1.

The Study of Ethics

Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos which means "characteristic way of acting". Its
Latin equivalent is “mores”, meaning "tradition or custom". Ethos includes cultural
mannerisms, religion. politics, laws, and social aspirations of a group of people. In our
study. ethos refers to those characteristics belonging to man as a rational being endowed
with intellect and free-will.

The ethos of man as man is revealed in the following:

1. He is able to distinguish between good and evil, right and wrong, moral and immoral.

2. He feels within himself an obligation to do what is good and to avoid what is evil.

3. He feels himself accountable for his actions, expecting reward or punishments for them.

In other words, man is endowed by nature with a moral sense. He is self-conscious of his
dignity and submits to the duty of doing what is good and avoiding what is wrong. This
much is expected of man: that he conducts himself according to the "dictates of reason".

Ethics, its meaning

Ethics is defined as the science of the morality of human acts. And because actions reflect
the motives of the doer, Ethics is said to be the study of human motivation, and ultimately,
of human rational behavior. That aspect of the subject matter which primarily interests
Ethics is morality.

Human Acts are those actions performed by man, knowingly and freely. They are also
called deliberate or intentional actions, or voluntary actions. As such, they are differentiated
from the so called acts of man which are instinctive and involuntary.

Morality is the quality of human acts by which they are constituted as good, bad, or
indifferent. That which is good is described as moral; that which is bad is immoral, and that
which is indifferent is amoral,
Human acts reveal the thoughts and inclinations of the person doing them. They are then
manifestations of one's character or moral conduct. A person who has the habit or
inclination to do good is said to be virtuous. On the contrary, one who has the habit of
doing wrong is vicious.

Ethics as Value Education

In the classical tradition, Ethics is Moral Philosophy and is distinguished from Moral
Theology. As a branch of philosophy, Ethics solely relies on human reason to investigate
truths. Moral Theology, on the other hand, employs reason insofar as it is enlightened by
faith or divine revelation.

In contemporary curriculum, Ethics takes the form of Value Education. A value is

something a person prizes, cherishes, and esteems as important to him. It includes ideas,
things, or experiences. The aim of Value Education is to guide the individual in choosing
wisely his values and in acting upon them. Ethics is the rational foundation of any attempt
at Value Education.

Ethics goes deeper into the reasons why we must choose certain values. Ethics explains
human values in relation to the ultimate purpose of human existence.

The Art of Correct Living

Art, in general, is the appreciation of beauty. It implies order and harmony of parts in a
given whole.

Human life does not imply merely physical survival, It is a vocation towards the refinement
of the spirit. The demands of daily life includes and derives meaning from the cultivation of
those traits that truly reflect man's innate dignity. In this context, Ethics is an art. It is the
breath of life, pulsating with the desire for growth and development. It is a master plan
indicating where man must go and what he ought to do in order to live well. In a sense,
every man is an artist, creating something of beauty out of himself.

Importance of Ethics
Ethics is an indispensable knowledge. Without moral perception, man is only an animal.
Without morality, man as rational being is a failure. Because moral knowledge is too
essential to be dismissed, the Creator has seen it fit to gift man with the natural insight of it.
No matter how rudimentary and vague, the primitive has it. And a modern man, finding
convenient reasons to turn his back from it, discovers that he is in the center of it.

Moral integrity is the only true measure of what man ought to be. The most powerful king,
or the most successful professional, is nothing unless he too is morally upright. Thus, the
philosophers speak of Ethics as the "only necessary knowledge". "We are tempted to
center everything on human happiness", says Jacques Leclercq. "forgetting that man's
greatness, perfection and happiness, his whole meaning in fact, consist in transcending the
commonly accepted human good". (Christianity and Money, p. 9)

Morality is the foundation of every human society. Rightly, Russell observes that "without
civic morality, communities perish; without personal morality their survival has no value".
Every culture admits the importance of morality as a standard of behavior. When the moral
foundations of a nation are threatened, society itself is threatened. In the words of Senator
Leticia Ramos Shahani:

"At the bottom of our economic problems and political instability is the weakness and
corruption of the moral foundations of our society. We do need an economic recovery
programme. We also urgently need a moral, intellectual and spiritual recovery programme."
(Nick Joaquin, "The Pinoy X-rayed", Philippine Daily Inquirer)

Two Ethical Systems

There are two general categories under which ethical theories may be classified: the
atheistic and theistic approaches.

1. The Atheistic approach assumes that only matter exists and that man is responsible
only to himself since there is no God who creates and rules the universe. Morality is an
invention of man to suit his requirements and to preserve his society. Moral truths are
therefore temporary and mutable depending on the situation. Accordingly, the concept
Atheistic theories propose the following principles:

1. Matter is the only reality.

2. Man is matter and does not have a spiritual dimension.
3. Man is free and must exercise his freedom to promote the welfare of
society.
4. There is no life after death.
5. Man is accountable only to the State.

2. The Theistic approach begins with the assumption that God is the Supreme Lawgiver.
Everything must conform to God's eternal plan of creation. Man must exercise his freedom
in accordance with God's will. There are absolute principles of morality which are not
changeable. Man is accountable for his actions and deserves either a reward or
punishment in this life or in the next.

Theistic theories postulate the following truths:

1. God is the Supreme Creator and Lawgiver.

2. Man has an immortal soul which cannot die.
3. Man is accountable for his actions, both good and evil.
4. Man is free and must use his freedom to promote his personal and social
interests along with his fellowmen.

Ethics and Religion

Ethics is a science and depends upon rational investigation of its truths. Religion is a
system of beliefs and practices based on faith of revelation.

Ethics teaches the value of religion, presenting it as a duty to the Almighty. Religion, on the
other hand, as an organized church, contributes to the teaching of ethics and continues to
enrich with it its moral insights. Thus, religion provides both the direction and motivation for
the moral life of people. While different religions give different emphasis to different moral
values, they coincide in their efforts to improve both man and human society. All great
religions, for instance, hold life in deep respect and propose universal brotherhood as
necessary for global peace and prosperity.
Ethics and Law
Ethics studies human motivation. It goes deeper than the study of external actions. It
explores thoughts and feelings. It requires that man desires that which is good and acts in
accordance with that desire. On the contrary, law requires that we perform the required
action regardless of our feelings towards such action. The law is concerned with the
externality of the act. "For law is definitely concerned", says Mortimer J. Adler, "with what
we do, not with what we feel". (Ethics: The Study of Moral Values. VI)

Ethical norms cover thoughts and feelings. Laws do not judge man's thoughts and desires.
In the Ethics of St. Paul, for example, a man commits adultery when he regards a woman
lustfully. This is not the case with law which requires an external act as proof that a crime
has been committed.

Morality therefore, has a wider implication than law, because law can either be moral or
immoral. Thus, what is legal is not necessarily moral; but what is moral is necessarily worth
legalizing.

Ethics is not simply a body of do's and don'ts in the manner laws are. Ethics is a personal
commitment to uphold what is true and good. Ethics aims to develop "right disposition and
inner spirit" for accepting what is lawful. (Bemard Haring, The Law of Christ, vol. I Mereien
Press, Calc,1960, p. 42-43).

Professional Ethics
The practice of a profession cannot be regulated entirely by legislation. Each profession
therefore subscribes to a set of moral codes. This Code of Ethics guides the actuation of a
professional where the law is silent or inadequate.

A Code of Ethics implies that, before anything else, a professional is a person who has the
obligation to listen to the "dictates of reason". The need for it is obviously to the advantage
of the profession. Many businessmen, for example, do realize that "honest business"
translates to "good business". The public patronizes firms that are perceived to be
reputable. The Code of Ethics For Business proposed by the Bishops -Businessmen's
Conference for Human Development, Philippines. provides:

Towards the Customers, business shall, in the production of goods and services:

 strive after a quality that will enable them to serve their purpose efficiently and effectively;
 avoid anything that would be detrimental to the health, safety or growth of the proper user or
beneficiary of such goods and services;
 and seek to apply or make use of the discoveries and inventions of science with adaptations
that will improve their products or services, thereby benefiting customers/users and
increasing their number.

In its marketing arrangement, business shall:

 -deliver the product or service in the quality, quantity, and time

-agreed upon, and at a reasonable price, and avoid the creation of artificial shortages, price
manipulation, and like practices;

-establish an after-sales and complaints service commensurate to the kind of product or service
supplied and the prices paid;

-ensure that all mass media, promotional, and package communications are informative and true, and
take into account the precepts of morality and the sound cultural values of the community, and manifest
respect for human dignity. (p. 5).

2. The Human Acts

Man no doubt is creative because he possesses tremendous bodily and spiritual powers.
Every minute of his life, he acts, transforming himself and the world around him. Action
constitutes a person, an individual in control of himself and accountable to himself. What a
person is and what becomes of him depend largely on the type of actions he performs
during his life-time.

Human Acts
Distinction is made between human acts and acts of man. The human acts are those
actions which man performs knowingly, freely, and voluntarily. These actions are the result
of conscious knowledge and are subject to the control of the will. We refer to these actions
as deliberate, Intentional, or voluntary.

The acts of man are those actions which happen in man. They are instinctive and are not
within the control of the will. Such actions are the biological and physiological movements
in man such as, metabolism, respiration, fear, anger, love, and jealousy.

Essential Attributes
For an act to be considered a human act, it must possess the following characteristics:

1. It must be performed by a conscious agent who is aware of what he is doing and of its
consequences. Children below the age of reason, the insane, the senile are considered
incapable of acting knowingly.

2. It must be performed by an agent who is acting freely, that is, by his own volition and
powers. An action done under duress and against one's will is not entirely a free action.
3. It must be performed by an agent who decides willfully to perform the act. This
willfulness is the resolve to perform an act here and now, or in some future time.

Human acts must, therefore, be knowing, free, and willful. The lack of any of these
attributes renders an act defective and less voluntary.

Kinds of Human Acts

Human acts are either elicited acts or commanded acts. Elicited acts are those performed
by the Will and are not bodily externalized. Paul Glenn enumerates the following
elicited acts

ELICITED:
1. Wish is the tendency of will towards something, whether this be realizable or not. The
object of wishing may include the impossible, or, that which is remotely possible, such as
winning the sweepstakes.

2. Intention is the tendency of the will towards something attainable but without
necessarily committing oneself to attain it. Such is our intention to study the lesson, to
attend a party, or to spend a vacation in Baguio.

3. Consent is the acceptance of the will of those needed to carry out the intention. Thus,
a woman is said to show consent when she consciously attracts attention to herself.

4. Election is the selection of the will of those means effective enough to carry out the
intention. A salesman shows election when he opts to visit a client instead of just writing
him a letter.

5. Use is the command of the will to make use of those means elected to carry out the
intention. It is this act of the will which moves the salesman to dress up and take a ride to
see his client.

6. Fruition is the enjoyment of the will derived from the attainment of the thing he had
desired earlier. The joy of the woman on being complimented for her attractiveness, or, the
satisfaction of the salesman in closing a deal with his client-is fruition.

COMMANDED:
Commanded acts are those done either by man's mental or bodily powers under
the command of the will. Commanded acts are either internal or external actions.

Examples of internal actions are conscious reasoning, recalling something, encouraging

oneself, controlling aroused emotions and others. Examples of external actions are
walking, eating, dancing, laughing. listening, reading and others.

Some actions are combinations of internal and external movements such as listening.
reading, studying, reading, driving a car, writing a letter, or playing chess. (Paul Glenn,
Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy. Herder Book Co., reprint National Bookstore,
Inc., Mla, 1965, pp. 7-8)

Moral Distinctions
Human acts may either be in conformity or not with the dictates of reason. "Dictates of
reason" refers to the shared consciousness of prudent people about the propriety of a
certain action or manner of behavior. It shows what is permissible in a given situation, the
best option as a matter of fact.

"Dictates of Reason" stands for the norm of morality which is the standard by which actions
are judged as to their merits or demerits. On the basis of their relation to the norm of
morality, actions are classified into moral, immoral, or amoral.

1. Moral actions are those actions which are in conformity with the norm of
morality. They are good actions and are permissible. Working, studying,
paying a debt, telling the truth, loving a friend-are moral actions.
2. Immoral actions are those actions which are not in conformity with the norm
of morality. They are bad or evil and are not permissible. Refusing to help
the needy, committing murder, adultery, stealing. telling lies-are immoral
actions.
3. Amoral actions are those actions which stand neutral in relation to the norm
of morality. They are neither good nor bad in themselves. But certain amoral
actions may become good or bad because of the circumstances attendant
to them. Playing basketball is an amoral act, but playing basketball when
one is supposed to be attending a class is wrong. Playing basketball out of a
sense of duty to the team is good.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Evil

The relation of actions to the norm of morality is either intrinsic or extrinsic. Something
is intrinsic to a thing when it is integral to the nature of that thing. The sweetness of a
mango fruit is, for example, intrinsic but the appeal of a mango to a particular person is
extrinsic to it, that is, such quality is not an integral element of it as fruit.
Some actions are intrinsically evil because their nature is defective either by excess or by
lack of certain attributes. Such, for example, is the nature of stealing which, by nature,
manifests lack of respect for the property of another.

Some other actions are extrinsically evil because certain factors attached to them by way
of circumstances render them opposed to the norm of morality. Drinking liquor is
extrinsically evil when done in excess.

Actions that are intrinsically evil are prohibited at all times and under any circumstance.
Actions that are extrinsically evil may be tolerated provided the circumstance rendering it to
be wrong is first removed. Suicide is intrinsically evil and remains immoral whatever is its
justification. Therapeutic abortion is extrinsically evil when it is resorted to as a necessary
means to safeguard the life of the mother.

Imputability of Human Acts

A human act is done by a person who is in control of his faculties: intellect and will. In this
sense, a person is like the captain of a ship who assumes full responsibility and
accountability for his decisions.

The imputability of a human act means that the person performing the act is liable for such
act. It involves the notion of guilt or innocence. Thus, actions are either praiseworthy or
blameworthy. Actions are attributed to the doer as their principal cause. (Paul Glenn: pp.
121-123)
Sanctions and Penalties
Imputability implies that the doer is either deserving of reward or punishment. This is a
basic requirement of justice.

The penal laws of our country provide for a system of punishment for crimes, ranging from
simple fines to imprisonment. The capital punishment, that is, death penalty, is reserved for
"heinous crimes".

Unless also prohibited by the laws of the State, immoralities are not given corresponding
legal punishments such as fines or imprisonment. The Bible, however, speaks of death as
the punishment for "sins". Though the Old Testament interprets this as death by execution,
it refers more to spiritual death or suffering.

A form of spiritual death is the loss of peace of mind, the only genuine happiness possible
in this life. Medical science and psychiatry also show that many diseases, both mental and
physical, are caused by spiritual disorientation. Indeed, many of the human sufferings we
see and experience are the direct results of immoral situations. For example, an immoral
person risks losing his honor, his job, and his family. He also runs the risk of being
ostracized. On the other hand, the world looks up to a man of integrity. Peace,
contentment, and honor are but some of the rewards coming to an upright person.

Voluntariness
Read the Story:

A Collision of Wills
The elevator doors slid shut, enclosing Mark, Sarah, Ethan, and Alex in a
confined metal box. A power outage plunged them into darkness. The
emergency lights flickered to life, casting eerie shadows on the tense faces.

Mark, the epitome of control, immediately took charge. With a calm voice, he
assessed the situation, suggesting they conserve battery power and remain
quiet. His actions were a clear demonstration of perfect voluntariness.

Anne, her anxiety amplified by the darkness, began to panic. Her rapid
breathing and trembling body were a stark contrast to Mark’s composure. The
darkness was a trigger, and she found herself reliving past traumas. Her
actions, driven by fear rather than reason, exemplified imperfect voluntariness.

John, usually submissive, felt a surge of unexpected courage. He calmed Anne

with a gentle touch, offering words of reassurance. This was a side of him rarely
seen, a product of the crisis forcing him to step out of his comfort zone. His
actions displayed elements of conditional voluntariness.

Alex, the observer, remained calm. The situation was an inconvenience, but it
didn't disrupt his inner peace. His acceptance of the circumstances was a
testament to simple voluntariness.

As the minutes ticked by, the initial shock wore off, and the true nature of their
interdependence became apparent. Mark’s leadership, Anne's vulnerability,
John’s courage, and Alex's equanimity were all essential in navigating this
crisis.

Voluntariness comes from the latin word "voluntas", referring to the Will. Voluntariness is
essential to an act. Without it, an act is a mere act of man. We distinguish between perfect
and imperfect, and conditional and simple voluntariness.

1. Perfect voluntariness is present in a person who fully knows and fully intends an
act. A man who, wanting to get even, takes a gun and shoots his enemy is said to be
acting with perfect voluntariness.

2. Imperfect voluntariness is present in a person who acts without fully realizing what
he means to do, or without fully intending the act. A drunken man might act irrationally
without fully realizing what he is doing; or, a woman, in terror, might jump out of a window
without fully intending to kill herself.

3. Conditional voluntariness is present in a person who is forced by circumstances

beyond his control to perform an act which he would not do under normal conditions. A
child who is intimidated by his mother to study the lesson is acting with conditional
voluntariness.

4. Simple voluntariness is present in a person doing an act willfully. regardless of

whether he likes to do it or not. It is either positive or negative. It is positive when the act
requires the performance of an activity, such as polishing the floor, paying rent, or playing
tennis. It is negative when an act requires the omission of activity, such as not taking
prohibited drugs. remaining quiet, or not listening to the radio. (Paul Glenn: 13-18)

Types of Voluntariness
We distinguish further between direct, and indirect voluntariness.

1. Direct voluntariness accompanies an act which is primarily intended by the doer,

either as an end in itself or as a means to achieve something else. Eating lunch is carried
on with direct voluntariness. The same directness accompanies many of our daily activities
such as going to school, inviting a friend to a movie, reading a book, or writing a note.

2. Indirect voluntariness accompanies an act or situation which is the mere result of a

directly willed act. Getting a failing mark is indirectly voluntary on the part of the student
who has willingly neglected to study.

To apply this concept to the hotel and restaurant industry, consider these examples:

A chef who overworks themselves to achieve a Michelin star: The direct choice is to work
excessively, and the indirect consequence might be burnout or health issues.

A restaurant manager who cuts corners on food quality to reduce costs: The direct choice is to
compromise quality, and the indirect consequence could be a decline in customer satisfaction and
business.
 A hospitality employee who doesn't follow safety protocols: The direct choice is to disregard
safety measures, and the indirect consequence could be an accident or injury.

In each of these cases, the individual is making a conscious decision that has unintended
consequences. These consequences are indirectly voluntary because they are the result of a deliberate
action.

It's important to note that while the consequences might be unintentional, they are still a result of a
choice. This can be a valuable lesson for students in the hotel and restaurant industry, as it emphasizes the
importance of considering the long-term implications of their actions.

Indirectly Voluntary
A person is accountable for his actions and their consequences. But is he also accountable
for results not directly intended?

Generally speaking, a person is liable for the results which are foreseeable by an ordinary
act of prudence. The prankster who shouts "fire" inside a crowded place has certainly
some inkling that his joke might cause fear, panic, stampede and injury to people.

Paul Glenn considers a person accountable for indirectly voluntary results of his acts when:

1. The doer is able to foresee the evil result or effect, at least, in a general
way;
2. The doer is free to refrain from doing that which would produce the foreseen
evil;
3. The doer has a moral obligation not to do that which produces an evil effect
(Ibid. 18-19).
4. Alfredo Panizo cites these principles: (Ibid. 38-39).
5. A person is held morally responsible for any evil effect which flows from the
action itself as a natural consequence, though the evil effect is not directly
willed or intended.
6. A human act from which two effects may result, one good and one evil, is
morally permissible under four conditions. If any of these conditions is
violated, then the action is not justifiable and should not be done.
These four conditions are:

1. The action which produces double effects must be good in itself, or at least morally
indifferent.

2. The good effect must not come from the evil effect. To do evil in order to achieve
something good is not justified.

3. The motive of the doer must be towards the attainment of the good. The evil effect is
permitted only as an incidental result.

4. The good effect must outweigh the evil result in its importance.

These principles and conditions find application in the so called "therapeutic abortion"
where the direct intention is the saving of the mother's life with the incidental result of
aborting the fetus.

3 The Modifiers of Human

Acts
The ideal is for man to act deliberately, that is, with perfect voluntariness. This is not
always possible though. Oftentimes, a certain degree of doubt or reluctance accompanies
an act. At other times, emotions hold sway, propelling action with the swiftness of an
impulse.

Factors that influence man's inner disposition towards certain actions are called "modifiers"
of human acts. They affect the mental or emotional state of a person to the extent that the
voluntariness involved in an act is either increased or decreased. This is significant
because the accountability of the act is correspondingly increased or decreased.

We cite this principle: The greater the knowledge and the freedom, the greater the
voluntariness and the moral responsibility. (Panizo: 38)

The Modifiers
Man does not act in a vacuum. He is an organism responding and

reacting to stimulus. His total make-up is the sum of all experiences. His personal
background, education, social upbringing, political persuasion, religion, and personal aims
contribute largely to his development and behavioral preferences.

Authors point to the following as modifiers of human acts; (1) Ignorance, (2) Passions, (3)
Fear, (4) Violence, and (5) Habit. There are other modifiers which are worth discussing but
for the limitation of this book, such as, hypnoticism, brainwashing, mental conditioning, and
cultural imposition.

Ignorance
We are familiar with the saying. "Ignorance of the law excuses no one". This implies that
one should not act in the state of ignorance and that one who has done a wrong may not
claim ignorance as a defense.

Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess. A lawyer is

expected to know his law; the doctor, his medicine, and the manager, his business
operations. In the realm of morals, everyone of age and reason is expected to know at
least the general norms of good behavior

Ignorance is either vincible or invincible Vincible ignorance can easily be reminded through
ordinary diligence and reasonable efforts. The ignorance of a visitor regarding a particular
address in a certain place is vincible, since he can easily ask for information from a
policeman or pedestrian.

Invincible ignorance is the type which a person possesses without being aware of it, or,
having awareness of it, lacks the means to rectify it. The ignorance regarding missing
persons or objects is often invincible. Sometimes, too, a person acts without realizing
certain facts. Thus, a cook might be unaware that the food he is serving is contaminated.

Under the category of vincible ignorance is the affected ignorance. This is the type which a
person keeps by positive efforts in order to escape responsibility or blame. It is affected
ignorance when an employee refuses to read a memo precisely so that he may be
exempted from its requirement. (Glenn: 26-27).

Principles:

1. Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary. A person cannot be held morally liable if
he is not aware of his state of ignorance. A waiter who is not aware that the food he is
serving has been poisoned cannot be held for murder (Glenn: 32).

2. Vincible ignorance does not destroy, but lessens the voluntariness and the
corresponding accountability over the act. A person who becomes aware of the state of
ignorance he is in has the moral obligation to rectify it by exercising reasonable diligence in
seeking the needed information. To act with vincible ignorance is to act imprudently. A
waiter who suspects that the food he is serving has been faced with poison has the moral
obligation to ascertain the fact or, at least, forewarn the guests about his suspicion (Glenn:
33).

3. Affected ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness, increases the accountability over

the resultant act Insofar as affected ignorance interferes with the intellect, it decreases
volumariness. But insofar as it is willed to persist, it increases accountability. Certainly,
refusing to rectify ignorance implies malice. And the malice is greater when ignorance is
used as an excuse for not doing the right thing. Thus, a child who refuses to be guided by
his parents has only himself to blame for his wrongdoing

Passions
Passions, or concupiscence, are either tendencies towards desirable objects, or
tendencies away from undesirable or harmful things. The former are called positive
emotions, the latter, negative emotions. The positive emotions include love, desire, delight,
hope and bravery. The negative emotions include hatred, honor, sadness, despair, fear
and anger.

Passions are psychic responses. As such, they are neither moral or immoral. However,
man is bound to regulate his emotions and submit them to the control of reason.

Passions are either antecedent or consequent. Antecedent are those that precede an act.
It may happen that a person is emotionally aroused to perform an act. Antecedent
passions predispose a person to act. Thus, love may induce one to make numerous and
lengthy phone calls to his sweetheart, or, to plot the murder of a rival..

Principle:

Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but they diminish accountability
for the resultant act. Antecedent passions weaken the will power of a person without,
however, completely obstructing his freedom. Thus, the so called "crimes of passion" are
voluntary. But insofar as passions interfer with the freedom of the will, one's accountability
is diminished (Panizo: 33).

Consequent passions are those that are intentionally aroused and kept. Consequent
passions, therefore, are said to be voluntary in cause, the result of the will playing the
strings of emotions. Thus, a young man may deliberately arouse himself sexually by
reading pomographic magazines Or a victim of injustice may intentionally nurse his
resentment towards his tormentor. The young man who commits lasciviousness after
arousing himself sexually and the fellow who commits vengeance due to his cultivated
resentment are both morally accountable.

Principle: Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, but may even increase
accountability. This is because consequent passions are the direct results of the will which
fully consents to them instead of subordinating them to its control (Ibid.).

Fear
Fear is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by an impending danger
or harm to himself or loved ones. Distinction is made however between an act done with
fear and an act done out or because of fear.
Certain actions which by nature are dangerous or risky are done with varying degree of
fear. Climbing a cliff, flying an airplane through a storm, diving for pearls, or arresting a
notorious killer- are examples of acts performed with fear. In these cases, fear is a normal
response to danger. Such actions are voluntary, because the doer is in full control of his
faculties and acts inspite of his fear.

Fear is an instinct for self-preservation. We even fear new experiences or situations such
as, embarking on a long journey, being left alone in a strange place, or being asked to
speak before a group of people. But doing something our of fear, or because of it, is
entirely different. Here, fear becomes a positive force compelling a person to act without
careful deliberation.

The child reads his book out of fear of the mother, the employee volunteers to work over-
time out of fear of being fired by the boss; a friend stops smoking out of fear of contracting
cancer. These examples show how actions are done because of fear. Fear modifies the
freedom of the doer, inducing him to act in a certain predetermined manner, often without
his full consent.

Principles:

1. Acts done with fear are voluntary. A person acting with fear is acting in spite of his fear
and is in full control of himself.

2. Acts done out of fear, however great, is simply voluntary. although it is also conditionally
voluntary. (Glenn:41) It is simply voluntary because the person remains in control of his
faculties, including that of moderating fear. It is also "conditionally involuntary" because, if it
were not for the presence of something feared, the person would not act, or would act in
another way. (Ibid.: 41)

3. Acts done because of intense fear or panic are involuntary. (Ibid.) Panic completely
obscures the mind. In this mental state, a person is not expected to think sensibly. Thus, a
person in a state of panic might jump from the 12th floor of a burning building. Such act is
not considered a suicide, since it is done involuntarily. Panic causes a person to lose
complete control of himself.

Intimidating or threatening a person with harm is an unjust act. Legally speaking, actions
done out of fear are invalid acts. Thus, contracts entered into out of fear are voidable,
meaning, they can later an be annulled. It is grossly unfair to oblige any person to fulfill a
contract obtained by force or threat. (Ibid.: 42)

Violence
Violence refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the
purpose of compelling said person to act against his will. Bodily torture, maltreatment,
isolation, and mutilation - are examples of violence against persons.
Principles

1. External actions, or commanded actions, performed by a person subjected to violence,

to which reasonable resistance has been offered, are Involuntary and are not accountable.
(Ibid.: 43)

Active resistance should always be offered to an unjust aggressor. However, if resistance

is impossible, or if there is a serious threat to one's life, a person confronted by violence
can always offer intrinsic resistance by withholding consent; that is enough to save his
moral integrity. (Panizo:37)

2. Elicited acts, or those done by the will alone, are not subject to violence and are
therefore voluntary. (Ibid.)

The Will insofar as it is a spiritual faculty is not within the reach of violence. History carries
the story of thousand heroes who had suffered death instead of surrendering their will to
that of their tormentors. On the contrary, we consider them villains or weaklings, those who
succumbed and consented to the wishes of tyrants. But we may not be too harsh on them,
since every man has his own limit of endurance. "Violence of force", says Bernard Haring,
"in any instance, if bound up with the refined cruelty of present-day methods of
psychological torture, can constitute a serious temptation and often also contribute towards
a notable diminution of inner freedom." (Haring: 108)

Habits
Habit, as defined by Glenn, "is a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated
acts, for acting in a certain manner." (Ibid.: 43) Habits are acquired inclinations towards
something to be done. They assume the role of a second nature, moving one who has
them to perform certain acts with relative ease.

The word "habit-forming" that we use to refer to certain experiences shows how easy it is
for one to acquire a habit. It also implies that a habit is not that easy to overcome or alter. It
requires a strong-willed person to correct a habit successfully within a limited period of
time. Thus, alcoholics and smokers find it almost impossible to reform.

Principle

Actions done by force of habit are voluntary in cause, unless a reasonable effort is made to
counteract the habitual inclination. (Ibid.: 44)

Habits are either good or bad. We speak here of bad habits which lead to immoral actions.

Habits are voluntary in cause, because they are the result of previously willed acts done
repeatedly as a matter of fact. Thus, every action emanating from habit is said to partake of
the voluntariness of those previous acts. Therefore, for as long as the habit is not
corrected, evil actions done by force of that habit are voluntary and accountable. When a
person decides to fight his habit, and for as long as the effort towards this purpose
continues, actions resulting from such habit may be regarded as acts of man and not
accountable. The reason, as pointed out by Glenn, is that the cause of such habit is no
longer expressly desired.

(Tbid.: 45)

Action and Emotion

Man does not act the way a robot does without feeling or emotion.

In doing his act, man does not only evoke certain sentiments, but his decision or
intention to perform is swayed by his emotions. One who loves to sing does not only sing
with "feelings" but is moved and motivated to sing when the occasion is there. Emotions
are generally instinctive in origin. Neither the degree of their intensity, clarity, or awareness
makes them human acts to be judged as good or evil. They become good or evil by the
attitude of the person manifesting them. A person who nourishes his feeling of hostility
towards another is more prone to acquire the motive for inflicting harm on the object of his
hatred. This is not to say that man is helpless in the tide of his emotions and that man's
responses to action are emotionally motivated. It means simply that man's thoughts and
actions are colored by his emotions. The psychological and moral aspects of the inner life
of man are expressed positively by the affections of love, kindness, humility, reverence,
justice, and purity. These have a vitalizing, purifying, enriching effect. Here we have
psychic energies which in some manner precede every decision and influence it. They are
an intimate approval of their object, a "purposeless" confirmation of their worth. The
negative dispositions tend toward disdain and denial (as though to blot out the very
existence of the object of hatred, disdain, envy), repudiation, disruption. But it is possible
that the objective goal (perhaps a person) of these dispositions is totally unaffected by
them. Again, they may be brushed aside or overcome. Nevertheless, in every instance, by
a kind of inner compulsion, they exert a direct and immediate influence on the subject
himself. The tendency is ever present to promote, to vitalize, or, is the effect be baneful, to
scorn and isolate. And it is also true that in every instance the effect on the subject is
greater. More surely and more vehemently is the subject of emotions affected than the
object to which they are directed. Emotions make up the very heart of man, from which
come both good and evil. (Bernard Haring, The Law of Christ. Vol. 1. Mercier Press, Cork,
1960, p. 199.

Refinement of Emotions
Ethics deals with emotions as factors affecting human motivation and behavior. Instead of
repressing them, it calls for their refinement. This means that man is expected to act not
only with his mind and body, but precisely with his heart and soul. Thus, for instance, the
Decalogue does not merely command that we love God, but adds to say "with all your
heart and with all your soul".
In the purest sense, doing good for another is not a virtue unless it comes from the "love"
of what is good. Any other motive is inadequate regardless of the merits of the assistance
offered. It is possible indeed to extend a loan to a friend and this-grudgingly.

In like manner, mere external obedience to a law is cold and hypocritically convenient. The
ethical expectation is to enter into the spirit of the law and to accept it with humility and
respect.

"It is evident", says Bernard Haring, "that education, through proper discipline and
cultivation of emotional life (in which we include the cultivation of the values of character
and disposition), is in many ways more significant than the tense straining of will power."
(Ibid.) Indeed, the aim of ethics is not to tum man into an efficient machine to do things.
Rather, it hopes to transform man by inner spiritual conversion.

Moral perfection comes from within. We, Filipinos, refer to it as "kagandahan ng loob". It is
"loob" because it radiates from within the human personality.