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What is quantum computing?

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Published: 5 August 2024

Contributors: Josh Schneider, Ian Smalley

What is quantum computing?

Quantum computing is an emergent field of cutting-edge computer
science harnessing the unique qualities of quantum mechanics to solve
problems beyond the ability of even the most powerful classical
computers.

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The field of quantum computing contains a range of disciplines, including quantum

hardware and quantum algorithms. While still in development, quantum technology will
soon be able to solve complex problems that supercomputers can’t solve, or can’t solve
fast enough.

By taking advantage of quantum physics, fully realized quantum computers would be

able to process massively complicated problems at orders of magnitude faster than
modern machines. For a quantum computer, challenges that might take a classical
computer thousands of years to complete might be reduced to a matter of minutes.

The study of subatomic particles, also known as quantum mechanics, reveals unique and
fundamental natural principles. Quantum computers harness these fundamental
phenomena to compute probabilistically and quantum mechanically.

Four key principles of quantum mechanics

Understanding quantum computing requires understanding these four key principles of

quantum mechanics:

– Superposition: Superposition is the state in which a quantum particle or system can

represent not just one possibility, but a combination of multiple possibilities.

– Entanglement: Entanglement is the process in which multiple quantum particles

become correlated more strongly than regular probability allows.

– Decoherence: Decoherence is the process in which quantum particles and systems

can decay, collapse or change, converting into single states measurable by classical
physics.

– Interference: Interference is the phenomenon in which entangled quantum states

can interact and produce more and less likely probabilities.

Qubits
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While classical computers rely on binary bits (zeros and ones) to store and process data,
quantum computers can encode even more data at once using quantum bits, or qubits, in
superposition.

A qubit can behave like a bit and store either a zero or a one, but it can also be a weighted
combination of zero and one at the same time. When combined, qubits in superposition
can scale exponentially. Two qubits can store four bits of information, three can store
eight, and four can store twelve.

However, each qubit can only output a single bit of information at the end of the
computation. Quantum algorithms work by storing and manipulating information in a way
inaccessible to classical computers, which can provide speedups for certain problems.

As silicon chip and superconductor development has scaled over the years, it is distinctly
possible that we might soon reach a material limit on the computing power of classical
computers. Quantum computing could provide a path forward for certain important
problems.

With leading institutions such as IBM, Microsoft, Google and Amazon joining eager
startups such as Rigetti and Ionq in investing heavily in this exciting new technology,
quantum computing is estimated to become a USD 1.3 trillion industry by 2035.1

Secure your enterprise for the quantum era

Quantum computers are scaling rapidly. Soon, they will be powerful enough to solve
previously unsolvable problems. This opportunity comes with a global challenge:
quantum computers will be able to break some of the most widely-used security
protocols in the world.

Learn more

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How do quantum computers work?

A primary difference between classical and quantum computers is that quantum
computers use qubits instead of bits to store exponentially more information. While
quantum computing does use binary code, qubits process information differently from
classical computers. But what are qubits and where do they come from?

What are qubits?

Generally, qubits are created by manipulating and measuring quantum particles (the
smallest known building blocks of the physical universe), such as photons, electrons,
trapped ions and atoms. Qubits can also engineer systems that behave like a quantum
particle, as in superconducting circuits.

To manipulate such particles, qubits must be kept extremely cold to minimize noise and
prevent them from providing inaccurate results or errors resulting from unintended
decoherence.

There are many different types of qubits used in quantum computing today, with some
better suited for different types of tasks.

A few of the more common types of qubits in use are as follows:

– Superconducting qubits: Made from superconducting materials operating at

extremely low temperatures, these qubits are favored for their speed in performing
computations and fine-tuned control.

– Trapped ion qubits: Trapped ion particles can also be used as qubits and are noted
for long coherence times and high-fidelity measurements.

– Quantum dots: Quantum dots are small semiconductors that capture a single
electron and use it as a qubit, offering promising potential for scalability and
compatibility with existing semiconductor technology.

– Photons: Photons are individual light particles used to send quantum information
across long distances through optical fiber cables and are currently being used in
quantum communication and quantum cryptography.

– Neutral atoms: Commonly occurring neutral atoms charged with lasers are well
suited for scaling and performing operations.

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When processing a complex problem, such as factoring large numbers, classical bits
become bound up by holding large quantities of information. Quantum bits behave
differently. Because qubits can hold a superposition, a quantum computer that uses
qubits can approach the problem in ways different from classical computers.

As a helpful analogy for understanding how quantum computers use qubits to solve
complicated problems, imagine you are standing in the center of a complicated maze. To
escape the maze, a traditional computer would have to “brute force” the problem, trying
every possible combination of paths to find the exit. This kind of computer would use bits
to explore new paths and remember which ones are dead ends.

Comparatively, a quantum computer might derive a bird’s-eye view of the maze, testing
multiple paths simultaneously and using quantum interference to reveal the correct
solution. However, qubits don't test multiple paths at once; instead, quantum computers
measure the probability amplitudes of qubits to determine an outcome. These
amplitudes function like waves, overlapping and interfering with each other. When
asynchronous waves overlap, it effectively eliminates possible solutions to complex
problems, and the realized coherent wave or waves present the solution.

Key principles of quantum

computing
When discussing quantum computers, it is important to understand that quantum
mechanics is not like traditional physics. The behaviors of quantum particles often
appear to be bizarre, counterintuitive or even impossible. Yet the laws of quantum
mechanics dictate the order of the natural world.

Describing the behaviors of quantum particles presents a unique challenge. Most

common-sense paradigms for the natural world lack the vocabulary to communicate the
surprising behaviors of quantum particles.

To understand quantum computing, it is important to understand a few key terms:

– Superposition
– Entanglement
– Decoherence
– Interference.

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Superposition

A qubit itself isn't very useful. But it can place the quantum information it holds into a
state of superposition, which represents a combination of all possible configurations of
the qubit. Groups of qubits in superposition can create complex, multidimensional
computational spaces. Complex problems can be represented in new ways in these
spaces.

This superposition of qubits gives quantum computers their inherent parallelism,

allowing them to process many inputs simultaneously.

Entanglement

Entanglement is the ability of qubits to correlate their state with other qubits. Entangled
systems are so intrinsically linked that when quantum processors measure a single
entangled qubit, they can immediately determine information about other qubits in the
entangled system.

When a quantum system is measured, its state collapses from a superposition of

possibilities into a binary state, which can be registered like binary code as either a zero
or a one.

Decoherence

Decoherence is the process in which a system in a quantum state collapses into a

nonquantum state. It can be intentionally triggered by measuring a quantum system or
by other environmental factors (sometimes these factors trigger it unintentionally).
Decoherence allows quantum computers to provide measurements and interact with
classical computers.

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Interference

An environment of entangled qubits placed into a state of collective superposition

structures information in a way that looks like waves, with amplitudes associated with
each outcome. These amplitudes become the probabilities of the outcomes of a
measurement of the system. These waves can build on each other when many of them
peak at a particular outcome, or cancel each other out when peaks and troughs interact.
Amplifying a probability or canceling out others are both forms of interference.

How the principles work together

To better understand quantum computing, consider that two counterintuitive ideas can
both be true. The first is that objects that can be measured—qubits in superposition with
defined probability amplitudes—behave randomly. The second is that objects too distant
to influence each other—entangled qubits—can still behave in ways that, though
individually random, are somehow strongly correlated.

A computation on a quantum computer works by preparing a superposition of

computational states. A quantum circuit, prepared by the user, uses operations to
generate entanglement, leading to interference between these different states, as
governed by an algorithm. Many possible outcomes are canceled out through
interference, while others are amplified. The amplified outcomes are the solutions to the
computation.

Classical computing versus quantum

computing
Quantum computing is built on the principles of quantum mechanics, which describe how
subatomic particles behave differently from macrolevel physics. But because quantum
mechanics provides the foundational laws for our entire universe, on a subatomic level,
every system is a quantum system.

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For this reason, we can say that while conventional computers are also built on top of
quantum systems, they fail to take full advantage of the quantum mechanical properties
during their calculations. Quantum computers take better advantage of quantum
mechanics to conduct calculations that even high-performance computers cannot.

What is a classical computer?

From antiquated punch-card adders to modern supercomputers, traditional (or classical)

computers essentially function in the same way. These machines generally perform
calculations sequentially, storing data by using binary bits of information. Each bit
represents either a 0 or 1.

When combined into binary code and manipulated by using logic operations, we can use
computers to create everything from simple operating systems to the most advanced
supercomputing calculations.

What is a quantum computer?

Quantum computers function similarly to classical computers, but instead of bits,

quantum computing uses qubits. These qubits are special systems that act like
subatomic particles made of atoms, superconducting electric circuits or other systems
that data in a set of amplitudes applied to both 0 and 1, rather than just two states (0 or
1). This complicated quantum mechanical concept is called a superposition. Through a
process called quantum entanglement, those amplitudes can apply to multiple qubits
simultaneously.

The difference between quantum and classical

computing

Classical computing

– Used by common, multipurpose computers and devices.

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– Stores information in bits with a discrete number of possible states, 0 or 1.

– Processes data logically and sequentially.

Quantum computing

– Used by specialized and experimental quantum mechanics-based quantum hardware.

– Stores information in qubits as 0, 1 or a superposition of 0 and 1.
– Processes data with quantum logic at parallel instances, relying on interference.

Quantum processors do not perform mathematical equations the same way classical
computers do. Unlike classical computers that must compute every step of a complicated
calculation, quantum circuits made from logical qubits can process enormous datasets
simultaneously with different operations, improving efficiency by many orders of
magnitude for certain problems.

Quantum computers have this capability because they are probabilistic, finding the most
likely solution to a problem, while traditional computers are deterministic, requiring
laborious computations to determine a specific singular outcome of any inputs.

While traditional computers commonly provide singular answers, probabilistic quantum

machines typically provide ranges of possible answers. This range might make quantum
seem less precise than traditional computation; however, for the kinds of incredibly
complex problems quantum computers might one day solve, this way of computing could
potentially save hundreds of thousands of years of traditional computations.

While fully realized quantum computers would be far superior to classical computers for
certain kinds of problems requiring large data sets or for completing other problems like
advanced prime factoring, quantum computing is not ideal for every, or even most
problems.

Realistically, classical computers will continue to be used for the majority of their current
applications. However, cloud-connected quantum computers or hybrid ecosystems are
already being implemented to explore a wide array of advanced applications. As quantum
computing continues to progress, we can expect this advanced technology to not only
impact existing industries, but potentially unlock entire new ones as well.

When is quantum computing

superior?
For most kinds of tasks and challenges, traditional computers are expected to remain the
best solution. But when scientists and engineers encounter certain very complex
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problems, that’s where quantum comes into play. For these types of difficult calculations,
even the most powerful supercomputers (big machines with thousands of traditional
cores and processors) pale in comparison to quantum computing’s power. That’s
because even supercomputers are binary code-based machines reliant on 20th-century
transistor technology. Classical computers are simply unable to process such complex
problems.

Complex problems are problems with lots of variables interacting in complicated ways.
Modeling the behavior of individual atoms in a molecule is a complex problem, because
of all the different electrons interacting with one another. Identifying new physics in a
supercollider is also a complex problem. There are some complex problems that we do
not know how to solve with classical computers at any scale.

A classical computer might be great at difficult tasks like sorting through a big database
of molecules. But it struggles to solve more complex problems, like simulating how those
molecules behave. Today, if scientists want to know how a molecule will behave, they
must synthesize it and experiment with it in the real world. If they want to know how a
slight tweak would impact its behavior, they usually need to synthesize the new version
and run their experiment all over again. This is an expensive, time-consuming process
that impedes progress in fields as diverse as medicine and semiconductor design.

A classical supercomputer might try to simulate molecular behavior with brute force, by
using its many processors to explore every possible way every part of the molecule might
behave. But as it moves past the simplest, most straightforward molecules available, the
supercomputer stalls. No computer has the working memory to handle all the possible
permutations of molecular behavior by using any known methods.

Quantum algorithms take a new approach to these sorts of complex problems—creating

multidimensional computational spaces or running calculations that behave much like
these molecules themselves. This turns out to be a much more efficient way of solving
complex problems like chemical simulations.

Engineering firms, financial institutions and global shipping companies—among others—

are exploring use cases where quantum computers could solve important problems in
their fields. An explosion of benefits from quantum research and development is taking
shape on the horizon. As quantum hardware scales and quantum algorithms advance,
many big, important problems like molecular simulation should find solutions.

Quantum computing use cases

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First theorized in the early 1980s, it wasn’t until 1994 that MIT mathematician Peter Shor
published one of the first practical real-world applications for a quantum machine. Shor’s
algorithm for integer factorization demonstrated how a quantum mechanical computer
could potentially break the most advanced cryptography systems of the time—some of
which are still used today. Shor’s findings demonstrated a viable application for quantum
systems, with dramatic implications for not just cybersecurity, but many other fields.

Quantum computers excel at solving certain complex problems with the potential to
speed up the processing of large-scale data sets. From the development of new drugs
and performing machine learning in a new way to supply-chain optimization and climate
change challenges, quantum computing might hold the key to breakthroughs in a number
of critical industries.


Pharmaceuticals
Quantum computers capable of simulating molecular behavior and biochemical
reactions could massively speed up the research and development of life-saving
new drugs and medical treatments.


Chemistry
For the same reasons quantum computers could impact medical research, they
might also provide undiscovered solutions for mitigating dangerous or destructive
chemical byproducts. Quantum computing could lead to improved catalysts that
enable petrochemical alternatives or better processes for the carbon breakdown
necessary for combating climate-threatening emissions.


Machine learning
As interest and investment in artificial intelligence (AI) and related fields like
machine learning ramps up, researchers are pushing AI models to new extremes,
testing the limits of our existing hardware and demanding tremendous energy
consumption. There is evidence that some quantum algorithms might be able to
look at datasets in a new way, providing a speedup for some machine learning
problems.

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Quantum advantage versus quantum

utility
While no longer simply theoretical, quantum computing is still under development. As
scientists around the world strive to discover new techniques to improve the speed,
power and efficiency of quantum machines, technology is approaching a turning point.
We understand the evolution of useful quantum computing using the concepts of
quantum advantage and quantum utility.

Quantum utility

Quantum utility refers to any quantum computation that provides reliable, accurate
solutions to problems that are beyond the reach of brute force classical computing
quantum-machine simulators. Previously, these problems were accessible only to
classical approximation methods—usually problem-specific approximation methods
carefully crafted to exploit the unique structures of a given problem.

Quantum advantage

Broadly defined, the term quantum advantage refers to a hypothetical quantum

computer capable of outperforming all classical supercomputer methods for some
problem, even approximate methods. A quantum computer capable of achieving the
quantum advantage should be able to deliver a significant, practical benefit beyond all
known classical computing methods—calculating solutions in a way that is cheaper,
faster or more accurate than any available classical alternatives.

Quantum benchmarks

Because quantum computing now offers a viable alternative to classical approximation

for certain problems, researchers say it is a useful tool for scientific exploration, or that it
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has utility. Quantum utility does not constitute a claim that quantum methods have
achieved a proven speed-up over all known classical methods. This is a key difference
from the concept of quantum advantage.

In 2019, leading researchers on the IBM Quantum team invented a metric known as
quantum volume to assign a singular, calculable measurement of a quantum computer’s
ability.

Quantum volume measures the largest quantum circuit that can pass a quantum volume
test. The quantum volume test asks the quantum computer to run circuit with random
gates and measures how often the circuits output the expected outcomes. However, as
we continue scaling up quantum processors, it’s becoming clear that we need more than
just quantum volume to fully encapsulate the performance of utility-scale quantum
computers.

While quantum volume is still one of a few ways in which we can measure errors within a
quantum system, the IBM team introduced two additional metrics to better benchmark
quantum computers, layer fidelity and circuit layer operations per second (CLOPS).

Layer fidelity

An extremely valuable benchmark, layer fidelity provides a way to encapsulate the entire
quantum processor’s ability to run circuits while revealing information about individual
qubits, gates and crosstalk. By running the layer fidelity protocol, researchers can qualify
the overall quantum device, while also gaining access to granular performance and error
information about individual components.

Quantum processing speed

In addition to layer fidelity, IBM also defined a speed metric, circuit layer operations per
second (CLOPS). Currently, CLOPS is a measure of how quickly our processors can run
quantum volume circuits in series, acting as a measure of holistic system speed
incorporating quantum and classical computing.

Together, layer fidelity and CLOPS provide a new way to benchmark systems that’s more
meaningful to the people trying to improve and use our hardware. These metrics will

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make it easier to compare systems to one another, to compare our systems to other
architectures, and to reflect performance gains across scales.

Making quantum computers more

useful
Today, companies like IBM make real quantum hardware—a tool that scientists only
began to imagine three decades ago—available to hundreds of thousands of developers.
Engineers are delivering ever-more-powerful superconducting quantum processors at
regular intervals, alongside crucial advances in software and quantum-classical
orchestration. This work drives toward the quantum computing speed and capacity
necessary to change the world.

Now that the field has achieved quantum utility, researchers are hard at work to make
quantum computers even more useful. Researchers at IBM Quantum and elsewhere have
identified some key challenges to improve upon quantum utility and potentially achieve
quantum advantage:

1. Scaling quantum processors: While qubit processors used in quantum computing

have the potential to massively outperform bit-based processors, current quantum
processors can only support a small number of potential qubits. As research
progresses, IBM plans to introduce a quantum system with 200 logical qubits capable
of running 100 million quantum gates by 2029, with a goal of two thousand logical
qubits capable of running 1 billion gates by 2033.
2. Scaling quantum hardware: Although powerful, qubits are also quite error-prone,
requiring large cooling systems capable of creating temperatures lower than outer
space. Researchers are currently developing ways to scale qubits, electronics,
infrastructure and software to reduce footprint, cost and energy usage.
3. Quantum error correction: Decoherence, the process in which qubits fail to function
properly and produce inaccurate results, is a major hurdle for any quantum system.
Quantum error correction requires that we encode quantum information into more
qubits than we would otherwise need. In 2024, IBM announced a landmark new
error-correcting code about 10 times more efficient than prior methods. While error
correction is not a solved problem, this new code marks a clear path toward running
quantum circuits with a billion logic gates or more.
4. Quantum algorithm discovery: Quantum advantage requires two components. The
first is viable quantum circuits, and the second is a means to demonstrate that those
quantum circuits are actually the best way to solve a quantum problem over any other
state-of-the-art method. Quantum algorithm discovery is what will take current
quantum technologies from quantum utility to quantum advantage.

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5. Quantum software and middleware: The crux of quantum algorithm discovery relies
on a highly performant and stable software stack to write, optimize and execute
quantum programs. Open-source and Python-based, IBM’s Qiskit is by far the most
widely-used quantum SDK in the world—useful for executions both on IBM’s fleet of
superconducting quantum computers and on systems that use alternative
technologies such as ions trapped in magnetic fields or quantum annealing.
6. Quantum-centric supercomputing: For the foreseeable future, quantum computing
will work in tandem with modern and future classical supercomputing to be useful. In
response, quantum researchers are preparing for a world where classical
supercomputers can use quantum circuits to help solve problems.

What is quantum computing?

Quantum computing
How do quantum computers work? components
Key principles of quantum computing
An IBM quantum processor is a wafer not much bigger than the silicon chips found in a
laptop. However, modern quantum hardware systems, used to keep the instruments at
Classical computing versus quantum computing
an ultracold temperature, and the extra room-temperature electronic components to
control the system and process quantum data, are about the size of an average car.
When is quantum computing superior?

While the large footprint of a complete quantum hardware system makes most quantum
Quantum computing use cases
computers anything but portable, researchers and computer scientists are still able to
access off-site quantum computing capabilities through cloud computing. The main
Quantum advantage versus quantum utility
hardware components of a quantum computer are as follows:

Making quantum computers more useful

Quantum computing components

Quantum software

Quantum processors
Related solutions

Composed of qubits laid out in various configurations to allow for communication,

Resources
quantum chips—also known as the quantum data plane—act as the brain of the quantum
computer.
Take the next step

As the core component in a quantum computer, a quantum processor contains the

system’s physical qubits and the structures required to hold them in place. Quantum
processing units (QPUs) include the quantum chip, control electronics and classical
compute hardware required for input and output.

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Superconductors

Your desktop computer likely uses a fan to get cold enough to work. Quantum processors
need to be very cold—about a hundredth of a degree above absolute zero—to minimize
noise and avoid decoherence to retain their quantum states. This ultra-low temperature
is achieved with supercooled superfluids. At these temperatures, certain materials
exhibit an important quantum mechanical effect: electrons move through them without
resistance. This effect makes them superconductors.

When materials become superconductors, their electrons match up, forming Cooper
pairs. These pairs can carry a charge across barriers, or insulators, through a process
known as quantum tunneling. Two superconductors placed on either side of an insulator
form a Josephson junction, a crucial piece of quantum computing hardware.

Control

Quantum computers use circuits with capacitors and Josephson junctions as

superconducting qubits. By firing microwave photons at these qubits, we can control
their behavior and get them to hold, change and read out individual units of quantum
information.

Quantum software
Research continues improving quantum hardware components, but that’s only one half of
the equation. The crux of users’ discovery of quantum advantage will be a highly
performant and stable quantum software stack to enable the next generation of quantum
algorithms.

In 2024, IBM introduced the first stable version of the Qiskit open source software
development kit (SDK), Qiskit SDK 1.x. With over 600,000 registered users and 700
global universities that use it to develop quantum computing classes, Qiskit has become
the preferred software stack for quantum computing.

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But Qiskit is more than just the world’s most popular quantum development software to
build and construct quantum circuits. We are redefining Qiskit to represent the full-stack
software for quantum at IBM, extending the Qiskit SDK with middleware software and
services to write, optimize and run programs on IBM Quantum systems—including new
generative AI code-assistance tools.

Related solutions

Quantum for enterprises

Global businesses are readying themselves today for the era of quantum computing. See
how our industry experts prepare our clients to use this technology for competitive
advantage.

Learn more about the IBM Quantum Network

Quantum for developers

IBM quantum computers—the most popular and powerful quantum hardware in the
world—help you build programs that solve problems in new ways.

Learn more about Qiskit

IBM Quantum Safe™

The era of quantum computing brings with it a need to secure the world's digital
infrastructure.

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9/14/24, 12:33 AM What Is Quantum Computing? | IBM

Resources

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Quantum computers make most of the world’s existing encryption
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IBM developed many of the foundational technologies that willworld
secure the world incluster.
the
quantum era, and now offers the tools and services needed to experts.
implement them. Use
our suite of applications to support your quantum research and development needs.

Explore IBM Quantum

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9/14/24, 12:33 AM What Is Quantum Computing? | IBM

Footnotes

1
"Quantum technology sees record investments, progress on talent gap" (link resides outside ibm.com), McKinsey Digital, 24 April 2023.

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