BOTANY OF ECONOMIC CROPS

CSP 204

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COURSE CODE: CSP 204
CSP 204 (BOTANY OF ECONOMIC CROPS)
Course Outlines
- Structure and function of plant cell, tissue and organs. The stems,
roots, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds.

- Photosynthesis

- Respiration

- Translocation of materials

- Plant growth and development

- Plant classification

- Agriculturally important plant families

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 THE CELL
The simplest form of life is the cell and all living things, plants inclusive, are made up of
cells. Organisms with single cell are said to be unicellular, while those with many cells are said
to be multicellular.

The cell itself is defined as the simplest structural and functional unit of life, bounded by a
membrane and containing nuclear and cytoplasmic materials

Representative Plant Cell

1. Cell wall

The outer boundary of the cell is called the cell wall. It is made up cellulose, hemicelluloses and
pectin. Lignin is present in certain cases. The cell wall is absent in animal cells.

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Functions;

i) Protection of the entire plant cell from mechanical injury

ii) Provision of structural support

iii) Confer shape on individual plant cell

STRUCTURE OF CELL WALL

2. Cell membrane or Plasma membrane.

It is a thin layer of lipid and protein (lipoprotein bi-layer) which is semi or selectively permeable.

Functions:

i) Connection of the protoplasm with the external environment

ii) Transportation of required materials into the cell interior

iii) Protection of the entire cell components

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STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE

3. Plasmodesmata:

These are openings across the cell membrane and the wall. They allow for intercellular
communication and exchange of materials and also connects the various cells within a plant with
each other.

4. Nucleus:

This is made up of the nucleolus and chromatin thread. (Chromosome). The nucleus also houses
the DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and several proteins. The membrane surrounding the nucleus
has pores called nuclear pores and this allows for the transportation of regulatory
macromolecules and gene product from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

Functions:

i) Regulation of the cell cycle

ii) Reproduction, in form of cell division

iii) Transfer of the genetic blueprint from parent cells to daughter cell each time new cells are
formed

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STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEUS

5. Vacuole:

It is a membrane bound organelle and the membrane is called tonoplast. In animal cells,
vacuoles or contractile vacuoles, as they are sometimes called, are numerous and small in size. In
plant cells however, it is large and usually centrally located. It contains a viscous liquid made up
of water, minerals and sugar.

Functions:

i). Storage of some cellular products

ii). Excretion of nitrogenous wastes

iii). It helps to maintain the shape of plant cells

iv). Secretion of certain cellular components

5. Plastids.

These are discoidal or spherically shaped bodies which are highly specialized in function and
are bounded by a double membrane. The central portion, the matrix, contains a proteinaceous
material and is called stroma. The stroma has embedded within it several granules called grana.
The most common types of plastids in plants cells are;

(a) Chloroplast. This contains green pigments called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll, which is made
up of chlorophyll a (blue-green), chlorophyll b (yellow-green), carotene (orange-red) and

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xanthophylls (yellow), occur abundantly in the leaves and in green stems, although at a lesser
concentration.

Function: It traps sunlight energy and brings about light and dark reactions which leads to the
synthesis of glucose as the first primary productivity. This process is called photosynthesis.

(b). Leucoplast. It is colourless and are found mostly in storage cells, such as those of
parenchyma.

Function: The principal function is the conversion of sugar to glucose for storage. Sometimes,
leucoplast can become specialized as starch storing body with very large size. In such cases they
are called amyloplasts. The term elaioplast is used to describe leucoplast that are specialized to
form and store fat.

(c). Chromoplast. This contains xanthophylls ( yellow) and carotene ( orange red) and are found
mostly in the petals of flowers and sometimes in the young and newly formed leaves of some
dicotyledonous plants.

Function. It impart colours on flowers and helps to attract agents of pollination, such as insects
and birds.

6. Endoplasmic reticulum.

This is made up of an elaborate and extensive system of network that is usually connected with
the nuclear membrane. If the membrane of the reticulum is arranged in a tube-like fashion
without the attachment of ribosomes, then it is referred to as smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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(SER). If the membrane appears flattened and disc-like with numerous ribosomes attached to it,
it is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).

Functions:

i). Protein synthesis and transportation within the cell (RER)

ii).Carbohydrate metabolism (SER)

iii). Biosynthesis of lipid (SER)

iv). Detoxification of harmful chemicals that find their way into the cell.

7. Ribosome.

It can be very small in size but very numerous. It is made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
proteins. The can occur freely in the cell or found attached to endoplasmic reticulum.

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Functions.

i).They are involved in the translation of DNA and cell division by reading the information
contained in the messenger RNA (mRNA)

ii). Protein synthesis.

8. Golgi body.

The Golgi body or Golgi apparatus, as it is sometimes called, is a network of numerous

membranous stacks called cisternae within which enzymes and proteins are formed.

Functions.

i). Processing of polypeptides produced by ribosome into protein

ii). Packaging and distribution of proteins to various parts of the cell

iii). Facilitate the release of enzymes and hormones out of the cell

9. Lysosome.

It is a very small spherical body found scattered within the cytoplasm. The interior of lysosome
is highly acidic and also contains degradative or lytic enzymes called hydrolases.

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Functions.

i).They help to break down or digest old and unwanted macromolecules within the cell

ii). They confer defense on the cell by digesting intruding pathogenic organisms like bacteria,
viruses and fungi

iii) Repair of cell membrane

iv). They are involved in the self-destruction of aged cells

It is important to point out that lysosomes do malfunction sometimes. At such times, the content
is released prematurely and healthy cells are destroyed. Little wonder the lysosome is sometimes
called a SUICIDE BAG.

10. Mitochondrion.

The mitochondrion is sometimes referred to as the power house of the cell. It is surrounded by a
double membrane with the inner membrane thrown into folds called cristae (crista sing.).
Reactions of respiration occur within the matrix.

Functions.

i). Reactions of the Krebs’s cycle (tissue respiration) occurs within it, leading to the generation
of energy in form of ATP from the breakdown of pyruvic acid.

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ii). It helps to initiate the self-destruction process in cells by releasing a set of proteins which it
harbours.

STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRION
11. Microbodies.
They are extremely small in size and are surrounded by a single membrane. Numerous
microbodies occur in a typical plant cell and examples includes; peroxisomes and glyoxysomes.
Functions.
i). Degradation of the cell
ii). They help to breakdown fatty acids within the cell to form hydrogen peroxide which are then
decomposed by catalyse enzymes
iii). They bring about seed germination by ensuring that carbohydrate is made available to the
growing region through the conversion of lipids in the cell to carbohydrate.
12. Microtubules.
These have straight tubular cylinder with hollow.
Functions.
i). They form a major skeletal framework of the cell ii). Synthesis of the cell wall
iii). They are involve in cell division.

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 TISSUES
A tissue is a group of cells having a common origin, with the same or different shapes
and is specialized to perform a particular function. Examples of tissues in plant includes;
Collenchyma, Parenchyma, Phloem, Xylem, etc. Tissues are classified into two major groups
namely:
1. Meristematic tissues
2. Permanent tissues

1. Meristematic tissue (Meristems)

These are tissues made up of cells that are actively dividing. They are essentially alike,
with thin and homogenous cell walls. The cells are filled with dense and active protoplasm. The
nuclei in the cells are prominent. Vacuoles are either very small or absent.

Classification of meristematic tissues

On the basis of certain factors, meristematic tissues are classified in three (3) major ways:
(i) Based on the origin and development. Tissues could be classified into 3 groups
(a) Promeristem (primordial meristem)
(b) Primary meristem
(c) Secondary meristem
(ii) Based on their position in the plant body:
(a) Apical meristem
(b) Intercalary meristem
(c) Lateral meristem
(iii) Based on their functions
(a) Protoderm meristem
(b) Procabium meristem
(c) Ground (Fundamental) meristem

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(i)First classification
(a) Promeristem
It occupies a small portion at the tip of the stem and the root. It represents the youngest
stage of a grown organ. By cell division, it gives rise to the primary meristem.
(b) Primary meristem
This is essentially the growing apical region of the stem and the root. It is derived from
the promeristem. The cambium of the stem (which is lateral) is also a primary meristem.
(c) Secondary meristem
It is lateral, lying along the side of the stem and root. The cambium of the root, the
interfascicular cambium of the stem and their cork cambium are all secondary meristem.
All lateral meristem (primary and secondary) are responsible for the increase in the girth
of the plant body.

(ii)Second classification
(a) Apical meristem
This is found at the apex of the stem and the root i.e the growing regions. It includes the
promeristem and the primary meristem. It is responsible for growth in length of the plant body.
With regards to the apical meristem, three theories have been put forward to explain its
composition.
(i)Apical cell theory
It was put forward by Mageli in 1985 – Here, Mageli explained that the apical
meristem is made up of a single cell.
(ii)Histogen theory
(b) This was proposed by Hanstein in 1870 – In his own explanation, he pointed out
that the Mersistem is made up of three zones, namely: - (i) Dermatogen
(ii) Periblem (iii) Plerome
The dermatogen is on the outermost layer, followed by the periblem and the inner portion
is the plerome.

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(ii)Tunica-corpus theory
This was advanced by Schmidt in 1924. Here, the apical meristem theorized to
consist of just two (2) zones. The Tunica which gives rise to the epidermis and the
Corpus which gives rise to the tissues
(b) Intercalary meristem
Whenever it occurs, it is usually found between permanent tissues, either at the base
of the leaf (as in pine) or at the base of the inter-node (as in grasses and equisetum) or below the
node e.g Mentha. It is a portion of the apical meristem, but has become separated as a result of
the growth of the organ on which it is found. Over time, it usually disappears or become
transformed into permanent tissues.
(c) Lateral meristem: - (Already discussed under secondary meristem above) lateral meristem,
both primary and secondary, are responsible for the growth of the girth, that is the increase in the
diameter of dicotyledonous plants.
(iii) Based on functions
(a) Protoderm: - This gives rise to the epidermal tissue system which is usually a layer of cell in
thickness and having protective functions.
(b) Procambium: - Gives rise to the vascular tissue system such as the xylem and phloem
(c) Ground (fundamental) meristem: Gives rise to the ground tissue or cortex and includes
such tissues as collenchymas and parenchyma

2. Permanent tissues
These are made up of cells that have lost the ability to divide having attained their
definite forms and sizes. Such cells may be living or dead, thin-walled or thick-walled.
Permanent tissues are formed by differentiation of the cells of the meristems. Based on the
origin, there are two (2) types of permanent tissues viz: -
(a) Primary Permanent tissue: These are derived from the apical meristems of the stem and
the root.
(b) Secondary Permanent tissues: - These are derived from the lateral meristem. i.e
differentiated cells from the cambial layers.

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Types of permanent tissues.
All the cells of a particular plant have a common origin and are therefore more or less
similar in form in the early stage of their lives. As the division of labour increases however,
these cells gradually assume, various forms and give rise to permanent tissues which may be
classified as simple, complex and secretary tissues.
(a)Simple tissues

(i) Parenchyma
It occurs in all the soft parts of plants. Its cells are isodimetiric (i.e expansion is the same
in all the sides), may be ovals spherical or polygonal in shape. All the cells are living. The walls
of these cells are thin and made of cellulose. The main function is to store food materials. When
it contains chloroplast, parenchyma is called chlorenchyma and in such cases, the function is to
manufacture food materials through photosynthesis.

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 In many aquatic plants, the cells of parenchyma contain lots of air cavities between them
where air is stored. Such parenchyma tissue is called aerenchyma.

(ii) Collenchyma
It occurs just below the epidermis in herbaceous dicots e.g sunflower.
The cell is living and often contains numerous chloroplast cells, especially in the leaves.
The cells are thickened at the corners against the intercellular spaces, and this thickening is due
to the deposit of cellulose and pectin.
Because it is flexible, collenchyma gives tensile strength to the growing organs. Therefore, the
function of collenchymas is mechanical, in addition to its photosynthetic properties.
(iii) Sclerenchyma
They consist of very long, narrow, thick and lignified cells that are pointed at both ends.
These cells are simply called FIBRES because they are fibre- like in nature. The cells are dead
and their function is mechanical, giving strength, rigidity, flexibility and elasticity to the plant
body. The cells make excellent textile fibres of commercial importance e.g jute, coconut, Indian
heamp etc.
Sometimes, certain parts of the plant body may develop special types of sclerenchyma to
meet local mechanical needs. These special type of sclerenchyma cells are called SCLEREIDS
(Sclerotid cells). These cells are dead, mostly isodiametric, polyhedral, short-cylindrical, slightly
elongated or irregular in shape but not long and pointed like sclerenchyma. They contribute to
the firmness and hardness of the part concerned. Sclereids are found in tough parts of plants like
coconut and palm kernel shells

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Diagrammatic Representation of Sclerenchyma

Types of sclereids.
There are four types viz: -
(a) Brachysclereids: - These are found in the pith, cortex, bark, phloem, fleshy pericarp,
coconut shell etc.
(b) Macrosclereids: - They are found in the bark, seed coats, protective scales of onion,
garlic etc.
(c) Osteosclereids: - These are found in the seed coats and fruit walls and also leaves of
some dicot plants.
(d) Astrosclereids: - They are found in the leaves and bark of some dicot plants e.g tea and
some conifers
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(2)Complex tissues
While a simple tissue is made up of one type of cells forming a homogenous or
uniformed mass, a complex tissue is made up of more than one type of cells working
together as a unit.
(a)Xylem (wood):
- This is a conduction tissue composed of different kinds of cells namely; tracheids, vessels,
wood fibres and wood parenchyma.
(i)Tracheids: - These are elongated, tube-like and dead empty cells with a large cavity
within each cell. Their walls are lignified and hard. Tracheids give strength to the plant
body in addition to their main function of conducting water from the root to the leaves.
Tracheids may be annular, spiral, scalarform or pitted.

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(ii) Vessels (trachea): - These are cylindrical tube-like cells. They form a row of cells, placed
end to end but the partitioning walls at the end of each cell breaks down to allow for free
movements of materials within each vessel. Vessels or trachea are named according to the mode
of thickness. The different types are; annular, spiral, scalariform, reticulate and pitted.
Vessels and tracheids form the main elelment of the wood or xylem of the vascular bundle. They
serve for conduction of water and mineral salts from the root to the leaves.
(iii)Wood Fibres: - These are sclerenchymatous cells associated with the xylem. They
add to the mechanical strength of xylem and of the plant body.
(iv)Wood Parenchyma:- These are parenchymatous cells that occur within the xylem.
They assist in the conduction of water through the tracheids and vessels. They also serve
for food storage.

(b)Phloem: - The phloem consists of the different cells/elements, such as: sieve-tubs,
companion cell, phloem parenchyma and bast-fibres. Phloem as a whole helps in conducting
prepared food materials from the leaf to the storage organs and then to the growing regions.

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COMPONENTS OF PHLOEM TISSEU

(i)Sieve-tubes: - Is used
for longitudinal
translocation of prepared
food materials from the
leaves to the storage
organ in the downward
direction and later from
storage organs to the
growing regions in the
upward direction.
(ii)Companion cells: -
The companion cells
assist the sieve tube in the conduction of food.
(iii)Phloem parenchyma:- It stores up food material and help in the conduction of same. It is
absent in monocot stems.
(iv)Bast-Fibres:- They are sclerenchymatous cells occurring in the phloem, but they are present
only in secondary phloem.
(3)Secretory tissues

(i)Laciferous tissues: - These tissue consist of thin walled, greatly elongated and much branched

ducts which contain a milky juice call LATEX. They occur in the mass of parenchymatous cells

where their distribution is irregular. The function is not very clear but they are likely to act as

food storage organs or as reservoirs of waste product or as translocatory tissues.

(ii)Grandular tissues: - This is made up of glands that contain some secretory or excretory
products. These glands may consist of single isolated cells or some groups of cell with or
without a central gravity. They are parenchymatous in nature and contain abundant

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 protoplasm with a large nucleus. They contain different substances and have many
functions.
(iii)Internal glands: - They are many and are:
(a)Oil glands: - These gland secrete essential oil e.g fruits and leave of orange, lemon, pummel
e.t.c.
(b)Mucilage secreting glands: - They secrete mucilage e.g betel leaf.
(c)Glands secreting gums, resin, tannin etc. e.g pine
(d)Digestive enzymes secreting glands; Common in insectivorous plants that feeds on insects
(e)Water secreting glands:-These are glands that secrete water and are also known as
hydathodes.
(iv)External glands: -They occur as outgrowth, and appear as short hairs with glands at the tip.
They are called glandular hairs. Examples include;
(a)Water secreting hairs or glands (may also be called hydathodes).
(b)Glandular hairs:-Secreting gummy substances as in tubercle (Nicotiana tabacum),
Plumbago and Boerhavia. etc.
(c)Glandular hairs:- secreting irritating and poisonous substances as in nettles.
(d)Nectar secreting glands (Nectaries) as found in many flowers.
(e)Enzyme secreting glands. An example can be found in carnivorous or insectivorous plants.
The mechanical tissue
Generally, the mechanical tissues help the plant to maintain particular shape and to withstand
various kind of mechanical strains and stresses which they are often subjected to in their various
habitats. We have many kinds of mechanical tissues.
i). Sclerenchyma: - These include the wood and bast fibres.
ii).Cellenchyma
iii).Vessels and Tracheids.
iv). Sclereids
The tissue system
Based on functions performed, tissues are arranged in 3 systems, each taking a definite share or
playing a definite role in the common life-work of the plant. These systems are:
1. The Epidermal tissue system
2. The Ground or Fundamental tissue system

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 3. The Vascular tissue system
1. Epidermal tissue system
The Epidermis: - It is derived from the dermatogens of the apical meristem and is the outermost skin
layer whith extension forming a covering over the plant body. It is continuous, except for certain
openings such as stomata and lenticels. The cells of this layer may contain anthocyanine or
chromoplast. These cells do not contain chloroplast except in the guard cells.
In the leaves and young green shot, the epidermis is seen to have numerous stomata through which an
interchange of gasses takes place between the plant and the atmosphere. The outer walls of
epidermal cells are thick and usually impregnated with cutin or suberin. The cuticunized layer
protects the inner cells against loss of water, mechanical injury and parasite. In many plants, the
epidermal layer often bears out growth called hairs or trichomes.
The outmost layer of the root is called the epiblema or piliferous layer. The epiblema is mainly
concerned with the absorption of water and mineral salt from the soil. To increase the absorbing
surface, the outer-walls of most of the cells of the epiblema are extended outwards to form
tubular unicellular prolongations called the root-hairs

Functions of the Epidermis

i) It protects the internal tissues from mechanical injury, excessive heat or cold, and
attack of parasites etc.
ii) The epidermis prevent excessive water loss from the internal tissues by the
development of thick cuticle, wax etc.
iii) It protects the plant against intense illumination.
iv)The sharp and stiff hairs of the epidermis protect the plant against attack from
herbivorous animals.
v) The epidermis stores water especially in desert plants.
vi)Photosynthesis and secretion of certain substances take place in the epidermis.

The Stomata: - They are very minutes openings formed in the epidermal layer in green aerial
parts of the plant, particularly the leaves. Each stoma is surrounded by two (2) semi-lunar cells
called guard cells. (In some texts: stoma = the opening + the 2 guard cell).
The guard cells are living and always contain chloroplast.

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 Functions of Stomata
i) Exchange of gases e.g Carbon dioxide and Oxygen.
ii) They are organs through which evaporation of water normally takes place and so plants do get
rid of excess water in this case.
iii) Because they contain chloroplast, they are sites where food is been manufactured through the
process of photosynthesis.
(2) Ground or fundamental tissue system
This system forms the main bulk of the plant body and extends from below the epidermis
to the centre of the plant excluding the vascular bundles.
The fundamental tissue system is partly derived from the periblem and partly from the
plerome.
Functions of the Ground/Fundamental Tissue System
(i) Manufacture and storage of food materials
(ii) Its function is also mechanical, by providing support.
The fundamental tissue system is differentiated into the following zones: -
a. The Cortex: - It lies between epidermis and the pericycle. In dicots, it is differentiated into the
following sub-zones:
(i) Hypodermis
(ii) General cortex
(iii) Endodermis
This type of differentiation does not occur in monocots because of the scattered arrangement of
the vascular bundles. The cortex is a protective tissue, it also manufacture and store food
materials.

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b. The Pericycle:-It forms the zone between the endodermis and the vascular bundles. It
occurs as a cylinder encircling the vascular bundles and the pith. It is the seat and origin of
lateral root.Its functions is mechanical and secretory. It is involve in the storage of materials.
c. The Pith and the Medullary Rays: - The pith forms the central core of the stem and the
root. The functions are to store food materials, give mechanical strength to the plant and
helps in transmitting water and food materials outward to the peripheral tissues (this is
carried out by the medullary rays).
3. Vascular tissue system
This system consists of a number of vascular bundles which are distributed in the stele
(The stele is the central cylinder of the stem and the root). Each vascular bundle is made up of
xylem, phloem and cambium on the stem and without cambium in the root.( in dicot plants.)
The Functions of the Vascular Tissue System are:
i). Xylem helps in the conduction of water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves.
ii). Phloem helps in the conduction of prepared food materials.
iii).Cambium brings about secondary growth in dicot plants.
Types of vascular bundles
(a)Conjoint vascular bundle: - This is a situation in which the phloem tissue is in direct contact
with the xylem tissue.
(b)Collateral vascular bundle: - Here, a layer of vascular cambium separate the xylem tissue
from the phloem tissue i.e. The meristermatic cambium is situated between the two (2) secondary
tissues.

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(c)Bi-collateral vascular bundle: - At each end of the vascular bundle is the phloem tissue

In between the xylem end the phloem at the other end is a layer of the meristematic or vascular
cambium.

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(d)Radial vascular bundle: -In this case, the phloem and xylem tissues are radially arranged
but each occupies a different radii.
(e)Concentric vascular bundle: -This can occur in two forms;
i) The xylem tissue is at the centre and surrounded by the phloem tissue.
ii) The phloem tissue is at the centre and surrounded by the xylem tissue

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 PLANT ORGANS
A plant organ consists of two or more systems that are specialized to perform specific
functions to ensure the survival and growth of the plant. Plant organs include the root, stem,
leaves, flower, fruit and the seed.

The root
The root performs mechanical and physiological functions. Mechanically, it fixes or
holds or anchors the plant firmly to the soil. Physiologically, it helps to absorb water and mineral
salts and conduct the same first to the stem and the to the leaves.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A DICOTYLEDONOUS ROOT.

In special cases, the root helps to store food materials, and can become specialized respiratory
organ in plants found in estuarine habitats.
Anatomy of the root: - The internal structures of monoct and dicot roots are distinct and
different from one another.

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The outermost layers of cells of the root constitute the epiblema or piliferous layer. It contains no
intercellular spaces and cuticle is lacking. The outer-wall of the Epiblema gets elongated to give
rise to root hairs (elongated epiblema cells.) These root hairs increase the surface area of the root
for absorption of mineral salt and water from the soil.
Root hairs are always unicellular. Next to the Epiblema, some layer of round or oval parenchyma
cells formed the cotex of the root. These parenchyma have numerous intercellular spaces and
they contain leucoplast and starch grains. The innermost layer of the cortex is the endodermis
which is formed of single layer of barrel shaped cells that leave no intercellular spaces.
The radial wall of the endodermis is always thickened. Here and there on the endodermis,
some thin wall cells are present especially near the protoxylem and these thin wall cells are
called passage cells. Inner to the endodermis, a thin single layer of cells formed the pericycle
which contain abundant protoplast.

Vascular bundles
Vascular bundles are radial i.e phloem and xylem elements are lying at different radii and
equal no of xylem and phloem element are present. Usually in the dicot roots, the no of vascular
bundles vary from 2-6 in numbers.
The development of the xylem is from outside towards the center and is said to be
centripetal centripetal or the xylem is said to be exarch.
Metaxylem are found in the centre and protoxylem are facing towards the peripheral side.
A thin transverse section of monocot root (of zeamays) reveals the following anatomical
features:
Epiblema: - This is a single layer of cells in thickness. It forms the outermost layer of the root.
Intermittently, the Epiblema elongates and give rise to root hairs which are unicellular. These
root hairs increase the surface area of the Epiblema for the absorption of water and mineral salt
from the soil. No cuticle is present on the Epiblema. When the
epiblema dies, it, along with the outer layer of cortex, gets cuticunized and from the outermost
layer of the root which is now known as the exodermis. The inner part of Epiblema and some
layers of parenchyma cells forms ms the cortex. These cells are made of thin wall. They contain
leucoplast and numerous intercellular spaces and may be oval or

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INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A MONOCOTYLEDONOUS ROOT

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round in shape. The innermost layer of the cortex is the endodermis. It forms a ring round the
stele and the cells are barrel shaped. The inner walls of the endodermis are thickened and are a
single cell thick.
Inner to endodermis, a single layer of thin walled cell formed the pericycle. Here and there on
the endodermis, opposite to protoxylem, some thin walled cells called passage cells are present.
Vascular bundles are numerous. Equal number of phloem and xylem element is present.
The vascular bundle develops in a ring as in dicot roots. Vascular bundles are radial i.e xylem
and phloem elements are lying in different radii. The development of the xylem is centripetal i.e
the xylem is exarch. The number of xylem vessels in monocot root is usually more than six (6).
Xylem element consists of protoxylem which is penetrating toward endodermis and metaxylem
towards the centre.
Pith is more prominent in monocot roots and the parenchyma cells present in between
vascular bundles are called conjuctive tissues.
Difference between monocot and dicot roots
i. Vascular Bundles: - In dicot root, no of vascular bundle is limited usually between 2
and 4 while it is numerous in monocot roots usually not less than 6.
ii. Pericycle: - In dicot roots, the pericycle gives rise to lateral roots or secondary root and
secondary meristematics tissues known as cambium. In monocot roots, the pericycle
gives rise to only lateral root. Cambium is never present.
iii. Cambium: - In dicot roots, cambium is present in old roots while it is completely absent
in both young and old roots in monocot.
iv. Pith: - The pith is not prominent in dicot roots and due to development of secondary
xylem, the pith eventually get crushed. While in monocot roots, the pith is very
prominent.

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Anatomy of the Stem
Dicot stem e.g sunflower

The outer boundary of the stem is the Epidermis. The Outer walls are covered by a very thin
layer known as the cuticle. The epidermis gives rise to the trichome which is multicellular . Here
and there in the epidermis are stomata. Below the epidermis are 4-5 layers of collenchymas cells
forming hypodermis. The spaces in between these collenchyma cells are greatly thickened with
cellulose impregnated with pectin.
Below the hypodermis are a few layers of parenchyma cells with intercellular spaces in between
them. Immediately below these parenchyma cells is a layer of cells that forms the endodermis.
Immediately below the endodermis are about 4-5 layers of sclerenchymtous cells forming
the phloem, followed by metaxylem and protoxylem. In between the vascular bundles are
elongated cells forming the medullary rays. The mode of development is known as endarch.
The arrangement of the vascular bundles is collateral and open. Open in the sense that, the xylem
and phloem are separated by the cambium.

31
Anatomy of monocot stems e.g Zea mays

The outermost layer is known as the Epidermis. This epidermal layer is covered on the
outside by a thin layer of cuticle. Below the epidermis are 2-3 layers of sclerenchyma cells
forming the hypodermis. Below the hypodermis is the ground tissue extending to the centre of
the stem. These ground tissue consist of numerous thin-walled parenchyma cells having
intercellular spaces between them. In these ground tissue, are scattered a number of vascular
bundles which are closely arranged near the peripheral of the hypodermis where they are smaller
in size.
Each of the vascular bundles comprises the phloem and xylem. The xylem vessels are
arranged in the form of a Y-shape. The larger vessels (usually 2 in number) form the metaxylem
while the smaller ones form the protoxylem. The vascular bundles are collateral, close, endarch,
and oval in shape. The vascular bundles are enclosed in the bundle sheath which is prominent
towards the outside and inside of the bundles. Below each of these vascular bundles, is a cavity
called the water containing cavity.

32
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MONOCOT AND DICOT STEM

DICOT STEM MONOTOT STEM

1. Pith is present Pith is absent
2. Bundle cap present Bundle sheath present
3. Vascular bundles arranged in ring Vascular bundles scattered
4. Hypodermis, made of collenchyma cells Hypodermis, made of sclerenchyma cells
5. Cortex, Endodermis, Pericycle and Stele They are not differentiated.
are differentiated.

6a. Vascular bundles are collateral and open Collateral but closed.
b. Xylem vessels are arranged one below Xylem vessels are arranged in Y-shape
the other.

c. Phloem parenchyma cells present Absent

7. Cambium is present Cambium is absent

8. The vascular bundles are few Vascular bundles are many
9. Vascular bundles are wedge shaped Vascular bundles are oval shaped.
Functions of the stem

The main purpose of the stem is to bear leaves and flower. It also supports the branches,
helps in the conduction of water, mineral salts and prepared food all through the plant body. It
also helps in storage of water and food in many cases and manufacture of food by the green
shoot.

33
ANATOMY OF THE LEAF
Dicot leaf.

The dorsi-vental transverse section of the leave shows the following structures.
The uppermost layer known as the epidermal layer or Epidermis is a layer of epidermal cells that
are tightly packed together leaving no intercellular spaces. Covering the epidermal layer is a
layer of thick cuticle. A layer of epidermal cells also form the layer of the lower boundary of the
leaf. This is known as Lower Epidermis. In many leaves, the upper epidermis contains a few
stomata. In some, stomata may be completely absent. The largest numbers of stomata are found
in between the epidermal cells of the lower epidermis. These stomata are very important in
transpiration, photosynthesis and respiration.
Immediately below the upper epidermis, are the palisade cells forming 2 to 3 layers. Each of
these palisade cells consists of numerous chloroplasts which help in the manufacture of food.
The cells are also closely packed together leaving very little intercellular spaces. Following the
layer of the palisade cells are a number of cells referred to as spongy parenchyma cells or
spongy mesophylls. The chloroplasts in these cells are not as numerous as in the palisade cells.
Hence, a little amount of photosynthetic activities take place here. They are loosely packed
leaving large intercellular spaces. Within the border of the parenchyma cells, are the vascular
bundles. Towards the upper epidermis, are the xylem vessels and towards the lower epidermis
34
are the phloem vessels. The xylem vessels help in conveying water and mineral salt from the
base to the apex of the leaf.
The phloem tissue helps to conduct prepared food materials towards the storage organs
and the growing regions of the plants.
Directly above the xylem vessels are the sclerenchyma cells. The respiratory cavity is the
cavity through which air gets out of the leaf. The body of cells from the upper to the lower
epidermis is known as the mesophyll tissue.

35
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is defined as the process by which green plants make use of Carbon dioxide and
water, with the aid of sunlight energy trapped by chlorophyll, to manufacturing sugars, while
Oxygen is given off as a byproduct.
This process is summarized by the following simple equation:
6CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Photosynthesis takes place in the green parts of the plant. Since chlorophyll which is the
green pigments are found within the chloroplast, it is concluded that photosynthesis takes place
within the chloroplast. The chlorophyll which is commonly regarded as one type of pigment is
actually a mixture of different pigments, namely:

1. Chlorophyll (A) blue-green

2. Chlorophyll (B) yellow-green
3. Xanthophyll yellow
4. Carotene orange-red
5. Phaeophytin grey

Each of these pigments helps in trapping sun-energy and then converts the light energy
into chemical energy. The raw materials required before photosynthesis can take place are:

i. Carbondioxide (CO2): - This represents the source of carbon used in the manufacture of
sugar.
ii. Water (H2O): -This represents the source from which the hydrogen needed for reduction
of CO2 is obtained.
iii. Mineral salts:- They are not involved in the formation of sugar or the actual
photosynthetic process itself, but they help in further conversion of sugar to proteins,
which is one of the secondary product of photosynthesis.

36
Conditions necessary for photosynthesis
i. Suitable temperature: - The rate of photosynthesis is fastest at the optimum temperature
of 300C. At a temperature below this, the rate of photosynthesis is reduced while at
temperature above 400C, the enzymes that helps in the process are completely denatured
thereby inhibiting the process of photosynthesis.
ii. Sunlight: - It provides the energy required to split water molecule into hydrogen ion (H+)
and hydroxyl ion(OH-).
iii. Chlorophyll: - Traps the energy of sunlight and convert it to chemical energy.

Products of photosynthesis
The chief product of photosynthesis is the monosaccharide sugar. The monosaccharide
sugar may be converted to protein for growth of the plant or broken down to release
energy or may be stored in the form of starch in the storage organs. The direction of
activity depends upon the need of the plants. Another product is oxygen.
Importance of photosynthesis
For the continuous existence of plants, the role of photosynthesis is very important. Since
all animals depend upon plants for their existence, the importance needs not be over-emphasized.

The chemistry of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis occurs in two distinct stages. These are the light and the dark stages.
The light stage, an intermediate substance B is formed from A. These intermediary product B is
converted to an end product C in the dark stage. This is explained with the equation
below;
A B (Light stage)
 B C (Dark stage)
During the light stage, energy from sunlight is trapped by the chlorophyll. This sunlight
energy is converted into chemical energy which is used to split water into H+ and OH-, a
phenomenon referred to as photochemical splitting or photolysis of water.

37
DARK REACTION OR CALVIN CYCLE

38
The hydrogen evolved as a result of this splitting action enters the dark stage where it helps to
reduce CO2 to form carbohydrate. (sugar and water).
CO2 + 2H2O CH20 + H2O + O2
The energy utilized by living organisms is not obtained from the immediate impact of
respiration. Such initial energy is used in the synthesis of Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) from
Adenosine di-phosphate (ADP) with the addition of one phosphate group. When energy is
needed by the body for any activity, the ATP is broken down to the ADP and P constituent to
release the required energy. This is as true in plants as in any other living organisms. The two
equations below helps to illustrate this process of energy formation and breakdown for
utilization.
(i) ADP + P
(ii) ATP - P

Equation (i) above is an endergonic reaction i.e energy is needed for the reaction to
occur while in equation (ii) above, energy is released and is therefore known as an exergonic
reaction. The process of the synthesis of carbohydrate in the dark stage involves a number of
steps which are controlled by specific enzymes. This process is referred to as calvin cycle, a
name after Melvin calvin, who analyze the various steps involve in the process of synthesizing
carbohydrate.
Note
The reactions of the light stage takes place within the quantasome of the chloroplast
while those of the dark stage take place within the stroma of the same chloroplast. It should also
be noted that intermittent light is required for the complete conversion of the intermediate
substance B formed during the light stage to the end product C. This intermittent light is also
necessary to avoid the accumulation of this substance B in the plants.

39
 RESPIRATION
This is defined as the process by which living organisms take in oxygen to breakdown the
food in them to release CO2, H2O and energy. This phenomenon generally involves oxidation of
sugar.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Food + O2 Energy + ADP + P

As discussed earlier, the energy obtained from respiration is used in synthesizing ATP
from ADP and P. The process of ATP formation is discussed below.
The energy released as a result of the conversation of one form of intermediate to the
other is used in synthesized in the electron transfer system.

From the diagram above, the enzyme dehydrogenase is responsible for the removal of
two (2) hydrogen atoms from the intermediate compound C. These two hydrogen atoms are then
accepted by NAD which becomes reduced and the two (2) hydrogen atoms are finally transferred
to oxygen to form water (H2O). After FAD, the hydrogen atoms are broken down into the
protons and electrons. These electrons are carried by the cytochrome and cytochrome oxidase
after which the electrons joins the protons again to become hydrogen atoms.
The hydrogen atoms then combine with oxygen to form water. In this regard NAD and
FAD are hydrogen atom carriers, while cytochrome and cytochrome oxidase are electron
carriers.

40
Glycolysis
This is the first part of respiration and it involves the step by step and gradual breakdown
of sugar to pyruvic acid.
Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis)
This is the respiration that does not require the presence of oxygen. There are two (2)
types, namely: (i) Complete Anaerobiosis
(ii) Partial Anaerobiosis

Complete Anaerobiosis is one that does not require the supply of oxygen at all while
partial Anaerobiosis is one that requires partial supply of oxygen. The major differences between
anaerobiosis and aerobic respiration is that, breakdown of sugar in anaerobiosis is not complete
whereas in aerobic respiration, the breakdown of sugar is complete.
GLYCOLYTIC PATHWAY

41
 In Anaerobiosis, the sugar is broken down into alcohol, carbondioxide and energy. Also,
the energy released in Anaerobiosis is very low when compared to that of aerobic respiration.
The following equations summarized the two processes.
Aerobic respiration: The equation is
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2880Kj

Anaerobic respiration: The equation is

C6H12O6 + 6O2 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 + 210KJ
This process is known as alcoholic fermentation. The organisms that are able to carry out this
process are referred to as anaerobes and the alcohol produced is known as ethyl alcohol or
ethanol.
KREB’S CYCLE

42
 TRANSLOCATION OF ORGANIC SOLUTES
Sugar manufactured in the leaves during photosynthesis moves longitudinally in the
phloem of petioles and stem to other part of the plant.
The direction of movement of these sugars is mostly downward i.e basepetal e.g from
leaf to root but may also be upward i.e acropetal e.g from leave, fruits and buds to locations
above the leaves.
The longitudinal movement of sugar in the phloem occurs in elongated cells (sieve
element) which are joined end to end to form long linear series of cells called a sieve tube.
Translocation, therefore, is defined as the transportation of the soluble product of photosynthesis
(sugars) in sieve tubes.
Movement of sugars from chloroplast containing cells where they are manufactured to
sieve elements in the phloem is termed vein loading, while movement of these same product
from sieve element to areas where they are utilized or stored is called vein unloading. Both the
vein loading and vein unloading take place in the parenchyma cells which ad-joined the phloem..

The regions of the plant which manufactures the sugar which were translocated in the
phloem are referred to as sources. Sources consist of the primary and secondary sources. The
primary sources are the green leaves in which sugar are manufactured during photosynthesis,
while the secondary sources are the storage organs which serve as sources of sugar for other
parts of the plant, such as food reserve in the endosperm of germinating seeds are metabolized to
sugars that are translocated to the developing embryo. The regions of the plant which utilizes the
sugars which were translocated in the phloem are referred to as sinks, and this includes plant
parts in which little or no photosynthesis takes place. e.g growing point of roots and shoots,
storage organs such as fruits, seeds, stem etc.

43
 Although, glucose (a monosaccharide sugar) has a central role in respiratory metabolism,
experiment has shown that it is absent from the phloem sap. Instead, sucrose (a sugar which is
composed of two monosaccharide units namely glucose and fructose) is the predominant form in
which organic material is translocated from the source to the sink. In addition to sucrose, traces
of other sugars have been found in the sieve tube sap of some plant species. These sugar are:
(i) Raffinose (a trisaccharide sugar)
(ii) Stachyose (a tetrasaccharide sugar)
(iii) Verbascose (a pentasaccharide sugar)

Small amount of either organic substances such as amino acids, amides, auxin, organic acids
and sugar alcohols are also found in the sieve-tube sap. Sugar concentration is not the same
throughout the length of a sieve-tube. It is generally highest near the site of sugar production
(sources) and lowest near the site of sugar consumption (sink). Thus, the translocation of sugar in
sieve tube occurs down or concentration gradient i.e along the concentration gradient.
Experimental evidence establishing phloem as the site of concentration
That conc. of organic solute take place in the phloem is a conclusion based on result from
several different experimental procedures. Some of these results include:
i. Exudation from incision in bark: - When an incision is made in the bark of many
deciduous trees, there is an exudation of liquid containing sugars which can be shown to
come from the phloem.
ii. Analysis of sap from Aphid stylet: - Analysis of sap from the stylet of an Aphid that
normally feeds on organic substances found within the sieve tube shows that the sap is
predominantly sugar.
iii. Effects of girdling or ringing: - The living component of bark is almost entirely phloem
tissue. If a ring of bark is stripped off a tree trunk, the concentration of sugar increases
immediately above the ring but decreases below it. This indicates that the

44
 Xgm/L X + gm/L. Conc. of sugar
increases.

Bgm/L B – gm/L. Conc. of sugar

Reduces.

downward movement of sugar is blocked at that point. This experiment is known as the girdling
or ringing experiment.
iv. Auto radiography: In two experiments, sugar labeled with radioactive atoms such as
tritium (3H) or carbon (14C) ware introduced into the plant through an incision in a vein
of a matured leaf. A few minutes later, transverse a sections of stem a short distance away
from the incision ware taken and autoradiograph developed from these tissues section
showed that sugar labeled with radioactive atom move in the phloem. The
autoradiography experiment also shows that sugars move in the sieve elements of the
phloem rather than in the companion cells.

Mechanism of translocation
Sugars, the soluble product of photosynthesis, enter the sieve tubes by active transport. In
this case, there is movement from a region of lower concentration to that of high concentration
i.e movement against concentration gradient.

45
 Once in sieve tubes, sugars and amino acids tend to move along concentration gradient i.e
from region of higher concentration to that of low concentration. Ordinarily, diffusion would
have accounted for the process. But in reality, the speed at which the sugar molecules travel
make it impossible to account for the process simply by diffusion. Consequently, a number of
hypotheses (suggestion) have been put forward to explain transport of sugars in the sieve tubes.
a. Pressure flow/mass flow hypothesis
This hypothesis suggests that there may be a passive mass flow of solute through the
phloem as a result of turgor pressure gradient: highest in the leaves where the sugar is formed
(the source) and lowest in the root (the sink). The hypothesis assumes that the sieve element at
the functional stage consist mostly of a lumen filled predominantly with sugar solution. It also
assumes that the sugar solution is able to flow freely through pores in sieve plates, from one
sieve element to the next, through the length of a sieve tube.
The principle of the pressure/mass flow hypothesis is illustrated by the diagram.

V
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . ……….. .. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .::: : : : . . . . . . . . . …. . . . . .......
.... . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . :::::…. ….. ……….
A W B …. . …. .
:: ; : ::;;:; :: :: ::……… . . . . . . . . . . . ……. … …. …… …….

A- Source V- Sieve tube

B- Sink Vein loading
W- Water Sieve element

The two containers A and B are semi-permeable i.e permeable to water but not to sugar
molecules. At the start, ‘A’ is filled with a red dye solution of sucrose and ‘B’ is filled with
water. Both A and B are immersed in water. Water will move by osmosis from B to A thereby
making the hydrostatic pressure in A higher than in B. There is therefore, the driving force for

46
the passive movement (pressure/mass flow) of the coloured sugar solution through the
connecting gas tube V into B and for the diffusion of water through the membrane out of B.
The major argument against this hypothesis is that since the sieve plates are covered with
cytoplasm, and sieve pores filled with cytoplasmic filaments the obstacles would offer a
considerable resistance to mass flow of sugar solution in sieve tubes. It is also argued that if mass
flow actually occur, one will expect different substances to move at the same speed, but it is
known from tracer experiment that sugars and amino acid can move not only at different speed
but also in opposite directions within the same sieve tube.
Another objections to mass flow hypothesis argues that the turgor pressure gradient
which actually exist would be insufficient to overcome the additive resistance pose by the
cytoplasm (which covers the sieve plate) and the cytoplasmic filaments (that fill the sieve pores).
Therefore a suggestion that mass flow might be aided by electro-osmosis at the sieve plate has
been proposed. By simple definition, electro-osmosis is the passage of water across a charged
membrane.
b. Surface Spreading Hypothesis
Here, it is believed that sugar molecules might spread over the interface how two
different cytoplasmic materials. The film of sugar molecules so formed could be kept moving by
addition of molecules at one end and removal of the same at the other end. An objection to this
hypothesis.
The films of sugar molecules formed would be too thin to account for the known rates at
which organic solute are translocated in the sieve tube.

c. Active transport hypothesis/Activated or Accelerated diffusion.

It is argued that translocation of organic solute in the sieve tube is an active mechanism
that requires energy. An evidence in support of this argument is the close correlation between the
speed of translocation and the rate of metabolic activities of the phloem. It is also observed that
decrease in temperature and treatment with metabolic poisons (both which reduce rate of
metabolism and thus reduce amount of energy supplied) reduce the rate of translocation. This is
an indication that translocation is likely to be an active energy requiring process. The process is
called DIFFUSION because the movement of solutes is along concentration gradients; but

47
activated accelerated diffusion best describes the process because the speed of translocation
cannot be accounted for by simple diffusion.
d. Cytoplasmic Pumping Hypothesis/Cytoplasmic Streaming Hypothesis
Thaine and his associated believes that cytoplasm flows within the longitudinally
oriented cytoplamic strands which bridge the lumens of sieve elements and pass through sieve
plates pores from one sieve element to the next over the entire length of a sieve tube. As the
cytoplasm flows within each of the transcellular stands, it carries sugar along with it.
Protein filaments, which are believed to be organized in rings in the boundary layers
which enclose the stands undergo rhythmic contraction and relaxation to produce a peristaltic
wave that pumps the sugar solution along the stand.
Criticism of these hypotheses:
Criticism of the theories above is hinged on the following;
i).That peristaltic wave along the cytoplasmic strand has never been observed directly.
ii).Transcellular strands have not been found to exist in undamaged, living, functional and
translocating sieve elements.
Conclusively, the possibility exists that no single mechanism can be sufficient to
account for translocation of sugar in the phloem. It would therefore be rash indeed to
summarily dismiss any of the mechanisms described above, at least not at the present time.

Root in the absorption of water and mineral salts

48
From the diagram above, water is drawn into the root hair mainly by osmosis. From the root hair,
water passes to the vascular tissues in the centre of the root via the cortical
parenchyma cells. Three (3) possible path ways though which the water might get to the
root centre via these intervening parenchyma cells include:
i. The vacuolar path way: This involves movement of water through the sap vacuole of
the cell. Here, water is drawn from one vacuole to the other by osmosis.
ii. The symplast path away: This involves movement of water through the cytoplasm. In
this case, there is diffusion of water from cell to cell via the plasmodesmata.
iii. The Apoplast path way: Here, there is movement of water through the cellulose walls of
adjacent cells and through the intercellular spaces between them.

For (II) and (III) above to take place, there has to be lower water potential in the centre
of the root than further out. The water potential is relatively low in the xylem tissues due to high
concentration of solute in the tissue. As water is drawn from the soil into the root, minerals
which dissolve in this water are also drawn from the soil into the root.
Movement of water and mineral salt in the xylem of the root

49
The two (2) main explanations here are:
i).By transpiration pull: Here, it is believed that the relatively low water potential developed
on the leaf cells as a result of transpiration results in water been drawn into the xylem and its
subsequent movement along the xylem tissues. This means that, there is a force exerted by the
leaf which causes movement of water into the xylem tissue of the root. This force is known as
the transpiration pull.
ii).By root pressure: When a plant stem is cut, the cut end of the stump exudes some water
(guttation giving out water) indicating that there is a force pushing water up the stem from the
root. This force referred to as the root pressure.

50
 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The growth of plant has been divided into four (4) stages
1. Embryogenesis
2. Germination i.e seed germination and development to juvenility (juvenile stage).
3. Maturation
4. Senescence (Ageing)
Embryo proper Cotyledon

ZYGOTE

Suspensor
POLLINATION FERTILIZATION ZYGOTE EMBRYO

JUVENILE MATURATION SENESCENCE DEATH

The short apex comprises two (2) layers names - Tunica and Corpus. The tunica is the outer
layer while the corpus is the inner layer. Before the cotyledons withers, the cells of the corpus
divide or multiply and bulge out forming protuberances which are referred to as buttresses. The
buttresses form the leaf primordial, which later develops into the mature leaves. By the time the
cotyledons finally drop, the leaves are ready to photosynthesise.

Protuberance Leaf primordial Young leaf

51
1. Embryogenesis
This is the formation of the embryo. Before embryogenesis, certain events must have
taken place and these are;
i. Formation of the flower
ii. Pollination
iii. Fertilization
iv. Zygote formation

52
ii.Pollination: This is simply the transfer of matured pollen grain from the anther to the stigma.
Pollination may be self or cross. When the pollen drops on the stigma, it germinates only when
the stigma is ripe enough and contains nutritional requirements necessary for the pollen to
germination. The pollen germinates into a tube consisting of three (3) nuclei namely:
(a)Pollen Tube Nucleus
(b)The Generative Nucleus
(c)The male Nucleus

The pollen tube Nucleus eats its way through the tissue of the style, thereby making way
for the incoming generative and the male nuclei. As soon as the pollen tube nucleus gets to the
micropyle, it dies.
The generative Nucleus then passes through the micropyle into the ovule where it fuses
with the polar nuclei to form the primary endosperm which later develops into the Endosperm
proper. The Endosperm forms the food reserve in the seed. The male Nucleus also passes

53
through the micropyle and finds its way into the ovule where it fuses with the ovum (egg) to
form the zygote. (This is called double fertilization)
The zygote later develops into the embrayo. As soon as the embrayo and the Endosperm
are in place (formed), the antipodal nuclei degenerate. The integument now forms the seed coat
or testa. The ovule then forms the seed and the ovary form the fruit.
Seed germination
The seed is a structure representing the resting phase of the plant. Germination only occur
when the seed is supplied with the necessary conditions. These conditions include;
i). Viability of seed
ii).Oxygen
iii). Moisture
iv). Ideal temperature or warmth.
In it resting state, the metabolic activities in a seed are either suspended or take place very
slowly due to lack of water. The process of germination involves absorption of water,
resumption or reactivation of metabolic activities (e.g. Respiration, Protein synthesis e.t.c)
and the initiation of growth. Ordinarily, many seeds will germinate in a moist environment,
provided that other conditions such as temperature, light and cold treatment are right.
However, even in the phase of all necessary conditions, a few seeds will not germinate
unless they are subjected to special treatments.
For instance, the dark brown seed of Parkia clappertoniana will not germinate unless the
seed coat is scarified to treated with strong sulphuric acid (H2SO4) before sowing. To germinate
under natural conditions, such seeds require prolonged exposure to the weather, action to fungi
and bacteria in the soil or even such extreme conditions like exposure to bush fire.
All these additional requirements are aims at making the tough and hard seed coats
permeable to water and oxygen.
The seed contains embrayo in which the following parts are distinguishable:
i. The redicle which forms the root.
ii. The plumule that forms the shoot
iii. The cotyledons or seed leaves: One in monocotyledonous plant, 2 in dicots and many in
gymnosperms.
iv. The endosperm which serves as food reserve for the embryo at the onset of germination

54
Structure of the seed (Monocot)- Zea mays

In the presence of moisture, the seed imbibes water via the semi-permeable seed coat.
The water then activates the various enzymes present in the seed thus bringing about hydrolysis
of the stored food (Endosperm). Carbohydrases, proteases and lipases act on carbohydrate,
protein and lipids respectively to bring about the formation of readily absorbable forms of food
which are then used to build up tissues (growth). The oxygen which diffuses into the seed via the
seed coat or testa is used up in the process of respiration. Germination in which the cotyledon
remains under the ground after the emergence of the shoot is termed hypogeal germination, and
it is characteristic of monocot plants such as maize. Zea mays.
The ones in which the cotyledons are carried above the soil is called EPIGEAL
GERMINATION and is characteristics of the dicots e.g beans.

55
Phase of maturation
Once the young plant has emerged, the plant begins to grow in height and in girth
due to secondary growth. These secondary growth is characteristics of dicot plants and
occurs in a few monocot such as Agave and Yucca.
Secondary growth is any growth originating from the activities of the lateral
meristems. The lateral meristems are the vascular meristems which gives rise to the 20
tissues. The vascular cambium gives rise to the vascular tissues while the cork cambium
(phellogen) gives rise to the cork (phellem).
As the secondary growth continues, the cell of the juvenile plant elongates, enlarges
and differentiate into the various tissues. This continues as the plant increases in height
and in girth until a matured plant is in place.
When the mature plant is ripe enough to flower, it is believed that the flowering
hormones (Florigens) produced within the blades of mature leaves are translocated to the
shoot apices where they switch off the genes responsible for the indeterminate growth of
the shoot and turn-on those that effect the emergence of the flower buds.

56
 These flower buds develop into the flowers. It is also believed that the concentration
of Auxines that promote shoot elongation inhibits flower initiation. These accounts for the
decrease in Auxin concentration prior to flower initiation.
PLANT HORMONES
Hormones are organic compounds which are produced in certain part of the plant
body from which they are transported to other parts where they make a response or where
they are effective. There are two (2) types of plant hormones namely: -
1. Flowering hormones
2. Growth hormones
FLOWERING HORMONES: - Though the evidence in support of their existence is
circumstantial, it is believed that certain hormones called FLORIGENS are produced
within the leaf blade, stalk, stem and some other stem and are brought to the growing
points where they effect the conversation of the vegetative apices to the flowering apices.
GROWTH HORMONES: - These are the hormone that play vital role in the growth and
development of the plant. These are:
a. Auxins
b. Gibberellins
c. cytokinins
AUXIN: - They are produced within the shoot apices from where they are transported
basipetally (towards the base) to the basal part of the plant where they effect cell
elongation and enlargement thereby bringing about indeterminate growth. Auxins are
broadly grouped into the natural and the synthetic Auxins.
The natural auxins are the ones that are naturally produced within the plant and
these are: -
(1) IAA (β – Indole – 3 – Acetic Acid).
(2) IAN (Indole – 3 – Acetonitrile)
The synthetic Auxins are those manufactured by man. These are:
(1) 2, 4 – D (2, 4 – Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid).
(2) Napthoxy Acetic Acid
(3) Phenyl Acetic Acid
(4) Phenyl Propioic Acid
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GIBBERELLINS: The movement is either basipetal or acropetal. Basipetal within the
phloem tissues and acropetal within xylem tissues. These hormones bring about elongation
of cells which in turn leads to the elongation of the main stem and the stem branches. There
are no synthetic gubberllins. The most important naturally occurring gibberllins is the
GIBBERLLIC ACID. The active substances of these gibberellins number up to 30.
Gibberllins functions as well when they are in association with auxine. The most
important gibberellins is GA3.
CYTOKININS: - Movement is either basipetal or acropetal. They break dormancy and delay
senescence. Two (2) types of cytokinins are known namely:
(1) Kinetin
(2) Zeatin
The substance referred to as Kinetin is not Kinetin in the proper sense. It is so called
because its function resemble that of Kinetin.
GROWTH INHIBITORS
1. Ethylene
2. Abscissic acid
Ethylene is a gas hormone. It promotes senescence while abscisic acid promotes leave
abscission. It is found in the senescing leaves and ripening fruits.
Other growth inhibitors are:
1. Coumarin
2. Naringenin
3. Ferulic Acid
4. Salicyclic Acid
ROLE OF HORMONE IN AGRICULTURE
1. They are used to induce flower formation
2. They help induce ripening of fruits before marketing
3. They help in the breakage of seed dormancy
4. They help in delaying senescence.
5. They are used as herbicides to control weeds.
6. They are also used to increase the size of the fruits.
7. They help in the production (formation) of root in stem cuttings e.g cassava.
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 8. They promote parthenocarphy i.e fruit and seed formation without fertilization i. e
male and female gametes do not come together.
SENESCENCE
This is defined as the deterioration and degradative proceses that result in the
eventual death of the whole plant. During senescence, there is a gradual shift from
anabolism to catabolism that result in:
1. The breakdown of the chlorophylls
2. Decease in the protein synthesis
3. Rate of respiration been greater than that of photosynthesis.
4. The outward translocation of food, minerals and other substances from the
senescing leaves to the developing fruit and seeds and the vegetative storage
organs.
CAUSES OF SENESCENCE
1. Stanation of the vegetative parts due to the mobilization of the foods, minerals and
other substances from the senescing leaves to the developing fruits, seeds and the
vegetative storage organs.
Environmental factors such as:
(a) High temperature
(b) Pathogens
(c) Insufficiency of nitrogen and minerals
(d) Water deficit
(e) Short days
(f) Growth inhibitors
TYPES OF SENESCENCE: - These are:
Senescence of the organ
Senescence of the tissue
Senescence of the entire plant
From these, are the following common types:
Senescence of the leaves and flowers: - This occurs in woody perennials. Through the
leaves and the flowers senesce occur periodically (depending upon the climatic conditions).
The other parts of the plant i.e the root, stems and branches remain alive for several years.
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Top Senescence: - Here, all the aerial part of the plant senesce after food, minerals etc
have been mobilized to the vegetatative storage organ underground. These happen
towards the end of the growing season. The storage organ underground remains alive and
gives rise to new aerial parts at the beginning of the next growing season. These occur in
the plant such as cocoyam, the lilies e.g Dipcadi, Albuca and Urginea.
Senescence of the entire plant: - After the formation of the fruits and the seeds, the whole
plant senesces. A good example of plants in this category is the maize plant. At the outset of
the grain formation, there is the outward transportation of food, minerals, etc from the
leaves to these reproductive organs. This leads to the eventual death of the entire plant.
ADVANTAGES OF SENESCENECE
Prevents excessive dessication
The minerals that fall with the leaves leach into the soil where they can be
reabsorbed again by the root to the body of the plant. Senescence also helps in fruit or seed
dispersal or dissemination.
Environmental factors such as: -
(a) High temperature
(b) Pathogens
(c) Insufficiency of nitrogen and minerals
(d) Water deficit
(e) Short days
All helps to speed up senescence.
ABSCISSON
This is defined as the fall of leaves, seed, flower, etc brought about by the formation of
a layer of cells known as ABSCISSION LAYER at the stalk. Before senescing leaf abscisse,
there is the outward transportation of food and minerals from the matured leaves via the
petiole to the developing seeds and fruits. Immediately after these, an inhibiting hormone
known as ABSCISSSIN is secreted to effect the dissolution of the cementing materials
(middle lamella or calcium pectate). These in-turn leads to the separation of the cells
within the abscission layer.

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