MOBILE NETWORK:

1G or (1-G) refers to the first generation of cellular network technology. These are the analog
telecommunication standards that were introduced in 1979 and the early to mid-1980s and continued
until being replaced by 2G digital telecommunications.

The second generation mobile network

The 2G of digital mobile phones, as well as the first digital mobile networks, arrived in the 1990s. The
mobile telecommunications sector grew exponentially in terms of customers and value-added services
(VAS) throughout the second generation. Limited data support is available on 2G networks, rising from
9.6 kbps to 19.2 kbps Mishra [2007]. From 1982 to 1985, members of the global system for mobile
(GSM) group, which was initially hosted by the European conference of postal and telecommunications
administrations (CEPT), debated whether to construct an analog or digital system.

Apart from making phone calls, the system grew more user-friendly by adding a variety of services.
Voice mail, short message service (SMS), call waiting (CW), and other services were available.

The higher quality of digital voice and low-cost options to communicate, such as text messaging, have
been the primary advantages of GSM networks. Because the open standard enables easy
interoperability, network operators have been able to install equipment from many providers. In this
section, an overview of the GSM network’s architecture with its different subsystems and the functions
of each one, the different processes that happen within the network such as handover and roaming, all
the iterations of 2G such as GPRS, and EDGE. The upgrades that were made to the architecture and,
most importantly, the process of the network optimization are thoroughly taken into consideration.

GSM Architecture

The main 2G PLMN subsystems are: • The mobile station (MS): There are specific entities that used by
mobile users to access many services. This latter is made up of a number of important components: –
Mobile equipment (ME): Or, as they’re more often known, cell phones, which are the only GSM
terminals that enables users to access the GSM network. – Subscriber identity module (SIM): gives a
unique identity to mobile equipment. Certain subscriber characteristics, as well as the subscriber’s
personal data, are saved on the SIM card. The subscribers are identified by the SIM card in the network.
Before using the phone, customers must enter a 4-bit personal identification number (PIN) to secure the
SIM card from unauthorized usage.
– International mobile station equipment identity (IMEI): It is a unique serial number used to identify
mobile stations all around the world. The equipment manufacturer assigns it, and network operators
record it in the equipment identification registry (EIR). The IMEI is a hierarchical address that consists of
the following components: (i) Type approval code (TAC): Six digits, it is typically associated with the
cellular modem or module. (ii) Final assembly code (FAC): Identifies the location of the last production
stage and consists of two digits. (iii) Serial number (SNR): Consists of six digits, assigned by the
manufacturer. (iv) Spare (SP): Consist of one digit. Figure 1 depicts the main components of the IMEI
number.

– International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI): Each subscriber obtains a unique identification called
IMSI upon registering for service with a network operator, which is registered in the SIM. The mobile
equipment with a valid IMEI works properly if the SIM card with a valid IMSI is plugged in it.

– Mobile subscriber ISDN number (MSISDN): The MSISDN is the MS’s actual phone number. It is
assigned to the subscriber; hence one MS is able to have many MSISDNs based on the SIM card. The
MSISDN and IMSI association registered in the home location registry (HLR) must be known before the
subscriber identification can be derived from the MSISDN.

– Mobile station roaming number (MSRN): Is a temporary integrated service digital network (ISDN)
number that changes based on the location. It is assigned to each MS in its territory by visitor location
registry (VLR), the MSRN is used to route MS calls. On request, the MSRN is sent from the HLR to the
gateway mobile switching (GMSC).

• The base station subsystem (BSS): Is primarily responsible for connecting the mobile devices to the
network. It is made up of two parts: – Base transceiver station (BTS): The radio transmitter receivers, as
well as their accompanying antennas, are part of the BTS in a GSM network, they broadcast and receives
signal to connect to the mobile directly. Each cell is defined in a specific BTS. The BTS exchange
communication with the mobile phones through the Um interface, which has its own set of protocols

– Base station controller (BSC): Controls the radio subsystem, specifically the BTSs. The main roles of
the BSC are the radio resources and handover management. It is also responsible for managing the
power control. It controls the signaling, and the security of the operation and maintenance (OM)
subsystem. The BSC uses the Abis interface to connect with the BTSs Pattem [2022].

• Network switching subsystem (NSS): Handles call switching between mobile and other fixed or
mobile network users, as well as mobile service administration such as authentication. The NSS system
includes the following functional elements:

– Mobile switching center (MSC): Is the most important component of the entire GSM network
architecture’s core network area. It functions similarly to a standard switching node in a public switched
telephone network (PSTN) or an ISDN, but adds capabilities to satisfy the needs of mobile users such as
authentication call location, call routing and subscriber location, inter-MSC handover, and registration. It
also plays the role of a gateway to the PSTN, enabling mobile communications calls to be routed from
the PLMN to a PSTN. It connects to other MSCs, allowing calls to be established to mobile phones on
various operators.

– Home location register (HLR): It’s a database that stores all the subscriber’s administrative
information as well as their last known location. The MSC may then route calls to the appropriate BTS
where the MS is located. When a user turns on their mobile, it registers with the network, allowing the
BTS that it connects, to be identified and the incoming calls is then routed correctly to the appropriate
subscriber.

Although it may be deployed over several sub-centers for operational reasons,

each network can has only one HLR Mishra [2007].

– Visitor location register (VLR): It comprises information from the HLR that permits and provides

the visitor subscriber’s services. Although the VLR can be designed as a distinct entity, it is more

implemented done as an integrated element of the MSC, this improves access by making it faster and

more efficient.

– Equipment identity register (EIR): Is the authority that decides whether to allow certain mobile
devices

into the network. Every mobile device has a number called IMEI. As described previously, this number is

installed in the device and checked by the network during registration. Based on the information stored
in

the EIR, the phone can be assigned one of three states - allowing access to the network, blocking access,

or monitoring if something goes wrong.

– Authentication center (AuC): Is a database that stores the secret key, which may also be found on the

user’s SIM card. On the radio channel, it’s utilized for ciphering and authentication.

– Gateway mobile switching center (GMSC): Is the first point to which a ME terminating call is routed,

even if the MS’s location is unknown. As a result, the GMSC is responsible for getting the MSRN from

the HLR based on the MSISDN and routing the call to the proper visiting MSC.

• Operation and support subsystem (OSS): Is a supervision component of the overall GSM mobile
communications network architecture, it is linked to NSS and BSS. It is utilized to regulate and monitor
the whole GSM

network, as well as supervise the BSS’s traffic load. The three major functions of OSS are:

– Maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with a particular market.

– Manage all charging and billing procedures.

– Manage all mobile equipment in the system.

Standard interfaces were created to guarantee that networks could be constructed using
components from various manufacturers. This ensured that they communicated in the same way
regardless of the manufacturers. Table 1 shows the interfaces in the GSM network.
The handover in GSM

One of the most important features of a mobile phone or cellular telecommunications system is that it is
divided into numerous small cells in order to maximize frequency reuse and coverage. However, it must
be feasible to maintain the connection while the phone goes from one cell to the next. The procedure is
called as handover or hand-off. The handover process within any cellular system is very important. This
is a critical process that can result in lost calls if not switched correctly. Calls drop are especially
annoying to users, and when the number of calls drop rise up, customer dissatisfaction increases and
they may probably to switch to another network. Therefore, GSM handover is a field of special concern
in the standard development process. Figure 3 shows the steps of handover process. When one
subscriber moves from blue cell to the green cell, the handover process launched to maintain the call.
Different types of handover

For GSM-only systems, there are four forms of handover that may be conducted inside the GSM system:
• Intra-BTS handover: This type of handover happens when a mobile phone’s frequency or slot needs to
be changed due to interference. In this type of GSM handover, the mobile phone stays connected to the
same BTS, but the channel or slot is switched.

Inter-BTS intra BSC handover: It happens when a mobile phone leaves the area of one BTS and goes to
another managed by the same BSC. Before releasing the link between the former BTS and the MS, the
BSC can launch the handover and allocate a new slot in a new channel.

• Inter-BSC handover: It happens when the mobile leaves the range of cells mastered by one BSC, the
MS passed from one BTS to another BTS that belong to another BSC. The MSC is in charge of this
handover in this case.

• Inter-MSC handover: This type of handover occurs when mobile leave MSC area to another MSC area,
the two concerned MSC negotiate to master the handover.

Roaming

Roaming permits mobile users to automatically send and receive data, attempt to send and receive calls,
or exploit other GSM services while traveling outside the geographic coverage area of their network via
a visiting network. Authentication, billing, and mobility management procedures support roaming. This
latter, called domestic, when visiting and home networks are in the same country, otherwise, it called
international roaming. The inter-standard roaming happens when the visiting and home networks use
different technical standards. Roaming in GSM, allows mobile subscribers to utilize a single number, a
single bill, and a single phone in as many as 219 countries

GSM radio transmission

Frequency bands in GSM

GSM network occupies two frequency bands at around 900 MHz, which are: • Up-link: From 890 to 915
MHz.

• Down-link: From 935 to 960 MHz. Each bandwidth is divided to 125 channels (each channel is 200
KHz). These channels are not sufficient in urban areas, so it’s necessary to attribute an additional band
(DCS 1800) which has the same characteristics as the GSM 900 band in terms of protocols and services.
DCS occupies two frequency bands around 1800 MHz, which are:

• DCS Up-link: From 1710 to 1785 MHz.

• DCS Down-link: From 1805 to 1880 MHz.

GPRS

For 2G cellular systems, GPRS provided a packet data capability, allowing GSM to evolve to include a
data capability. Additional network entities must be added to the overall architecture for the latter
purpose; three of the most important are the GPRS gateway service node (GGSN) and the serving GPRS
support node (SGSN), and the packet control unit (PCU) .
• SGSN: Provides a variety of services focused on the IP parts of the overall system. It offers a wide range
of mobile services, including: Packet routing and transfer, mobility management, authentication,
charging data.

• GGSN: Is a critical component of the GPRS network design. It can be thought of as a hybrid of a
gateway, router, and firewall. When the GGSN receives data addressed to a specific user, it first verifies
that the user is online before sending the data.

• PCU: Which is connected to the BSC, is a hardware router. It converts data for the standard GSM
network (circuit switched data) to data for the GPRS network (GPRS data) and vice-versa.

Handover

Cause of handover problems:

• Improper handover settings: The expected solution is to adjust the cell coverage parameters, adjust
the cell reselect offset (CRO), or expand or adjust the TRX configuration between high and low traffic
cells.

• Faulty hardware: The expected solution to monitor transmission and advisory alarms, check if a
transmission disconnection occurred and for faulty advisory cards, or adjust the synchronization.

• Other causes: The expected solution is to change the frequencies to avoid signaling failures due to high
interference on the TCH, adjust antennas (tilt and height), or rewiring the cables between the TRX and
antenna.

The third-generation mobile network system

Introduction

From the second generation, which is entirely digital and includes features such as SMS. The third
generation (3G) of mobile technology was introduced to handle faster data rates and services such as
mobile television, video calls, and so on. The UMTS has been significantly enhanced and offers
broadband speeds far beyond the original design. These high-speed enhancements are referred to as
high-speed packet access (HSPA). The totally redesigned radio access network (AN) in UMTS standard,
was the primary enhancement of UMTS in this initial stage compared to GSM. A new technology known
as wide-band code division multiple access (WCDMA) was invented instead of using Um interface’s time
and frequency multiplexing capabilities. The eighth release of the third-generation partnership project
(3GPP) specification series included the first version of LTE. It was able to take advantage of the most
up-to-date knowledge and technological developments from HSPA and HSPA+. Consumers can perform
tasks on a smart device as efficiently as if they were connected to broadband in their home or office. In
this section, you’ll learn about the architecture of UMTS network, including all of their subsystems and
their functions, as well as the various processes that occur within the network, such as handovers, and
the WCDMA concept used to develop the networks. The architecture enhancements and changes, and
most importantly, the network optimization process that brought UMTS.
UMTS Network

The radio transmission standard for UMTS is the wideband code WCDMA. Many of the concepts used in
GSM have been carried over and improved for UMTS. The SIM card has been changed into a universal
SIM card (USIM). Furthermore, the network has been constructed such that the GPRS and EDGE
advancements may be applied to UMTS. As a result, the needed investment is maintained to a
minimum. The GSM-inspired core network (CN) topology composed of two user-traffic-dependent
domains which are packet switch (PS) and circuit switch (CS) domains. For both the GSM and UMTS
access networks, the CS and PS domains manage their relevant traffic types in parallel. All circuit-
switched traffic for the UMTS and GSM access networks is handled by the CS domain, which consists of
MSC and GMSC entities. Similarly, the PS domain, which is made up of the GPRS access network, is
responsible for all PS traffic for both GPRS and UMTS, which consist of SGSSN and GGSN entities. In
terms of data flow and connection, the UMTS also has a structure that separates the protocol stack from
the relevant network entities Kukushkin [2018]. For subscriber administration, mobile station roaming
and identification, and managing diverse services, both PS and CS domains utilize the features of the
common legacy network entities such as the HLR in conjunction with the EIR and AuC. As a result, the
HLR contains subscriber information for GSM, GPRS, and UMTS.

UTRAN: Also known as the radio network subsystem (RNS), is made up of two main components:

– Node-B: It is the UMTS network’s base station, and its primary function is to process signal processing
in the Uu interface that performs interleaving, adaptation rate, spreading, channel coding, radio
resource management (RRM), and power control Kukushkin [2018].

– Radio network controller (RNC): This element manages the radio resources as well as the NodeBs that
are connected to it. Call admission control, RRM, code allocation, power control, packet scheduling,
handover management, and CS domain encryption are all handled by the RNC.
The handover in UMTS

There are different types of handover in WCDMA:

• Hard handover: The term hard handover refers to a "hard" change that occurs during subscriber
movement from one area to another. The radio links are ruptured from the last cell to the current cell
for hard handover. • Soft handover: The term soft handover happens when the UE is in overlapping
coverage area of two cells. soft handover occurs. The UE can establish links to both base stations at the
same time, allowing it to communicate with both and combine them using the UE’s signal processing
module’s radio activated key entry (RAKE) receiver capability. The latter process is only possible in
downlink; in uplink, only the best signal is chosen. Having multiple links active during the handover
process makes the process more reliable and smoother.

• Softer handover: The term softer handover happens when the UE can receive signals from two sectors
mastered by one Node B. This can happen because the sectors overlap, or more commonly because of
multi-path propagation caused by reflections from buildings, etc. The signals received by Node B, as well
as the signals from the two sectors, can be routed to the same RAKE receiver in the uplink, where they
can be combined to provide an enhanced signal. The different types of handover in UMTS are illustrated
and compared in Figure 7. • Inter-RAT handover: In many cases, switching from the UMTS radio AN to
the 2G network is required. Because they are handing over between different types of RAT, these
handovers are referred to as Inter-RAT ( or I-RAT) handovers.

The fourth-generation mobile network system

Overview of the LTE network LTE’s main goal is to provide a higher data rate than UMTS, as well as low
latency and packet-optimized radio access technology that allows flexible bandwidth deployments. At
the same time, its network architecture was created with the goal of supporting packet-switched traffic
while maintaining high quality of service and mobility. When compared to previous cellular systems, LTE
has introduced many new technologies. These latter allow LTE to operate more efficiently in terms of
spectrum utilization while also delivering higher data rates that are requires:

• OFDM: It is the signal format for LTE, it allows a high data bandwidth to be transmitted efficiently
while remaining resistant to interference and reflections. Since the traffic was carried on a several
number of carriers, the system was able to cope even if some were lost due to interference from
reflections, the uplink and downlink had different access schemes.

• Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA): It has many advantages including its
robustness in the face of multipath fading and interference. It is used in the downlink, but in the uplink,
a single carrier frequency division multiple access (SCFDMA) instead because the peak of average power
ratio of SC-FDMA is lower than that of OFDMA, which will extend battery life.

• Multiple input multiple output (MIMO): The multi-path signals could be used to advantage and
increase throughput by using MIMO. When using MIMO, multiple antennas are required to distinguish
between the different paths.

• System architecture evolution (SAE): While the term "LTE" refers to the evolution of UMTS radio
access via the evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN), the term "SAE" refers to the evolution of non-radio aspects
such as the evolved packet core (EPC) network. The evolved packet system (EPS) is made up of LTE and
SAE. To route IP traffic from a gateway in the packet data networks (PDN) to the UE, EPS employs the
concept of EPS bearers. Between the gateway and the UE, a bearer is an IP packet flow with a defined
quality of service (QoS). Together, the E-UTRAN and EPC set up and release bearers as needed by
applications.

• IP data: LTE is a completely IP-based data system. Circuit switched voice was included in UMTS, but it
is not included in LTE. Originally, it was thought that operators would provide data and that voice would
be delivered via over-the-top (OTT) applications. To address this, the GSM-Association (GSMA)
established the voice over LTE (VoLTE) scheme as the industry standard. The construction of an IP
multimedia subsystem (IMS) core was necessary for VoLTE, but it cost delayed the rollout of this
functionality.

UE

The internal architecture of LTE user equipment is similar to that of UMTS. The following important
modules were included in the UE:

• Mobile termination (MT): It manages all aspects of communication.

• Terminal equipment (TE): It disconnects the communication stream.

• Universal integrated circuit card (UICC): For LTE equipment, this is referred to the USIM card. This
latter is similar to a 3G SIM card in that it stores user-specific data, such as the user’s phone number,
home network identity and security keys, ...etc.

The E-UTRAN

The eNodeB or eNB, are the single component of the E-UTRAN, and they manage radio communications
between the UE and the EPC. Each eNB controls mobile devices as a base station for one or more cells.
The base station that communicates with the mobile is known as the serving eNB. LTE Mobile only
connects with one base station and one cell at a time, and the eNB provides two basic roles:
 • Using the LTE air interface’s digital signal and analogue processing functionality, the eNB sends and
receives radio transmissions to all mobiles.

• The eNB manages all the low-level operations of the mobiles by sending them signaling messages such
as handover commands.

LTE core network

It is made up of components that perform tasks such as mobility authentication, management, quality
of service, download and upload IP packet routing, and IP address allocation, among others. The EPC’s
flat IP architecture enables the network to efficiently and cost-effectively handle large amounts of data
traffic, and it’s made up of:

• Mobility management entity (MME): It manages all signaling between the UEs and the EPC, as well as
between the eNodeBs and the EPC. The MME’s signaling is also known as NAS signaling because it is
done using the NAS protocol. Through the S1-AP interface, the MME connects to the eNodeB and
performs authentication. It establishes a connection with the HSS and orders the authentication
information for the user attempting to join the network. The functions of the MME are as follows: –
Authentication: After exchange the authentication information between the HSS and the UE, UEs can
authenticate to the network. – Mobility management: Allows subscribers to move around the network
or between networks. – Location update: tracks the subscriber’s current location and state within the
network. – Bearer establishment: If more gateways are available, bearers are established by
determining on a gateway routes to the Internet. – Handover support: Enables inter-eNodeB handover
(for handover on the S1 interface). – While the eNodeB has handover capabilities, when the X2 interface
is unavailable, the MME sends handover messages between eNodeBs. The MME is also in charge of
generating and allocating temporary identities to UEs, as well as terminating NAS signaling. It verifies the
UE’s permission to camp on the PLMN of the service provider and enforces UE roaming restrictions. The
MME is the network’s ciphering/integrity protection and security key management termination point for
NAS signaling. It also advocates for the legal interception of signaling. With the S3 interface terminating
at the MME from the SGSN, it provides the control plane function for mobility between 2G/3G access
and LTE ANs. For roaming UEs, the MME also terminates the S6a interface to the home HSS.

• Home subscriber server (HSS): Stores the SAE subscription of the user, including the EPS-subscribed
QoS profile and any roaming access restrictions. It also contains data on the PDNs to which the user has
access. An access point name (APN) or a PDN address could be used. Furthermore, the HSS stores
dynamic data such as the MME’s identity to which the user is currently connected or registered. The HSS
can also include the AuC, which generates authentication and security key vectors.

• Serving gateway (SGW): When the UE moves between eNodeBs, the S-GW serves as the local mobility
anchor for the data bearers, transferring all user IP packets. When the UE is idle, it saves information
about the bearers and temporarily buffers downlink data while the MME initiates UE paging to re-
establish the bearers. The SGW collects data for legal interception and charging. It also acts as a mobility
anchor for other technologies like UMTS and GPRS, allowing them to communicate with each other.

• Packet data network gateway (P-GW): Is in charge of assigning IP addresses to UEs, charging and QoS
enforcement based on PCRF rules. The P-GW is in charge of filtering downlink user IP packets and
distributing them to the various QoS-based bearers. This is done using traffic flow templates (TFTs). For
guaranteed bit rate (GBR) bearers, the P-GW performs QoS enforcement. It also acts as a mobility
anchor for non-3GPP technologies like CDMA2000 and WiMAX networks, allowing them to
communicate with each other.

• Policy and charging rules function (PCRF): Is housed in the P-GW, it is responsible for policy control
decision-making as well as controlling the flow-based charging functionalities. The PCRF provides the
QoS authorization that determines how a particular traffic data will be handled in the PCEF and
guarantees that it is consistent with the subscription profile of the user