Gen Bio 1 Pointers

Cell

Cell Theory

Cell Structure and Functions

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

Cell Types

Cell Modifications

Robert Hooke - In 1665, Hooke used an improved compound microscope to examine thin slices of
cork. He observed a structure consisting of small chambers, which he called "cells" because they
reminded him of the cells of a honeycomb

Anton Van Leeuenhoek - Discovery of Microorganisms: In 1674, he was the first to observe protozoa
and later discovered bacteria in 1676, referring to them as "animalcules" or "little animals." His
observations included a variety of microorganisms found in water, such as those from rainwater and
pond water

Cell Theory
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. This principle emphasizes that cells
are the building blocks of all living things, whether unicellular (like bacteria) or multicellular
(like plants and animals).

2. The cell is the basic unit of life. Cells are the smallest units that can carry out all life
processes, making them essential for the structure and function of living organisms.

3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells. This principle, added by Rudolf Virchow in 1855, states
that new cells are produced only through the division of existing cells, countering earlier
beliefs in spontaneous generation

Robert Brown - Brown observed a random, jittery movement of small particles, which he termed
"Brownian motion." Brown was one of the first scientists to describe the cell nucleus.

Robert Virchow - Virchow is often referred to as the "father of cellular pathology." He formulates the
concept that all cells arise from pre-existing cells, encapsulated in the phrase omnis cellula e cellula.

Cell Structures
Major Parts of the cell

Plasma Membrane: Also known as cell membrane, the outer boundary of the cell. It is a
phospholipid bilayer serves as a selective barrier, controlling the entry and exit of substances,
maintaining the internal environment of the cell.
Cytoplasm: The gel-like substance within the plasma membrane, excluding the nucleus. It contains
various organelles and is the site of many metabolic processes. It includes the cytosol (the fluid part)
and the organelles suspended within it

Nucleus: The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that houses the cell's genetic material (DNA).
It is responsible for regulating gene expression and cell division.

Plasma Membrane - The plasma membrane is a thin, flexible barrier composed primarily of
a phospholipid bilayer. This bilayer consists of two layers of phospholipids, with hydrophilic (water-
attracting) heads facing outward and hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails facing inward. This
arrangement creates a semi-permeable membrane that allows certain substances to pass while
restricting others.

Functions
Selective Permeability: The plasma membrane regulates the movement of substances in and out of
the cell.

Protection: It serves as a barrier, protecting the internal components of the cell from the external
environment

Anchoring the Cytoskeleton: The membrane helps maintain the cell's shape by anchoring the
cytoskeleton, providing structural support

Cell Communication: The plasma membrane plays a vital role in cell signaling by containing receptor
proteins that detect external signals, such as hormones, which trigger specific cellular responses

Transport: The plasma membrane facilitates the transport of nutrients into the cell and waste
products out of the cell

Fluid Mosaic Models - The plasma membrane is described as "fluid" because the lipids and proteins
within it can move laterally, allowing the membrane to flex and change shape.

1. Proteins: Integral (or intrinsic) proteins are embedded within the lipid bilayer and can span
the membrane, while peripheral (or extrinsic) proteins are attached to the outer or inner
surfaces of the membrane. These proteins play crucial roles in transport, signaling, and
structural support.

2. Cholesterol: Cholesterol molecules are interspersed within the phospholipid bilayer,

contributing to membrane fluidity and stability. They help prevent the membrane from
becoming too rigid at lower temperatures and too fluid at higher temperatures.
3. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are often attached to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or
lipids (forming glycolipids) on the extracellular surface of the membrane. These carbohydrate
chains are involved in cell recognition and signaling.

Organelles
1. Nucleus:
 Function: Acts as the control center of the cell, storing genetic material (DNA) and
regulating gene expression and cellular activities such as growth and metabolism.
2. Mitochondria:
 Function: Known as the powerhouse of the cell, mitochondria produce ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) through cellular respiration, providing energy for cellular
processes.
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
  Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and processing.
 Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes; functions in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium
ion storage.
4. Golgi Apparatus:
 Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery
to other organelles.
5. Lysosomes:
 Function: Contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular
debris, playing a key role in cellular cleanup and recycling.
6. Peroxisomes:
 Function: Contain enzymes that detoxify harmful substances and metabolize fatty
acids.
7. Vacuoles:
 Function: Storage organelles that can hold various substances, including nutrients,
waste products, and water. In plant cells, they also help maintain turgor pressure.
8. Chloroplasts (in plant cells):
 Function: Conduct photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy
stored in glucose.
Non-Membranous Organelles
1. Ribosomes:
 Function: Synthesize proteins by translating mRNA. Ribosomes can be free-floating
in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.
2. Cytoskeleton:
 Function: Provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and facilitates
movement within the cell. It is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments.
3. Centrioles:
 Function: Involved in cell division, helping to organize the mitotic spindle.
4. Cilia and Flagella:
 Function: Hair-like structures that aid in cell movement or the movement of
substances across the cell surface.

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are the two primary types of cells that make up all living organisms.
They differ significantly in structure and function. Here’s a comparison of their major characteristics:
Prokaryotic Cells
1. Nucleus:
 Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus. Instead, their genetic material (DNA) is located
in a region called the nucleoid, which is not membrane-bound.
2. Size:
 Generally smaller in size, typically ranging from 0.1 to 5.0 micrometers in diameter.
3. Organelles:
 Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-bound organelles. They contain ribosomes,
but these are smaller than those found in eukaryotic cells.
4. Cell Wall:
 Most prokaryotes have a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan (in bacteria) or other
materials (in archaea), which provides structural support and protection.
5. Reproduction:
 Prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually through binary fission, a simple process where
the cell divides into two identical cells.
6. Types:
  Prokaryotic organisms are classified into two domains: Bacteria and Archaea.
7. Examples:
 Common examples include E. coli, Staphylococcus, and other bacteria.
Eukaryotic Cells
1. Nucleus:
 Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus that is enclosed by a nuclear membrane,
containing multiple, linear chromosomes.
2. Size:
 Generally larger, with diameters ranging from 10 to 100 micrometers.
3. Organelles:
 Eukaryotic cells contain numerous membrane-bound organelles, such as
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes, which
compartmentalize various cellular functions.
4. Cell Wall:
 In plants and fungi, eukaryotic cells have a cell wall made of cellulose (in plants)
or chitin (in fungi). Animal cells, however, do not have a cell wall.
5. Reproduction:
 Eukaryotic cells can reproduce asexually (e.g., mitosis) or sexually (e.g., meiosis).
6. Types:
 Eukaryotic organisms are classified within the domain Eukarya, which includes
animals, plants, fungi, and protists.
7. Examples:
 Examples include human cells, plant cells (like those in leaves), and fungal cells (like
those in mushrooms).
Cell Cycle
Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms, resulting in
the production of haploid gametes (sperm and egg cells). This process reduces the chromosome
number by half, ensuring genetic diversity through various mechanisms. Here’s an overview of the
cell cycle during meiosis:
Overview of Meiosis
 Purpose: Meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells from a single diploid parent cell,
which is essential for sexual reproduction. Each gamete contains one set of chromosomes,
which allows for genetic variation when fertilization occurs.
 Phases: Meiosis consists of two main stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II, each of which is
further divided into specific phases.
Meiosis I
1. Prophase I:
 Chromosomes condense and become visible.
 Homologous chromosomes pair up in a process called synapsis, forming structures
known as tetrads (four chromatids).
 Crossing-over occurs, where segments of DNA are exchanged between homologous
chromosomes, increasing genetic diversity.
2. Metaphase I:
 Tetrads align along the equatorial plate of the cell.
 The orientation of each tetrad is random, contributing to genetic variation through
independent assortment.
3. Anaphase I:
 Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell, while sister
chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.
4. Telophase I:
 The chromosomes reach the poles, and the nuclear membrane may reform.
  The cell undergoes cytokinesis, resulting in two haploid daughter cells, each
containing one set of chromosomes.
Meiosis II
Meiosis II resembles mitosis and involves the separation of sister chromatids:
1. Prophase II:
 Chromosomes condense again, and a new spindle apparatus forms.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down if it reformed during Telophase I.
2. Metaphase II:
 Chromosomes align along the equatorial plate, similar to metaphase in mitosis.
3. Anaphase II:
 Sister chromatids are pulled apart at the centromeres and move toward opposite
poles.
4. Telophase II:
 Chromatids reach the poles, and the nuclear envelope reforms around each set of
chromosomes.
 Cytokinesis occurs, resulting in a total of four haploid daughter cells, each genetically
distinct.
Transport Mechanisms
Simple Diffusion - Simple diffusion is a type of passive transport in biology where molecules move
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration across a semipermeable
membrane, without the assistance of any transport proteins. Here are the key points about simple
diffusion:

Definition

Simple diffusion is defined as the process in which a substance moves through a semipermeable
membrane or in a solution down its concentration gradient, without any help from transport
proteins

Facilitated diffusion - is a type of passive transport that allows molecules to cross the plasma
membrane with the assistance of specific proteins. This process is crucial for the movement of
substances that cannot easily pass through the lipid bilayer due to their size, charge, or polarity.

Key Characteristics of Facilitated Diffusion

1. Passive Process: Facilitated diffusion does not require energy (ATP) because it relies on the
natural concentration gradient, allowing molecules to move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
 2. Transport Proteins: The process involves specific transmembrane proteins, which can be
classified into two main types:

 Channel Proteins: These proteins form pores in the membrane that allow specific
ions or small molecules to pass through. They can be gated (open or closed in
response to stimuli) or non-gated (always open).

 Carrier Proteins: These proteins bind to the specific molecules they transport,
undergo a conformational change, and then release the molecules on the other side
of the membrane.

3. Selectivity: Facilitated diffusion is selective, meaning that only certain molecules can pass
through based on the specific transport proteins present in the membrane. This selectivity is
essential for maintaining the cell's internal environment.

Mechanism of Facilitated Diffusion

 Binding: The target molecule (e.g., glucose or ions) binds to the specific site on the transport
protein.

 Conformational Change: The binding induces a change in the shape of the protein, allowing
the molecule to be released on the opposite side of the membrane.

 Release: The molecule is released into the cytoplasm, and the transport protein returns to its
original shape, ready to transport another molecule.

Active transport is a cellular process that moves molecules across a biological membrane against
their concentration gradient, from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration.
This process requires energy, typically in the form of ATP, to facilitate the movement of substances
that cannot passively diffuse through the membrane.

Key Characteristics of Active Transport

 1. Energy Requirement: Active transport requires energy input because it involves moving
substances against their natural tendency to move down their concentration gradient.

2. Types of Active Transport:

 Primary Active Transport: Directly uses energy from the hydrolysis of ATP to
transport molecules. An example is the sodium-potassium pump, which moves
sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, maintaining essential
concentration gradients.

 Secondary Active Transport: Utilizes the energy from the electrochemical gradient
created by primary active transport. This can occur through:

 Symporters: Transport two different substances in the same direction across

the membrane.

 Antiporters: Transport two different substances in opposite directions.

3. Specificity: Active transport is highly selective, involving specific transport proteins that
recognize and bind to the molecules they transport.

Examples of Active Transport

 Sodium-Potassium Pump: This pump is crucial for maintaining the membrane potential in
animal cells. It typically transports three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions
into the cell for each ATP molecule consumed.

Bulk and vesicular transport are essential cellular processes that enable the movement of large
quantities of materials into and out of cells. These mechanisms are crucial for various biological
functions, including nutrient uptake, waste removal, and intercellular communication. Here’s an
overview of these transport processes:
Bulk Transport

Bulk transport refers to the movement of large particles or volumes of substances across the cell
membrane using energy, typically in the form of ATP. This process can be categorized into two main
types: endocytosis and exocytosis.

1. Endocytosis:

 This process involves the uptake of materials into the cell. The cell membrane
engulfs the substance, folding around it to form a vesicle that brings the material
into the cytoplasm.

 Types of Endocytosis:

 Phagocytosis: Often referred to as "cell eating," this involves the engulfing of

large solid particles, such as pathogens or cellular debris. For example,
macrophages use phagocytosis to consume bacteria.

 Pinocytosis: Known as "cell drinking," this process involves the uptake of

extracellular fluid and dissolved substances. It allows cells to sample their
environment.

 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: This is a more selective form of

endocytosis where specific molecules bind to receptors on the cell surface,
triggering the invagination of the membrane and subsequent vesicle
formation.

2. Exocytosis:

 This process involves the release of materials from the cell. Vesicles containing
substances fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents into the
extracellular space.

 Exocytosis is crucial for the secretion of hormones, neurotransmitters, and digestive

enzymes. It also plays a role in recycling membrane components.
Biological Molecules

Carbohydrates are a fundamental class of biological molecules that play crucial roles in energy
storage, structural integrity, and cellular recognition. They are one of the four major types of
biomolecules, alongside proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Definition and Structure

Carbohydrates are organic compounds primarily composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen
(O), typically in a ratio of 1:2:1. The general formula for carbohydrates can be represented
as Cn(H2O)nCn(H2O)n. They are classified based on their structure into three main categories:

1. Monosaccharides: The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar units.

Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

2. Disaccharides: Formed by the combination of two monosaccharides through a glycosidic

bond. Common examples are sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose.

3. Polysaccharides: Large molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharide units.

Examples include starch (energy storage in plants), glycogen (energy storage in animals), and
cellulose (structural component of plant cell walls).

Functions of Carbohydrates

1. Energy Source: Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy for living organisms.
Monosaccharides, particularly glucose, are crucial for cellular respiration, where they are
metabolized to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell.

2. Energy Storage: Excess carbohydrates are stored as polysaccharides. In plants, glucose is

stored as starch, while in animals, it is stored as glycogen. These storage forms can be broken
down when energy is needed.

3. Structural Components: Carbohydrates provide structural support in various organisms. For

example, cellulose is a key component of plant cell walls, providing rigidity and strength. In
fungi, chitin serves a similar structural role.

4. Cell Recognition: Carbohydrates are involved in cell recognition processes. They can be
attached to proteins and lipids on the cell surface, forming glycoproteins and glycolipids.
These structures are important for cell signaling and communication.

A monosaccharide is the simplest form of carbohydrates, serving as the basic building block for more
complex carbohydrates such as disaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are single sugar
units that cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler sugars. They typically have the general chemical
formula Cn(H2O)nCn(H2O)n, where nn is three or more.

Structure of Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides can be classified based on the number of carbon atoms they contain:
  Triose: 3 carbon atoms (e.g., glyceraldehyde)
 Tetrose: 4 carbon atoms (e.g., erythrose)
 Pentose: 5 carbon atoms (e.g., ribose, deoxyribose)
 Hexose: 6 carbon atoms (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose)
Monosaccharides can also be categorized based on the functional group present:
 Aldoses: Contain an aldehyde group (-CHO) at one end of the molecule (e.g., glucose).
 Ketoses: Contain a ketone group (C=O) within the carbon chain (e.g., fructose).
Examples of Monosaccharides
1. Glucose: A primary energy source for cells, glucose is a hexose monosaccharide that plays a
crucial role in metabolism. It can be broken down through glycolysis to release energy.
2. Fructose: Found in many fruits, fructose is a ketose monosaccharide that is sweeter than
glucose and is often used in sweeteners.
3. Galactose: A component of lactose (milk sugar), galactose is important for energy and
cellular processes
A disaccharide is a carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharide units joined together by a
glycosidic bond. The three most common disaccharides are:
1. Sucrose: Consists of glucose and fructose. It is commonly known as table sugar and is a
major product of photosynthesis in plants.
2. Lactose: Consists of glucose and galactose. It is found in the milk of mammals and provides
nutrition for infants.
3. Maltose: Consists of two glucose molecules. It is formed when starch is broken down and is a
component of many foods like beer, cereal, pasta, and potatoes.
Disaccharides are formed through a dehydration reaction, where one water molecule is removed as
the glycosidic bond forms between the two monosaccharides. They are water-soluble and can be
broken down into their constituent monosaccharides through hydrolysis, either by enzymes or acids.

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharide units linked
together by glycosidic bonds. They are one of the most abundant types of carbohydrates found in
nature and serve various essential functions in living organisms.

Definition and Structure

 Polysaccharides: A polysaccharide is defined as a carbohydrate that can be decomposed by

hydrolysis into two or more monosaccharides. They typically consist of more than ten
monosaccharide units, and their structure can be linear or branched.

 Composition: The monosaccharides that make up polysaccharides are linked together

through glycosidic bonds, which form during a dehydration reaction (removal of water).

Types of Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides can be classified into two main categories:

1. Storage Polysaccharides:

 Starch: The primary storage form of energy in plants, composed of amylose (linear)
and amylopectin (branched) chains of glucose.

 Glycogen: The storage form of glucose in animals, found mainly in the liver and
muscle tissues. It is highly branched, allowing for rapid mobilization of glucose when
energy is needed.

2. Structural Polysaccharides:
  Cellulose: A major component of plant cell walls, providing structural support. It is
composed of linear chains of glucose units that form strong fibers.

 Chitin: Found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and the cell walls of fungi, chitin is
structurally similar to cellulose but contains nitrogen-containing groups.

Fiber - Dietary fiber is a type of polysaccharide that plays an important role in human health and
digestion. Here are the key points about fiber as a polysaccharide:

Definition and Composition

 Dietary fiber is a type of complex carbohydrate that is not digested or absorbed in the small
intestine.
 It is composed of polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, lignin, and associated plant substances
Functions of Fiber
 Fiber adds bulk to the diet and helps food move through the digestive tract, promoting
regular bowel movements.
 Soluble fiber binds to bile acids in the small intestine, lowering cholesterol levels in the
blood.
 Soluble fiber also attenuates the absorption of sugar and reduces sugar response after
eating.
 Insoluble fiber is associated with reduced diabetes risk, although the exact mechanism is
unknown.
 Short-chain fatty acids produced from the fermentation of fiber in the colon have wide-
ranging physiological activities.
Dietary Recommendations
 Dietary fiber is not yet formally proposed as an essential macronutrient, but regulatory
authorities in many developed countries recommend increasing fiber intake.
 The recommended daily intake of fiber is 25-30 grams per day, but most people consume
only about half this amount
Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are characterized by their hydrophobic (water-
repelling) nature, meaning they do not dissolve well in water but are soluble in nonpolar solvents.
They play crucial roles in biological systems, including energy storage, cellular structure, and
signaling.

Definition and Characteristics

 Definition: Lipids are fatty or waxy organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, sterols,
and fat-soluble vitamins. They are primarily composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O) atoms.

 Hydrophobic Nature: Due to their long hydrocarbon chains, lipids are largely hydrophobic.
This property allows them to form cellular membranes and serve as energy reserves.

 Amphipathic Properties: Some lipids, such as phospholipids, have both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic (water-attracting) components. This amphipathic nature is essential for forming
lipid bilayers in cell membranes.

Types of Lipids

1. Fatty Acids: Building blocks of many lipids, fatty acids can be saturated (no double bonds) or
unsaturated (one or more double bonds). They are key components of triglycerides and
phospholipids.
 2. Triglycerides: Composed of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule, triglycerides are
the main form of stored energy in animals and plants.

3. Phospholipids: These lipids consist of two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to a
glycerol backbone. They are fundamental components of cell membranes, forming a bilayer
that separates the interior of the cell from the external environment.

4. Sterols: A class of lipids that includes cholesterol and steroid hormones. Cholesterol is vital
for maintaining membrane fluidity and serves as a precursor for steroid hormones.

5. Glycolipids: These lipids have carbohydrate groups attached and are involved in cell
recognition and signaling.

Functions of Lipids

 Energy Storage: Lipids, particularly triglycerides, serve as a major energy reserve in

organisms. They provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins.

 Structural Components: Lipids are essential for the formation of cell membranes, providing
structural integrity and compartmentalization within cells.

 Signaling Molecules: Certain lipids act as hormones or signaling molecules, facilitating

communication between cells and regulating various physiological processes.

 Insulation and Protection: Lipids provide thermal insulation in animals and protect organs by
serving as cushioning.

Nutrient Absorption

Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) require the presence of fats for proper absorption in the
intestine

Ester bond formation is a chemical process that occurs when an alcohol reacts with a carboxylic acid,
resulting in the creation of an ester. This reaction is a type of condensation reaction, where a small
molecule, typically water, is eliminated as the two reactants combine.

Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids are two types of fatty acids that differ in their structure and
properties. Here are the key differences between them:

Saturated Fatty Acids

 Definition: Saturated fatty acids are fatty acids that have no carbon-carbon double bonds in
their hydrocarbon chain.

 Structure: The carbon atoms in saturated fatty acids are connected by single bonds and are
saturated with hydrogen atoms.

 Examples: Common saturated fatty acids include palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid
(C18:0).

 Properties: Saturated fatty acids have a straight, rod-like shape that allows them to pack
tightly together, resulting in higher melting points. They are typically solid at room
temperature.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

  Definition: Unsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids that contain one or more carbon-carbon
double bonds in their hydrocarbon chain.

 Structure: The presence of double bonds introduces kinks or bends in the hydrocarbon
chain, disrupting the tight packing of the molecules.

 Types:

 Monounsaturated fatty acids: Contain one double bond (e.g., oleic acid, C18:1).

 Polyunsaturated fatty acids: Contain more than one double bond (e.g., linoleic acid,
C18:2; and linolenic acid, C18:3).

 Examples: Common unsaturated fatty acids include oleic acid (C18:1), linoleic acid (C18:2),
and linolenic acid (C18:3).

 Properties: Unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting points compared to saturated fatty
acids of the same chain length. They are typically liquid at room temperature and are often
referred to as oils.

Biological Significance

 Saturated fatty acids: Excessive consumption of saturated fats has been linked to an
increased risk of heart disease and high cholesterol levels.

 Unsaturated fatty acids: Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids are considered
healthier alternatives to saturated fats. They may help lower cholesterol levels and reduce
the risk of heart disease when consumed in moderation as part of a balanced diet.
Waxes are a type of lipid characterized by their hydrophobic nature and solid consistency at room
temperature.

Waterproofing: Waxes provide a protective barrier against water loss in plants and help keep
feathers dry in birds, enhancing buoyancy and insulation

Steroids are a class of lipids that have a characteristic fused four-ring structure. Although structurally
different from other lipids like fats and phospholipids, steroids are grouped with them because they
are also hydrophobic and insoluble in water.Key features of steroids:

 Have a fused ring structure consisting of four carbon rings

 Often have a short hydrocarbon tail attached

 Many steroids contain a hydroxyl (-OH) group, making them alcohols called sterols

 Reduce the fluidity of cell membranes

 Function as signaling molecules within cells

The most common steroid is cholesterol. Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver and is the precursor
for many steroid hormones like testosterone and estradiol. It is also a component of cell membranes
and a precursor for bile salts and vitamin D.

How do Steroids Differ from Fats and Oils?

Unlike fats and oils (triglycerides), steroids do not have a glycerol backbone with fatty acid chains
attached. Instead, steroids have a characteristic four-ring structure, often with a short hydrocarbon
tail. Fats and oils are esters composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains. Fatty acids are long
hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group at one end. Fats are solid at room temperature while oils
are liquid.

Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are major components of cell membranes. They are
composed of a glycerol backbone with two fatty acid chains attached, and a phosphate group that is
modified by an alcohol. This gives phospholipids both hydrophobic (fatty acid tails) and hydrophilic
(phosphate head) regions, making them amphipathic molecules.The key features of phospholipids
are:

 Consist of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group modified by an
alcohol

 Have a hydrophobic tail (fatty acids) and a hydrophilic head (phosphate group)

 Are amphipathic, allowing them to form lipid bilayers in cell membranes

 The phosphate head is negatively charged and interacts with water

 The fatty acid tails are uncharged and hydrophobic

 Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine are two common phospholipids in membranes

How do Phospholipids Differ from Fats and Oils?

While phospholipids, fats and oils are all lipids, they have some key structural differences:

 Fats are composed of three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone, forming
triglycerides. They are solid at room temperature.

 Oils are also composed of fatty acid chains attached to glycerol, but they are liquid at room
temperature.

 Phospholipids have only two fatty acid chains attached to glycerol. The third position is
occupied by a phosphate group modified by an alcohol.
Proteins are essential macromolecules in biological systems, performing a vast array of functions
crucial for life. They are composed of long chains of amino acids, which are the building blocks of
proteins. The sequence and arrangement of these amino acids determine the protein's unique
structure and function.

Structure of Proteins

Proteins are structured at four levels:

1. Primary Structure: This is the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain,
determined by the genetic code.

2. Secondary Structure: This involves local folding of the polypeptide chain into structures such
as alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

3. Tertiary Structure: This is the overall three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide,

formed by interactions among various side chains (R groups) of the amino acids.

4. Quaternary Structure: This level refers to the assembly of multiple polypeptide chains into a
single functional protein complex. Not all proteins have a quaternary structure; it is present
in those that consist of more than one polypeptide chain.

Functions of Proteins

Proteins serve a multitude of functions in biological systems, including:

 Enzymatic Activity: Proteins act as enzymes, catalyzing biochemical reactions and speeding
up metabolic processes. For example, digestive enzymes like amylase break down
carbohydrates into simpler sugars.

 Structural Support: Proteins provide structural integrity to cells and tissues. Examples
include collagen in connective tissues and keratin in hair and nails.

 Transport and Storage: Proteins facilitate the transport of molecules across cell membranes
and throughout the body. Hemoglobin, for instance, transports oxygen in the blood.

 Signaling: Many proteins function as hormones or receptors, transmitting signals between

cells and coordinating physiological processes. Insulin is a well-known hormone that
regulates glucose levels in the blood.

 Defense: Proteins play a crucial role in the immune system. Antibodies are proteins that
identify and neutralize foreign pathogens like bacteria and viruses.

 Movement: Proteins are involved in muscle contraction and movement. Actin and myosin
are key proteins in muscle fibers that enable contraction

Enzymes – are catalysts in biochemical reactions (like digestion) and usually complex or conjugated
proteins. Each enzyme is specific for the substrate it acts on. Enzymes that may help breakdown their
substrates are called catabolic enzymes, enzymes that build more complex molecules from their
substrates are called anabolic enzymes, and enzymes that affect the rate of reaction are called
catalytic enzymes.

Hormones are chemical-signaling molecules, Usually small proteins or steroids that act to control or
regulate specific physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, and
production.

Digestive Enzymes – Help in digestion of food by catabolizing nutrients into monomeric units
 Amylase
 Pepsin
 Lipase
Transport Enzymes – carry substances in the body or lymph throughout the body
 Hemoglobin
 Albumin
Structural Enzymes – construct like different structures like the cytoskeleton
 Actin and myosin
 Tubulin
 keratin
Hormonal Enzymes – coordinate the activity of different body systems
 Renin - Involved in regulating blood pressure
 Insulin
Defense Enzymes – protect the body from foreign pathogens
 Lysozyme - Breaks down bacterial cell walls
 Catalase
 Immunoglobulins
Contractile Enzymes – effect muscle contraction
 Myosin
 Actin
Storage Enzymes Provide nourishment in early development of the embryo and the seedling
 Legume storage proteins
 Egg white (Albumins)

Amino acids are the fundamental building blocks of proteins, playing a crucial role in various
biological processes.
Types of Amino Acids
There are 20 standard amino acids that are commonly found in proteins, which can be categorized
based on their nutritional significance:
1. Essential Amino Acids: These cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained
through diet. They include:
 Histidine
 Isoleucine
 Leucine
 Lysine
 Methionine
 Phenylalanine
 Threonine
 Tryptophan
 Valine
2. Non-Essential Amino Acids: These can be synthesized by the body. Examples include:
 Alanine
 Asparagine
  Aspartic acid
 Glutamic acid
 Serine
3. Conditionally Essential Amino Acids: These are usually non-essential but become essential
under certain conditions, such as illness or stress. Examples include:
 Arginine
 Cysteine
 Glutamine
 Tyrosine
Denaturation of proteins refers to the process in which a protein loses its native three-dimensional
structure, resulting in the loss of its biological function.
Denaturation can be induced by several factors:
1. Temperature: Elevated temperatures can increase the kinetic energy of protein molecules,
disrupting weak interactions such as hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces. For example,
boiling an egg denatures the proteins in egg white, causing them to coagulate.
2. pH Changes: Alterations in pH can affect the ionization of amino acid side chains, disrupting
ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds. This can lead to denaturation if the pH moves away from
the protein's optimal range.
3. Chemical Agents: Certain chemicals, such as heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury) and organic
solvents (e.g., alcohols), can bind to proteins and disrupt their structure. Heavy metals can
form strong bonds with functional groups in proteins, leading to denaturation.
4. Mechanical Forces: Physical agitation, such as whisking or stirring, can also cause
denaturation by breaking weak bonds within the protein structure.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
Nucleic acids are essential biomolecules that play critical roles in storing and transmitting genetic
information. The two primary types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (RNA).
Structure of Nucleic Acids
1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
 Structure: DNA is a double-stranded helix composed of nucleotides. Each nucleotide
consists of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous
bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), or guanine (G). The strands are held
together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs (A with T and C
with G).
 Function: DNA serves as the genetic blueprint for all living organisms, encoding the
instructions for building proteins and regulating cellular activities.
2. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid):
 Structure: RNA is usually single-stranded and consists of nucleotides containing a
ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A),
uracil (U), cytosine (C), or guanine (G). Unlike DNA, RNA does not contain thymine;
instead, uracil pairs with adenine.
 Function: RNA plays various roles in the cell, including acting as a messenger
between DNA and ribosomes (mRNA), facilitating protein synthesis (tRNA and rRNA),
and regulating gene expression (various non-coding RNAs).
Roles in Metabolism
1. Genetic Information Storage:
 DNA stores genetic information necessary for the development, functioning, and
reproduction of all living organisms. It serves as a template for replication, ensuring
that genetic information is passed on during cell division.
2. Protein Synthesis:
  RNA is crucial for translating the genetic code from DNA into proteins. The process
involves two main steps:
 Transcription: The DNA sequence of a gene is transcribed into messenger
RNA (mRNA) by RNA polymerase. This mRNA carries the genetic information
from the nucleus to the ribosome, where proteins are synthesized.
 Translation: The mRNA is translated into a specific protein sequence with
the help of transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). tRNA molecules
bring the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome, where rRNA facilitates
the assembly of amino acids into polypeptide chains.
3. Regulation of Gene Expression:
 Various forms of RNA, including microRNAs and small interfering RNAs, play roles in
regulating gene expression by inhibiting or promoting the translation of specific
mRNAs. This regulation is crucial for cellular responses to environmental changes
and developmental processes.
4. Catalytic Functions:
 Some RNA molecules, known as ribozymes, possess catalytic activity, enabling them
to catalyze biochemical reactions. This suggests that RNA may have played a key role
in early life forms, potentially predating DNA and proteins in evolutionary history.
5. Metabolic Pathways:
 RNA is involved in various metabolic pathways, including the synthesis and
degradation of nucleotides and other biomolecules. The regulation of these
pathways is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis.