INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE | PRELIM REVIEWER | PROF.

TEE

LESSON 1: FORENSIC SCIENCE Criminal and civil laws – mainly on the

criminal side during.
FORENSIC SCIENCE criminal investigation – as governed by
the legal standards of admissible
evidence and criminal procedure.
● Forensic Science is the application of
science to law. Early Contributors to the Current
● It is the application of science to law and
justice. (PNPCL)
State of Forensic Science
● It is also known as Criminalistics.
MATHIEU ORFILA (1814)
(context of forensic science)
● In the broad modern context of forensic ● Wrote the first scientific paper on the
Science, it applies to courts or the detection of poisons
judicial system. ● Published articles on the classification of
● In its limited sense, it applies to the poisons
investigation and prosecution of crime. ● Detected poisons in body fluids, tissues
● In other words, forensic science means and organs which the process is now
applying scientific methods and known as Toxicology
processes to solving crimes. ● For his works, he is now known as the
“Father of Toxicology”.
(origin of forensic science)
● Forensic is based on a Latin word
“forensis” which means public ALPHONSE BERTILLON (1879)
discussion or debate.
● In this modern time, Forensic means ● Published his first book on
“pertaining to law”. “Anthropometry” – a personal
identification method based on 11 body
(why is it essential?) measurements.
● Because when it comes to cases of life ● This was the first system of personal
and death, objective evidence is crucial. identification used by the police.
● While key evidence in criminal cases ● After a famous case showed that two
may have come from witnesses or other different people had the same
subjective means in the past, forensic anthropometry measurements, the
science allows for objective evidence. system was abandoned and
● That means that forensic evidence, “fingerprints” became the preferred tool.
based as it is on the scientific method, is
seen as more reliable than even
eyewitnesses testimony. ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE (1887)
● In a judicial system which maintains that
the accused is innocent until proven ● Published his first Sherlock Holmes
guilty, evidence gathered by forensic novel: A Study in Scarlet.
scientists is now regularly used by both ● The exploits of his main character fuel
the defense and the prosecutor in many the public’s imagination and result in a
court cases. demand for the police to use more
science as part of their investigations.
(uses of forensic science)
● It helps the police solve crimes
● It helps the prosecutor in finding
probable cause
● It helps the court in convicting the guilty
and exonerate the innocent
INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE | PRELIM REVIEWER | PROF. TEE

FRANCIS GALTON (1892) ALBERTO OSBORN (1910)

● Published the book “Fingerprints” which ● Published the book “Questioned

helps police departments use Documents”, which explains the
fingerprints as a means of personal scientific analysis of a suspected
identification. document.
● In the book, Galton explains the many ● A questioned document is one of
different characteristics of fingerprints uncertain origin.
and how they can combine to form a ● The methods he developed are still in
unique print for each person. use today in the examination of
counterfeiting, alteration, obscuring, and
obliteration of written instruments.
HANS GROSS (1893)

EDMOND LOCARD (1910)

● Published the book “Criminal
Investigation” which shows how the
police can use science to help in ● Established a crime laboratory in the
criminal investigations. police department in Lyon, France.
● In it, Gross mentioned that many ● For his contribution to the field, he is
different scientific fields can be of use to referred to as the “Father of Forensic
the police. Science”.
● Hans Gross is considered by many to ● His observation that “Every contact
have been the first true criminologist. leaves a trace” is one of the guiding
● Father of criminalistics principles of Forensic Science.

PAUL JESERICH (1898) LEONE LATTES (1915)

● He developed “Forensic Chemistry” ● Discovered a method of typing dried

bloodstains.
● Based on the pioneering work of typing
KARL LANDSTEINER (1901) whole blood done by Karl Landsteiner,
Lattes developed a method to type dried
blood stains.
● Discovered the ABO Blood groups. ● The method is so sensitive that it has
been used to determine the blood types
of mummies.
THE U.S. BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION (1908)
FIRST CRIME LABORATORY IN THE U.S. (1924)
● BOI is formed with 34 agents
● BOI is now the Federal Bureau of
Investigation ● The first Crime Laboratory in the United
States is set up as part of the Los
Angeles Police Department.
INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE | PRELIM REVIEWER | PROF. TEE

THE BUREAU OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS (1925) LOCARD’S PRINCIPLE

● LOCARD’s Principle can best be stated

● New York City established the Bureau of
as:
Forensic Ballistics run by C.E. Waite,
● “Every contact leaves a trace”
Calvin Goddard, Philippe Gravelle, and
● It means that in every crime scene,
John Fisher.
there will always be trace evidence that
can be found.
CALVIN GODDARD (1929) ● LOCARD’s explained his famous
principle as:
○ “Whenever he steps, whatever
● Considered the “Father of Firearms he touches, whatever he leaves,
Identification”. even unconsciously, will serve
● He matched the bullets recovered from as a silent witness against him.
the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre to the Not only his fingerprints or his
weapons from which they were fired. footprints, but his hair, the fiber
● He established the use of comparison from his clothes, the glass he
microscopes for bullet identification. breaks, the tool mark he leaves,
● He is credited with making the first the paint he scratches, the
match of a bullet from a murder victim blood or semen he deposits or
with a suspect’s gun. collects. Physical evidence
cannot be wrong, it cannot
perjure itself, it cannot be wholly
BOI FORENSIC CRIME LABORATORY (1932) absent. Only its interpretation
can err. Only human failure to
find it, study and understand it,
● The U.S. Bureau of Investigation can diminish its value.”
established a Forensic Crime ● With this principle, Forensic Scientists
Laboratory that became the center of may use it to prove links between the
forensic analysis and research in the victim, the criminal, and the crime
United States. scene.
● In 1935, the BOI changed its name to ● Accordingly, the more violent the crime,
the Federal Bureau of Investigation the more likely that trace evidence has
(FBI). been transferred between the victim and
the perpetrator.
● When asked to help in an investigation,
PAUL KIRK (1953)
one of the first things he asked was the
suspect’s clothing.
● He hung the clothing over a clean piece
● Published the book “Crime
of white paper and carefully brushed it
Investigation”.
to remove any trace evidence adhering
to the fabric.
JAN EVANGELISTA PURKYNJE ● The physical evidence was then
analyzed and used to determine what
the suspect had been in contact with.
● Father of fingerprints
● Classified the types of fingerprints
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EDMOND LOCARD FORENSIC SCIENCE SPECIALIZATION

● first Forensic Scientist hired by the Lyon
(France) Police Department. He worked ● The first requirement for Forensic
initially in a make-shift laboratory at the Science graduates is to get employed in
attic of the Police Headquarters. a forensic/crime laboratory where he
● Using science to analyze physical can acquire experiences from forensic
evidence, the Lyon Police was able to scientists. After learning the general
solve many cases like: knowledge and skills on the various
1. The counterfeiting of gold fields of forensics, he may opt to choose
coins by analyzing metal what area he wants to specialize.
scrapings on the suspect’s ● Specialization may focus on ballistics,
clothing; questioned documents, forensic
2. A case of strangulation by photography, trace evidence analysis,
analyzing fingernail scrapings crime scene investigation, etc.
from the victim; and ● While working, he must continue to
3. Countless murder by undergo specialized training and
analyzing fingerprints. seminars on forensic science both local
and abroad, and aspired to become a
member of any forensic science
TRACE EVIDENCE
society/organization.
● The evidence from a crime scene that ● Possessing these qualifications, he may
cannot be discerned by the unaided eye be considered as a Forensic Scientist.
is called trace evidence.
● Examples are: Fibers, hair, soil, gunshot
residue, fingerprints on a glass, blood RESPONSIBILITIES OF FORENSIC SCIENTIST
drop on a shirt and pollen that may be
transferred between people, objects or
the environment during a crime. ● To analyze physical evidence and give
● These evidence are considered invisible the conclusions to the investigator;
clues to solve crimes, but need a ● To testify at a trial as an expert witness;
microscope or other sensitive and
instruments for analysis. ● To train people who collect evidence.

LESSON 2: SPECIALIZED CAREERS IN

FORENSIC SCIENCE ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

● As an analyst of evidence, the Forensic

How to become a FORENSIC SCIENTIST? Scientist must be an expert in some
scientific area that can be used in the
investigation of crime.
● In the past, most Forensic Scientists ● When evidence is brought to the crime
had college degrees in chemistry, laboratory, it is the role of the Forensic
biology or physics. Scientist to analyze it and give the
● They became experts in their field by conclusions to the investigator.
completing an apprenticeship program ● These conclusions could involve the
where they worked in a crime laboratory identification, comparison, probability,
with an experienced FS until they and reliability of the results.
learned their trade.
● Nowadays, many Forensic Scientists
graduate from college with specialized
4-year degrees in forensic science.
INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE | PRELIM REVIEWER | PROF. TEE

There is nothing worse for a forensic

TESTIFYING AS AN EXPERT WITNESS
scientist than to painstakingly go
through mountains of trace evidence,
● A Forensic Scientist testifies at a trial as spend hundreds of hours identifying and
an expert witness. comparing pieces that prove the suspect
● Experts are people with special guilty, and then have the whole thing
knowledge, skill, experience, training thrown out of court because the
and/or education that goes beyond the evidence was collected improperly at
experience of ordinary members of the the crime scene.
public. Unlike an ordinary witness, an
expert witness can give an opinion. BROAD CATEGORIES OF FORENSIC
● The court allows experts in the field to SCIENCE
analyze the evidence and explain the
results to the court so that they have a
better understanding of the significance Forensic Pathologist
of the results.
● It is important that the Forensic Scientist
explains what was done in a clear, ● Also known as Medical Examiner, a
concise manner and be able to support physician who is authorized to
the conclusions. investigate sudden, unexpected, violent,
suspicious, or unnatural deaths of
persons. Formerly known in the U.S.
TRAINERS FOR INVESTIGATORS and other countries as “coroner” who
may not be a physician.
● In the Philippines, his counterpart is the
● The Forensic Scientist can also be
Medico-Legal Officer who is a trained
asked to train police officers about
physician employing recognized forensic
evidence types, recognition, and
procedure and techniques to give
collection and the capabilities of the
assistance to PNP investigators as well
crime laboratory.
as to other government and other
● Evidence that was once thought to be
non-government investigative agencies
useless can now yield vital clues
through the conduct of autopsy, physical
because of advances in science.
examination and other related forensic
● It is the job of the Forensic Scientist to
examinations. (PNPCL)
keep the investigators in the field
● A Forensic Pathologist is a physician
current.
with specialized training in forensic
science and in determining the cause of
LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR FORENSIC death of a person.
SCIENTISTS ● He helps in the investigation by
providing information uncovered during
● Forensic Scientists can analyze only the examination of the body, particularly the
Physical Evidence brought to the Crime time of death.
Lab by investigators.
● So, it is imperative that investigators Forensic Toxicology
locate all the physical evidence that has
a bearing on the case and correctly
packaged and submit it to the Crime ● Forensic Toxicology is the study of
Lab. drugs and poisons in the body.
● Once at the Crime Lab, the Forensic ● A Forensic Toxicologist determines
Scientists can use their expertise to gain whether a substance is a drug or not,
as much information from the evidence poison or not, and identifies what kind of
as possible. drug or poison is the substance which is
● One of the fastest ways for an the subject of analysis.
investigator to lose friends at the Crime ● The results of the examination will help
Lab is to collect the evidence improperly. determine the laws violated.
INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE | PRELIM REVIEWER | PROF. TEE

Forensic Odontology Forensic Anthropology

● Forensic Odontology is the application ● Forensic Anthropology is the application

of the science of dentistry to police of anthropological knowledge to law. A
investigations. Forensic Anthropologist performs
● A Forensic Odontologist who is a dentist specialized examination of human
helps in positively identifying a body that skeletal remains or badly decomposed
is severely burned or disfigured through bodies for the purpose of identification.
dental records. ● He may be asked to help determine the
● Examples are victims of bombing, or an cause of death, sex, age, post mortem
airplane, or train accident where there is interval and race.
a large number of victims and the ● He can also reconstruct the facial
damage may preclude the use of characteristics of the skull to aid in the
fingerprints. He can also identify a identification process.
person through match bite marks to the
teeth of a suspect.
Forensic Psychology

Forensic Psychiatry
● Forensic Psychology is the interaction of
the practice or study of psychology and
● Forensic Psychiatry refers to the the law.
application of psychiatry to law. ● Most often, forensic psychologists work
● In the investigation of crime, a forensic in prisons, jails, rehabilitation centers,
psychiatrist who is a medical doctor can police departments, law firms, schools,
be asked to develop a profile of the government agencies, or in private
suspect based on all available evidence. practice to name a few.
● He can testify whether the suspect is ● Forensic psychologists also try to
competent to stand trial and is determine whether the defendant was
responsible for his actions. mentally stable or insane at the time the
crime was committed.
Forensic Entomology
Forensic DNA Analysis

● Forensic Entomology is the application

of the study of insects to law. ● DNA analysts are responsible for
● The blowfly is the first type of insect to analyzing evidence and identifying
arrive at a dead body as attracted by samples of DNA, such as blood, hair
body fluids and gasses given off by follicles, or other bodily fluids to link
decomposing bodies. It lays eggs within suspects with specific crime scenes.
two days after death, so its stage of ● DNA profiling is a forensic technique in
development – egg, larval stages, criminal investigations, comparing
pre-pupal or pupal stage, adulthood – criminal suspects’ profiles to DNA
will suggest how long the corpse has evidence so as to assess the likelihood
been lying undetected. of their involvement in the crime.
● The eggs are normally found in open ● Through forensic DNA analysis, the guilt
wounds and in the head orifices (nose, or innocence of a person who is
ears and mouth). investigated for a crime can be
● It is helpful in determining the time of determined.
death of a person.
● Bernard Greenberg is regarded as the
father of forensic entomology.
INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE | PRELIM REVIEWER | PROF. TEE

Digital Forensic Analysis U.S FEDERAL LABORATORIES

● Digital Forensics is a branch of forensic ● FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation -

science encompassing the recovery and DOJ) Laboratory
investigation of material found in digital ○ established in 1932 by Edgar
devices, often in relation to computer Hoover as the central forensic
crime. laboratory for the U.S.
○ All fingerprints collected by the
local police are sent to the FBI
Criminalistics as it is the central depository for
many different types of forensic
information.
● application of scientific methods to ○ Aside from fingerprints,
solving crimes. comparison standards for paint
● It is the science that develops a system samples, tire patterns, DNA,
of special procedures, methods, and bullets, explosives and fibers
means of collecting, studying and are but few of the resources
evaluating legal evidence used in available from the FBI.
criminal proceedings for the purpose of ○ On April 25, 2003, the FBI
preventing, exposing, or investigating opened a new state-of-the-art
crimes crime laboratory making it one
● It also involves the reconstruction of of the most capable full-service
such events by evaluation of the crime labs in the world.
physical evidence and the crime. ○ It is used by federal, state and
local police agencies of the U.S.
○ The laboratory has the
Integrated Fingerprint
LESSON 3: CRIME/FORENSIC Identification System (IAFIS)
LABORATORIES capable of doing computerized
search against all known
CRIME/FORENSIC LABORATORIES fingerprints in a matter of hours
and establishing the identity of
the individual.
● Crime Laboratories are scientific ○ It also developed the Combined
laboratories that examine physical DNA Indexing System (CODIS).
evidence in criminal and civil cases. ○ As a policy, only evidence that
● These laboratories generally use involves violent crimes from
forensic science to examine evidence. local and state agencies are
● After examination, they provide reports accepted by the FBI.
and opinion testimony, and present ○ Drugs Evidence is sent to the
before a court of law. State crime laboratory for
● Crime Laboratories in the United examination/analysis.
States ● USSS (US Secret Service) Laboratory
○ Crime Laboratories in the US ○ It specializes in the analysis of
are run at two levels of questioned documents whose
government: source is uncertain.
○ Federal crime laboratories ○ It focuses on counterfeiting of
○ State crime laboratories U.S. currency.
○ There are also privately-owned ○ It also analyzes ink and paper
Forensic laboratories that carry and determines if the document
out analyses for a fee. is genuine or fake.
○ It has complete collections of ink
samples.
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● DEA (Drug Enforcement FUNCTIONAL UNITS/ SECTION OF A

Administration) Laboratory CRIME LABORATORY
○ It specializes in the analysis of
drugs.
○ It can carry out special analyses CHEMISTRY UNIT
to determine side products,
solvents, impurities and starting
ingredients. ● The Chemistry section is often the
○ Through this, the laboratory can largest unit in the modern crime
determine the origin or laboratory and has the most personnel.
geographical location of an ● This unit possesses some of the most
illegal drug manufacturer. sophisticated and expensive equipment
○ It can also monitor patterns of such as a gas chromatograph-mass
drug trafficking and the spectrometer, which is used in analyzing
development of new classes of drugs.
illegal substances. ● This unit also has other instrumentation
● ATF (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and that is used for the analysis of trace
Firearms) Laboratory evidence, explosives, metal, paints, and
○ The best in the world at minerals.
analyzing physical evidence ● Equipment used in Chemistry Section
related to arson, explosives, ○ Gas Chromatography used in
firearms, tobacco and alcohol. the identification of chemicals.
○ • In partnership with the FBI, ○ Mass Spectrometer and Infrared
they have developed the Spectrometer are preferred
National Integrated Ballistic methods of analysis for organic
Information Network (NIBIN). samples like drugs.
○ This network can scan digitized ○ Atomic Absorption
images of bullets and cartridge Spectrophotometer and
casing into a computer. Inductively coupled Argon
○ The NIBIN database can identify Plasma Spectrophotometer are
the firearm evidence or link it to preferred methods of analysis
other crimes. for metals.
● PIS (Postal Inspection Service) ○ Scanning Electron Microscope
Laboratory is used in many areas of
○ It is concerned with crimes that forensics because of its ability to
involve the use of the U.S. mail. magnify objects to a much
○ This includes crimes such as greater extent than an optical
identity theft, mail fraud, letter microscope (analysis of gunshot
bombs and child pornography. residue).
○ In the case of a toxic substance
such as a letter containing ricin
or anthrax, the PIS can analyze PHYSICS UNIT
the envelope for the location
and identity of the criminal.
● The Physics section is often involved in
the reconstruction of crime scenes.
Crime Laboratory in the Philippines ● Through the use of Newton’s laws of
motion and the law of conservation of
1. PNP Crime Laboratory energy, a forensic physicist can
2. NBI Crime Laboratory reconstruct a car accident to determine
what happened and who was at fault.
● Lasers can be used to reconstruct a
shooting incident to determine who fired
which bullet.
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BIOSCIENCES UNIT PHOTOGRAPHY UNIT

● This unit is staffed by specially trained ● The photography unit has film and
biologists who analyze biological digital cameras to record the crime
materials for DNA. scene.
● The evidence can include blood, wood ● Infrared photography is also used in the
fragments, semen, saliva, skin, hair, and study of questioned documents and
other samples which can be positively bloodstained garments.
linked to a person by the DNA ● Video cameras are also used to obtain a
information contained in each cell. “walkthrough” view of the crime scene.
● This unit may also be asked to identify
various biological samples and carry out
extensive analyses of blood factors. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT UNIT

TOXICOLOGY UNIT ● Any document suspected of being

forged, altered, or counterfeit is sent to
the Questioned Document unit.
● The toxicology unit is focused on the ● There, experts can analyze ink,
analysis of body fluids, tissues and handwriting, printing, erasures,
organs to determine the presence of obliterations, and charred documents.
drugs or poisons. ● Counterfeit money and forged checks
● Samples are routinely sent to this unit can also be identified.
by a medical examiner as part of an
autopsy, and investigator for drug
examination. EVIDENCE COLLECTION UNIT

FIREARMS UNIT ● Many larger crime laboratories have a

specialized evidence collection unit.
● Trained evidence collection technicians
● The firearms unit test-fires suspect travel to the crime scene in specially
weapons into a bullet recovery tank/box equipped vans, sometimes mistakenly
so that by using a comparison called mobile crime labs. These vans
microscope one can link a bullet to a contain all the devices needed to
particular gun used in a crime scene. properly collect different types of
● A comparison microscope can also be evidence from a crime scene that might
used to match markings left on cartridge otherwise be missed.
cases by the firing pin, breech-block, ● For example, these vans carry special
extractor, or ejector of the weapon. vacuum cleaners used to vacuum the
crime scene for fiber evidence. The
fibers are collected on a white filter that
FINGERPRINT UNIT is then taken to the laboratory.

● The fingerprints unit can uncover prints

that are invisible to the naked eye (latent
prints).
● This can be accomplished by dusting,
chemical, ultraviolet, and alternate light
techniques.
● The prints can be manually classified or
scanned into an automated fingerprint
identification system.
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EVIDENCE SUBMISSION AND HOLDING UNIT

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

● Evidence taken to the crime laboratory 1. PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE

by crime scene investigators is logged in CRIME LABORATORY or PNPCL
by the evidence submission unit.
● This unit maintains the legal chain of 2. PHILIPPINE CRIMINAL JUSTICE
custody and is where the evidence SYSTEM (PCJS) PILLARS
submission form (a list of all the ● Law enforcement
evidence and what analyses are to be ○ Crime prevention and
done) is delivered. detection
● The evidence is kept in a secure, locked ○ Admissibility of
area and must be signed out for each evidence requires
analysis. relevance, material,
● It is not unusual to see all types of authenticity.
evidence, for instance in a vault. ● Prosecution
○ Upholding the rule of
law
Crime Laboratories in the Philippines ● Court/judiciary
○ Stage 1- collection of
1. PNP Crime Laboratory evidence
2. NBI Crime Laboratory ○ Stage 2- actual
3. CHR Crime Laboratory examination
4. NFSTI Crime Laboratory ○ Stage 3- report the
results
○ Stage 4- court
appearance
● Corrections/penology
○ Reforms and
rehabilitation
● Community
○ Elements that are
mobilized and
energized to help the
authorities in effectively
addressing the law and
order concern of the
citizenry.

3. Types of evidences
● Testimonial
● Documentary
● Physical
○ DNA, body fluids,
weapons, impressions

4. J.E.M.A
● Justifying
● Exemption
● Mitigation
● Aggravation

5. John Edgar Hoover

● First chief of FBI