paper.

sand piece
of anda wires
connecting one-way
key, scale, metre rheostat,a eliminator),a (battery
battery range,
appropriate
a of(0-3)Aammeter an
and (0-3)V
voltmeter wire,
resistance
a A
APPARATUS
dint B AI
curTrent(. versus
Terence potential graph
of plottinga bywire given resistance
aofcm per determine AlM:
To
EXPERIMENT1
Measurement ofResistance 47

THEORY
According tothe Ohm's law, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
dimensions,
othe potential differenceacross itsends, provided the physical conditions (temperature,
ere etc)of the conductor remain the same. If I be the current flowing through a conductor and
Law,
Vhe the potential difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's
I« V
V«l or V= RI
or
conductor.
where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the
- R ...Working formula
or

Rdepends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor.
In SI units, the potential difference V is measured in volt and the current Iin ampere, the
resistance R is mneasured in ohm.
(1) To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the ratio V/I remains
constant for a given resistance. Therefore, a graph between the potential difference ()
and the current () must be a straight line.
(2) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance,

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Battery

HH K
Rheostat

A
Unknown resistance
wire

Fig. Circuit diagram.

PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the insulations, if any.
3. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While making
connectionsensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards
the +ve terminal of the battery.
4. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any.
5. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter and voltmeterare working
properly.
48
Comprehenstue Practical Physics-
6. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable
the resistance coil or the resistance wire. current passess
7. Note down the value of potential difference Vfrom
8. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so
that
voltmeterr and
current
both ammeter and voltmeter
I
from taThnmet agr
readings and not in fraction.
9. Record the readings of the voltmeter and
ammeter.
show full diy
Nete. In case of battery eliminator, follow these steps:
Turn the knob at 2 Vin battery eliminator and put the
Now record the reading in voltmeter and constant point in rheostat at
anmeter.
Without disturbing the rheostat, turn the knob of fixed position
12volts and record battery to different
corresponding readings in voltmeter and ammeter. voltage, say 4, 6, 8, 10
10. Take at least five sets of
11. Cut the resistance wire atindependent observations.
the points where it leaves
length by the metre scale. the terminals, stretch it and find
12. Recordyour
observations.

One-way Rheostat
key

Battery eliminator
or Battery

Resistance wire
W
A

Ammeter

Voltmeter
Fig. Arrangement diagram.
Measurement of Resistance 49

OBSERVATIONS
1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l= . . .
2. Range
Range of the given ammeter = ......
Range of the given voltmeter =
3. Least count

Least count of ammeter = ......

Least count of voltmeter =
4. Zero error

Zero error in ammeter, e, =....

Zero error in voltmeter, e, =....
5. Zero correction

Zero correction for ammeter, c, = -e, =....

Zero correction for voltmeter, c, = -e, =
6. Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings
Voltmeter Reading V(V) V =R
Ammeter Reading I (A)
Serial No. of Corrected
Corected Observed (Ohm)
Observed
Obs. V=V,+,
I=1,+c, (4)
(3a) (3b)
(1) (2a) (2b)
1

2
3.
4
5
ohms.
Mean value of resistance, R = ....

CALCULATIONS
observations.
1 Find the ratio of Vand Ifor each set of
between potential difference V feomn 35) and current I fcolumn 2b), taking
2 Plot a graph
comes to be a straight line.
Valong X-axis and I along Y-axis. The graph
be calculated.
From the graph, the resistance can
AB AI
tan 9 ...1)
In AABC, CB AV
AV ...2)
cot =
Or
 50

AV
Comprekensiue Practical Physics
But, R=
AI
R= cot
R=...... Q.
Graph between Potential
Scale Difference and Current
X-axis :1 cm = 0.5 V of
Y-axis:1 cm = 0.25 mA potential
of currentdifference
YA

1.5

amperes

in 1.0
(I)
Current

05
B

1.0 2.0 3.0

Potential difference (V) in volts
Fig. Graph between
and current. It ispotential difference
a straight
3 Constant ratio V line.
givesresistance of the wire.
4.
Resistance of the wire per cm = ..... 2 cm.
RESULT
()
Resistance per cm of the wire is ......Q cm1.
(ii) The graph
between Vand I is a straight line.
PRECAUTIONS
1 The connections should be
2
Thick copper wires should beneat, clean and tight.
their ends by rubbing with used for the connections after removing the
3
Voltmeter sand
and ammeter should paper. insulations nea
4. A low be of proper
resistance rheostat should be used.
range.
5. The key
should be inserted only while taking
6.
(otherwise its resistance will
increase). observations to avoid heating of resistant
The electric current through
effect of current. resistance wire should not be very high, so as to avoid
7 The heats
switch should be open when you are
not taking readings.
 51
Measurerment of Resistance

sOURCESOF ERROR
1 The instrument screws may be loose.
Thick connecting wires may not beavailable.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.

EXPERIMENT 2
determine the resistivity
AIM: To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge andl hence
(specific resistance) of its material.
APPARATUS
galvanometer, a
eliminator), a square,
A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery metre scale, a set
gauge, a
resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a screw
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY
() The unknown resistance Xis given by,
X=
(100-)xR unknown resistance Xinthe right
gap
where Ris known resistance placed in the left gap and zero end upto balance point.
of metre bridge. lcm is the length of metre bridge wire from
given wire is given by,
() Specific resistance (p) of the material of the
XrD?
p=
4L
given wire.
where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Unknown resistance
Known resistance
X
R
R. B.
Resistance
I, box B

(G) Galvanometer
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
10 20
luuluduuluuluuduLuulumtuululuuuulu uuluul
D
A
(100- )
E
K

Leclanche cell(Battery eliminator)

Fig. Circuit diagram-Metre bridge.
 52
Comprehenstue PPracticalPhysic,
PROCEDURE
For Resistance

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be
and B. Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop. determined
in the
3 Connect resistance box of low range in the left
hand gap between A and.
right gap betwe
4 Make all the other connections as shown in the
circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then resistance box, plug
the key K.
7 Note the at right end off the
defAlections
galvanometer showsbridge wire.
in the
directions, the connections galvanometer.
If the

8. Move (slide) the jockey

are correct. If the
fault in the circuit. Check or take
help
deflection is one side
of your teacher and
gently along the wire from left to rectify the fault
deflectionsthere op os
only, then in
is Soh
deflection. The point where the jockey is right till
9. Choose an touching the wire is null point D.
appropriate value of Rfrom the resistance box such that galvanometer g iyves
galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire there is no
10. Note position of
point D(with the help of a set
square) to
(i.e., between 45 to! deflection
55 cm).
11. Take at least four sets of know
12. Record your
observations.
observations the same way by
in balancing length,
changing the value of AD =]
Rin stepa
Cell or battery
Battery eliminator or eliminator One-way key
Leclanche celI
Resistance box
=?
Unknown
wire
B

10 20 30 40 50 60
(100
70 80
)
90 100
A
uluuuuluuluukáuluuualuuluuluuluuuulunluntuuluuhuuluu
Scale
KD

Bridge wire

Galvanometer
Fig. Arrangement diagram.
Measurement of Resistance 53

For Specific Resistance

13 Cutt the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretchit and fhnd itslength
by using a metre scale. directions
14 Measure the diameter of the wire at least at four places,in two mutuallyIperpendicular
at each place with the help of srew gauge.
15 Record your observations as given in tables.
OBSERVATIONS

1. Length of given wire, L ....cm.

2. Table for unknown resistance (X)
Unknown
Serial No. of Resistance from the Length AB =l Length resistance
Obs. resistance box (cm) BC =(100-1) X=R (00-)
R (cm)
(ohm) (ohm)
(5)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1
2.
3 X, =******

3 Least count of the screw gauge

Pitch of screw gauge = .....mm
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale
Pitch
L.C. of the given screw gauge circular scale
No. of divisions on the
=..... mm

Zero error, e =.... mm

Zero correction, c= -e =... nm
4. Table for diameter (D) of the wire Corrected
Observed diameter
Serial Linear Scale Circular Scale Reading D, = N+nxL.C. diameter
No. Reading N No. of circular Value
(mm) D= D, + c
ofObs. (mm) scale division on nx (L.C.) (mm)
reference line (n) (mm)
(4) (5)
(1) (2) (3a) (3b)
D, (a) = ...
D, (a) =
1 (a)
D, (b) = D, (b) = .....
(b)
D, (a) = D, (a) = ....
2 (a)
D, (b) = D, (b) = ......

(b)
D, (a) = D,(a) = ....
3 (a)
(6)
D, (6) = D, (b) =......
4. (a) D, (a) = D, (a) =...
(6) D, (b) = D, (b) =
 54 Comprekenstue Practical Physicsy
CALCULATIONS
1. Calculation for X

(a) From position of D, findlcm and write in column 3of Table F

(b) Find length (100 - ) cm and write in coBmn 4. hlo
() Calculate Xand write in eolumn 5.Table
Mean X X, +X, + X, +X4 ohm
4
2. Calculation for D

Mean corrected diameter

D, (a) + D, (6) +....+ D, (a) + D4 (b)
=...... InIn = ...... CIm
3. Calculation for Specific Resistance
Specific resistance of the material of the given wire,
p=X. TD?
4L
= ...... ohm-cm
= ..... ohm-mn
Standard value of the specificresistance of the
Po = ...... ohm-m
material of the given wire (if given),
Percentage error p-Po x 100
Po
=... %.

RESULT
1. The value of unknown
resistance, X=
2. The specific resistance of the
materialof the given wire =
3. Percentage error = ......

PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat, clean and
tight.
2. All the plugs in theresistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do
not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55
observations are to be taken.
cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error
of parallax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually
8. The wire should not make a loop. perpendicular directu

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The instrument screws may be
loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform
thickness.
4. The screw gauge may have faults like back lash error and wrong
pitch.
 55
Measurement of Resistance

EXPERIMENT 3
bridge.
AIM: To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre
APPARATUS
jockey,
a resistancebox, a
Ametre bridge, aLeclanche cell(battery eliminator), aagallvanometer,sandpaper andconnecting
resistance wires or two resistance coils known resístances, a set
square,
two
wires.

THEORY (100-) xR
) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by, r = the metre
andlisthe length of
the left gap
where Ris the resistance from the resistance box in
bridge wire from zero end upto balance point. their combined
resistance,
connected in series, then
(ii) When two resistances r, andr, are
R=r, +r,
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

(i) In series
E K

R
I
B

(100- 1)
80 90 100
60 70
Iuluuuluuluuluuuluuhuuluuluuduuluuluuluuuulululu
10 20 30 40 50

combination of resistances.
Fig. Series

(ii) Resistan ces in series

Fig. Resistances in series.

 56
Comprekenstue Practical|Physics-X
PROCEDURE

1 Mark the two resistance coils as r, and r,.

2 To find t, andr, proceed same way as in Experiment 1.
(If r, and r, are not
3 Connect the two coils r, and r, in series as shown in figure
in the right known.)
find the resistance of this combination. Take at least
three sets of
gap of metree
4. Record your observations as follows. observations. bridge and
OBSERVATIONS

Table for length () and

unknown resistance (X)
Resistance Serial Resistance Legth Length
coil No. of from the AD =1 DC= 100-1 Resistance
Obs. resistance (cm) (cm) Mean
box
R (ohm)
resi(ohm)
stamca
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 (6)
, only 2. (7)
3
1

r, only 2

3.
1.
r, and r, in 2
series
3.
R,=
CALCULATIONS
1. Calculation for r, only, K,
only, r, and r, in series.
Same as in Experiment 1.
2. Calculation for verification of laws
Experimental value of R,=...... S

Theoretical value of R, =r, t r,= ....

Difference (if any)
RESULT
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and
law of resistances in series is theoretical values of R, are same. Hen
verified.
PRECAUTIONS
Same as given in Experiment 1.
Measurement of Resistance 57

EXPERIMENT 4
AIM: To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using ametre bridge.
APPARATUS
jockey,
Ametre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a
connecting
tworesistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a set square,sand paper and
wires.

THEORY
(100-1)
x R
) The resistance () of a resistance wire or coil is given by, r =
length of the metre
where Ris the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and lis the
bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.
() When r, and r, are connected in parallel, then their combined resistance,

R=
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
) In parallel
E K

IY R

(100- )
60 70 80 90 100
40 50
uuluululuulunluhulunluuluuluuluuluuluulunluluuululu
10 20 30

D
A

Fig.Parallel combination of resistances.

(i) Resistances in parallel

Fig. Resistances in parallel.

 58
Comprehemstue Practical Physics
PROCEDURE

1 Mark the two resistance coils as r, andr,

2. To find r, and r, proceed same way as in Experiiment 1. (If r, and r, are not
3 Connect the two coils r, and r, in parallel as shown in figure in
the
and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets right
known)
gap of m
of metre br
4. Record your observations.
OBSERVATIONS
observations,
Table for length () and unknown
resistance (X)
Resistance Serial ResistaRce Length Length
coil No. of from the AD =l DC =100-1 Resistance
Observatino resistance (cm) (cm)
Mean
box
R (ohm)
resi(sothm)ano
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 (6)
(7)
r, only 2

3 .
1

, only 2.

1.

r, and r, in 2.
parallel
3. R,=.

CALCULATIONS
Calculation for verification of laws
Experimental value of R =
Theoretical value of R, =

Difference (if any)

RESULT

Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of R, are same. Hene
law of resistances in parallel is verified.

PRECAUTIONS
Same as in Experiment 1.
 Galvanometer, Ammeter and Voltmeter 85

EXPERIMENT 7
AIM: To,determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure
of merit.

APPARATUS
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 2and
200 2) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, arheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter of
givenrange, connecting wires and : a piece of sand paper.
THEORY

OThe resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method is given by

G=
R.S ...(1)
R-S
where Ris the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and Sis the shunt resistance.
..(2)
() The figureof merit, k=
(R+ G)0

where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and 0 is the defection produced with resistance K.
(i) The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer,
..(3)
I, = nk
where nis the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on either side ot 2ero
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

E
K,

IY E
K

R I
G

Kz
Fig. (a) Resistance of galvanometer. Fig. (6) Figure of merit.
 Comprehensiue Practical physics
86
PROCEDURE
galvanometer by half-deflection method
(a) Resistance of
accordingly as shown in circuit diagram
1 Make the connections
resistance boxes are tight.
See that all plugs of the
20002) from the resistance box R and
Take out the high resistance (say
3
only.
deflection is maximum, even in number and
insert the key
Adjust the value of R so that
4

5 Note the deflection. Let it

be 0. within the sca
6 Insert the key K, also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of
deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half 1the value obtained in S,
7. Note the value of resistance S.
step 5isuch.e., t&h)hy N
values of R
Repeat steps 4 to 7three times taking out different and
8.

(b) Figure of merit

adjustingSevery time
9. Take one cell of the battery (battery
eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a
connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter with voltmeter b
cell. Let it be E. 1-ve of the
10. Makeconnections as in circuit diagram.
11. Adjust the value ofR to obtain a certain deflection 0 (say 30 divisions) when
closed.
the circuit
12. Note the values of resistance R and deflection .
13. Now change the value of Rand note the galvanometer deflection again.
14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltages like 2,4,6
8, volts from battery eliminator.
15. Find the figure of merit k using the formula.
OBSERVATIONAND CALCULATION

1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half-deflection method

Serial No. Resistance Deflection Shunt Half Galvanometer
of Obs. R in the resistance deflection resistance
S RS
(ohm) Galvanometer G=
2 R-S
(ohm)
(ohm)

(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
 2. Table for figure of nerit
Serinl mo. Number of Figureofmerit
ofObs. cells B.m.f ef the cells Resietance Deflectien
R(V)er reading ef 8(div.)
(Battery battery elimineter
from R.B.
R(ohm)
k R+G
(1)
eliminater) (6)
(2)
(3) (4) (5)
1
2
3

Number of divisions in the

1. Calculation for G
galvanometer scale, n= ....
Table
Calculate G, using formula, G= RS
and write it in coBon 6 of TabBe
t.
R-S
() Take mean of values of Grecorded in
coBumn 6of Table
2. Calculation for k
@ Calculate k, using formula, k = E Table 2:
and write it in column 6of
(R+G)0
() Take mean of values of k recorded in eelwmn6 of Table 2

RESULT
1. Resistance of given galvanometer - ..... 2
2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer =A/div.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Allthe connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
should be introduced in the circuit
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R)
galvanometer Or
(otherwise for small resistance an excessive current will Aow through the
ammeter can be damaged).
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.
2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.