Bituminous pavement
WBM
WBM
Rigid Pavement
-high flexural strength
-Load- through slab action
-Structural failure
-- joints
--stresses- load, temperature
Concrete Pavement
Design Approaches

empirical

analytical/theoretical/rational
Pavement Design
Determination of combination of thickness of
various layers in most economical way to
sustain the load for given input parameters
such that no part of the structure is
excessively stressed.
Pavement Analysis
- stress/strain/ deflection at any point in
the pavement system for applied wheel
load conditions
 Design Approaches
Empirical Design

Relationships between design inputs (e.g., loads, materials,

layer configurations and environment) and pavement failure
were determined using experience, experimentation or a
combination of both.
Although the scientific basis for these relationships is not
firmly established, they can be used with confidence as
long as the limitations with such an approach are
recognized.
Specifically, it is not prudent to use an empirically derived
relationship to describe phenomena that occur outside the
range of the original data used to develop the relationship.
Empirical Approach- Design

CBR Method of Pavement Design

Input:
CBR Value ( strength of subgrade) and
Traffic details ( No. of commericial
vehilces, standard axle load (msa), damage
factor (VDF), annual rate of growth of
traffic…etc)
365 X A [(1 + r ) x − 1]
NS = X F (1)
r
 IRC: 37 –1984 Empirical Method

CBR of soil

Thickness of
pavement

Traffic, msa
 Analytical Design Approach

Analytical/ Mechanistic / Rational

Takes into Account the Mechanistic
Behaviour of Pavement Components

Structural Responses of Pavement to
applied load are analyzed

Critical Responses having strong bearing on
the performance are identified and
Controlled during design
IRC-37-2001 ( mechanistic approach)
 IRC-37-2001 ( mechanistic approach)

365 X A [ (1+r)n - 1 ]
Nc = ----------------------------- x F x D
r
where,
Nc = Cumulative Standard Axles to be catered for in the design
A = Initial traffic, in the year of construction, in terms of the
number of commercial vehicles per day
r = annual growth rate of commercial traffic.
n = Design life in years
F = VDF (number of standard axles per Commercial axle)
D = Lane Distribution Factor
· Wheel Load: Standard load (8.2T)- To convert
all wheel loads- std. wheel load- AASHTO load
equivalency factors(ESLF). Measured using-portable
weigh pad

m
EASL = ∑ Fi ni where m = no.of axle load groups; Fi = EALF for i th Group
i =1

ni= no. of passes of the ith axle load group

Generally damage due to wheel load – fourth power
formula
 Axle Load Survey

VDF calculation
Sl Load on Tyre Axle Load Frequency of Axle load (T)
No
Front Rear Front Rear 0- 2-4 4- 6- 8- 10-12 12-14 14-16 16-18 18-20
2 6 8 10

1
2
3
4
5
6
 VDF
Axle Load Mid Point Frequency AASHTO Equivalent
Group, T T Equivalency factor Std. axles

0-2 01 (1/8.2)4 n1*(1/8.2)4

n1
2-4 03 n2 (3/8.2)4 n2*(3/8.2)4
4-6 05 n3 (5/8.2)4 n3*(5/8.2)4

6-8 07

Sum=

AASHTO Equivalency factor: Forth power law

VDF= sum of equivalent std. axles/ No. of commercial vehicles observed

Mechanistic-Empirical Design

Unlike an empirical approach, a mechanistic approach

seeks to explain phenomena only by reference to
physical causes.
Design phenomena : stresses, strains and deflections
within a pavement structure, and the physical causes are
the loads and material properties of the pavement
structure.
The relationship between these phenomena and their
physical causes is typically described using a
mathematical model. Various mathematical models can be
used.
Mechanistic Method of flexible pavement Design
Basic advantages of a mechanistic-empirical pavement
design method over a purely empirical one are:
•It can be used for both existing pavement
rehabilitation and new pavement construction.
•Accommodates changing load types.
•Better characterize materials.
•Uses material properties that relate better to actual
pavement performance.
•Provides more reliable performance predictions.
•Better defines the role of construction.
•Accommodates environmental and aging effects on
materials.
 Analysis of linear elastic multilayer system

Circular contact area,

P radius “a”
Contact pressure, p

E, µ σz
τzr z

three normal stresses (vertical,

radial, tangential) and one
shear stress (ττzr = τzr ) on any τrz
cylindrical element in a
homogenous, isotropic σt r σr
material
Elastic multilayered system - Assumptions

2a
p
Layer 1 E1, µ1 h1
Layer 2 E2, µ2 h2
Layer 3 E3, µ3 h3

Layer n En, µn α
Elastic multilayered system - Assumptions
• The material in each layer is homogeneous
• The material in each layer is isotropic
• The materials are linearly elastic with an elastic modulus
of E and a Poisson’s ratio of µ
• The layers are infinite in areal extent
• Each layer is of finite thickness except the nth layer.
• The material is weightless
Elastic multilayered system - Assumptions
• Uniform pressure applied at surface over circular contact
area
• Continuity conditions
• For full friction between layers (same vertical stress,
shear stress, vertical displacement and radial
displacement)
• For frictionless (smooth) interface, Zero shear stress
at each side of the interface
• No shearing forces at the surface – some models consider
them
 3 - layer systems

K1 = E1/E2, k2 = E2/E3, A = a/h2, H = h1/h2

Peattie charts and Jones’ tables for obtaining different
stress parameters for a given combination of K1, K2, A and H
sz1 = (ZZ1)p; sz2 = (ZZ2)p
(sz1 – sr1) = (ZZ1 – RR1)p
(sz2 – sr2) = (ZZ2 – RR2)p
(sz2 – sr3) = (ZZ2 – RR3)p
Five coefficients ZZ1, ZZ2, (ZZ1-RR1), ZZ2-RR2) and (ZZ2-
RR3) to be obtained from charts and tables
 3 - layer systems
Computation of two critical strains

Tensile strain at the bottom of first layer and vertical

compressive strain on subgrade

er1 = (sr1/E1 – m1*st1/E1 – m1*sz1/E1)

For m1 = 0.5 and since st1= sr1 due to symmetry)
er1 = (1/2E1)*(sr1- sz1)

ez3 = (sz2/E3 – m3*st3/E3 – m3*sr3/E3)

= (1/2E3)*(sz2 – sr3) (for Poisson ratio of 0.5)
Analysis of layered systems
Commercial software
No. of software are available for analysis of layered systems
with different capabilities
No. of layers that can be handled
Loading – normal and shear stresses at surface
Rough and smooth interfaces
FEM analysis for non-linear analysis of pavements layers
(especially the granular layers)
 Main Structural Failures

Fatigue Cracking of Bituminous bound Layer

– Caused by Repeated Application of Wheel Loads
of Commercial Vehicles

Rutting along Wheel paths
– Due to Permanent Deformation in pavement
layers (mainly in subgrade)
 Critical Pavement Responses

h1 εt E1, µ1

h2 E2, µ2
εz

E3, µ3
Tensile Strain at the Bottom of Bituminous layer
Vertical Strain on Top on Subgrade
Inputs to Mechanistic Pavement Design

Strength of all layers

Poisson ratio values
Standard Load , tyre pressure
Traffic Loads- standard axle ( msa)
Temperature
Failure criteria ( Rutting and fatigue
failures)
 Rut Depth

Bituminous Layer

Granular Layer
Subgrade
Crocodile Cracking
Rigid Pavement
 Rigid pavements

•These are portland cement concrete pavements, which

may or may not incorporate underlying layers of
stabilized or unstabilized granular materials.
• Since PCC is quite stiff, rigid pavements do not flex
appreciably to accommodate traffic loads
 Rigid Pavement

•Rigid pavement, because of PCC's high stiffness, tends to

distribute the load over a relatively wide area of subgrade
•The concrete slab itself supplies most of a rigid
pavement's structural capacity.
•Flexible pavement uses more flexible surface course and
distributes loads over a smaller area and relies on a
combination of layers for transmitting load to the subgrade
Concrete Pavements
• Deflections are very small and hence the name “rigid
pavement”
• The high flexural strength of the slab is predominant and
the subgrade strength does not have as much importance
as it has in the case of flexible pavements
• Usually finite slabs with joints (jointed concrete
pavements)
• Continuous slabs also can be constructed (without joints).
Usually with reinforcement
Concrete Pavements

Concrete Slab
Granular Base
Subgrade
Concrete Pavements

Longitudinal joint

Transverse joints

Tie bars Dowel bars

Subgrade Subbase or base
Concrete Slab
Concrete Pavement
Concrete Pavement - Components
• Concrete Slab
• Granular or stabilised base
• Granular or stabilised subbase
• Subgrade
• Joints are the other main features of concrete
pavement significantly affecting its performance
Concrete Pavements
Stresses in slabs are caused by
• Wheel loads – flexural (repeated applications)
• Temperature differential within the thickness of the
slab causing curling
• Uniform temperature variation causing shrinkage or
expansion
• Change in moisture and the corresponding volumetric
change in subgrade, base or slab
• A combination of all these factors
Concrete Pavements – Mechanical Model
The two commonly used models for concrete
pavements differ in their assumption about
foundation
Dense liquid / spring / Winkler foundation
Elastic foundation
Foundation Types

Slab on Spring Foundation Slab on Elastic layers

Most commonly used Complex analysis

No shear strength Suitable for stiff base layers
Suitable for soft cohesive
soils
Spring Foundation

Slab on Spring Foundation

Foundation is represented by its spring constant

known as modulus of subgrade reaction (k)
K determined by conducting plate load test
Radius of relative stiffness of slab and
subgrade

p=k∆
Reactive pressure on foundation, p a D
Radius of relative stiffness of slab and
subgrade

Stiffness term for a slab = (Eh3/(12(1-m2))

Equating this to kl4, where k is the modulus of
subgrade reaction and “l” is the radius of relative
stiffness of slab and subgrade

l = ((Eh3/(12 k (1- m2)))(1/4)

Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
Plate Load Test

Reaction frame

Hydraulic Jack
Stiff loading plate

Load is gradually increased and the deflection of

the foundation observed
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
Plate Load Test
Bearing Pressure, p

750mm plate
Correction for moisture

K=p/∆ Determined for 1.25mm

Settlement, ∆
Westergaard’s Analysis
Slab on Winkler Foundation
Considered three wheel load positions for analysis
Corner, edge, interior
Wheel Load Stresses
Westergaard (1926) developed equations for solution
of load stresses at three critical regions of the slab
– interior, corner and edge
Interior – Load in the interior and away from all the
edges
Edge – Load applied on the edge away from the
corners
Corner – Load located on the bisector of the corner
angle
Wheel Load Stresses
Edge Corner
Interior
Wheel Load Stresses
Westergaard solutions for a Poisson ratio of 0.15 for
concrete
Interior loading (tensile stress at the slab bottom)

σi (psi) = (0.3162P/h2) 4 log10 (l / b) + 1.069)

Edge loading (tensile stress at the slab bottom)
σe (psi) = (0.572P/h2) 4 log10 (l / b) + 0.359)
Corner loading (tensile stress at slab top)
σc (psi) = (3P/h2) 1 – ((a (2)(1/2)) / l)0.6
Wheel Load Stresses
Where,
P = wheel load, lbs
h = slab thickness, inches
a = radius of wheel contact area (circular contact)
b = radius of resisting section, inches
= (1.6a2 + h2)(1/2) – 0.675 (h) for a < 1.724 h
= a when a >= 1.724 h
l = radius of relative stiffness, inches
Curling Stresses in a Finite Slab
y

Interior Ly x
sx = (CxEaDt)/(2(1- m2)
+ (CymEaDt)/(2(1- m2)
= ((EaDt)/(2(1- m2))(Cx + mCy) Lx
sy = ((EaDt)/(2(1- m2))(Cy + mCx)

a = Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete

Bradbury Coefficients

1.2
Warping Stress Coefficient, C

1.0

0.8

0.6
B = Free length or
width of slab
0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0 5 10 15
Ratio B/l
 Curling Stresses

Edge Stresses
σ = (CEaDt)/2
Corner Stress - Negligible
Stresses due to Friction
• Volumetric change in concrete induces tensile
stresses in concrete and
• Causes opening of joints leading to reduction in load
transfer efficiency
Stresses due to Temperature Difference within
the slab

• Due to temperature differential within the slab

thickness
• Day Time – The slab curls up (top convex)
• Night time – slab curls down (top concave)
• Due to weight of slab and resistance offered by the
foundation, stresses are induced
Stresses due to Temperature Difference within
the slab
C T1 > T2
Day time
T T2

Night time T1 > T2 T

T2 C
Critical Combination of Stresses
Night Time
Thermal stresses (tension at top) compensate
stresses due to loads (compression at top)
Afternoon
Thermal stresses will be additive to load
stresses
Concrete Pavements without expansion joints –
End restraint stresses (compression) in summer
Flexible Pavements
Load distribution from grain to grain
Possess less flexural strength
Design is based on Foundation layer
strength and wheel load associated
parameters
Temperature stresses not considered,
however modulus value of bituminous layer is
selected based on temperature
sub base, base course, surface course are
the layer over foundation [subgrade]
Examples of Flexible Pavements
Water Bound Macadam (WBM), Wet Mix
Macadam (WMM), Earthen Roads, All types of
bituminous pavement [ BC, BM, SDBM, PM…etc]
Design Methods: IRC:37-2001 [In India] for BC
IRC: SP:20-2002 for Rural
roads
AASHTO- 2002; AUSTROADS, SHELL Method
Design input parameters
• Strength of foundation layer and other layers
• Traffic, wheel load associated parameters such
as standard axle load [ 8.2 t], tyre pressure,
Vehicle damage factor,
•Performance criteria [ relating rutting and
fatigue with critical parameters and controlling
these to avoid failure in these modes]
Relating strains with life of the pavement
[N with strain]
Rigid Pavement
Load distribution- slab action { wider area]
Posses high flexural strength
Design is based on wheel load, temperature
Depends less on foundation layer
parameters
Placed directly over subgrade[ foundation]
or on base course.
Rigid Pavement Design

IRC: 58-2002 [ In India]

AASHTO Rigid Pavement Design
PCA Method
Rigid Pavement Design
Load stresses- three places [ interior,
edge and corner]
stresses using Westergaard Analysis
Rigid Pavement- Stress equations
Interior loading (tensile stress at the slab bottom)

σi (psi) = (0.3162P/h2) 4 log10 (l / b) + 1.069)

Edge loading (tensile stress at the slab bottom)

σe (psi) = (0.572P/h2) 4 log10 (l / b) + 0.359)

Corner loading (tensile stress at slab top)

σc (psi) = (3P/h2) 1 – ((a (2)(1/2)) / l)0.6

Rigid Pavement Design
Similarly
Temperature stresses at three locations
Combination of stress [ load and
temperature stress]- to be compared with
flexural strength of the concrete to
calculate the thickness of concrete slab.
No. of joints are present- these are to be
designed [ expansion, contraction, long.
Joint…etc]