Introduction 2

 Engineering science is usually subdivided into number of topics such as

1. Solid Mechanics
2. Fluid Mechanics
3. Heat Transfer
4. Properties of materials

 The solid mechanics is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with

behaviours of solid bodies subjected to various types of loadings.

 It is further subdivivded into two streams i.e., Mechanics of rigid bodies or

simply Mechanics and Mechanics of deformable solids.
Loads 3

 Externally applied forces are termed as loads. Loads may arise due to one, or a
combination of the following reasons –

1. due to service conditions

2. due to environment in which the component works
3. through contact with other members
4. due to fluid pressures
5. due to gravity or inertia forces.
Mechanic of Deformable Solids 4

 The mechanics of deformable solids is more concerned with internal forces and
associated changes in the geometry of the components involved.

 Of particular importance are the properties of the materials used, the strength of which
will determine whether the components fail by breaking in service, and the stiffness of
which will determine whether the amount of deformation they suffer is acceptable.

 The objectives in analysis here will be the determination of the stresses, strains, and
deflections produced by loads.
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Module 1
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Stresses and Strains 6

 When a material is loaded, it deforms.

 The resistance offered by a material or body against deformation is called Stress.
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 Mathematically, Stress is the Force per unit Area and is represented by σ

σ =P/A
Where, P = The load or force acting on the body
A = Cross-sectional area of the body

 The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International system) are N / m2 or Pa

 MPa = 106 Pa or 1 N / mm2

 GPa = 109 Pa
 KPa = 103 Pa
 8
 The deformation induced by the external force causes a change in the dimension of
the body.

 The deformation per unit length is Strain, represented by ε

dl
𝜀 =
𝑙
Where, 𝑑𝑙 = Change of length of the body
𝑙 = Original length of the body

 Since strain is a ratio, it is a non dimensional quantity.

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Types of Stresses 10

 There are only two basic stresses:

1. Normal Stress
2. Shear Stress

 Other stresses either are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of these.

 Bending stress is a combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses.

 Torsional stress, as encountered in twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress.

11
Normal Stresses (σ) 12

 Normal stresses are those that are perpendicular to the areas concerned.

 They may be compressive or tensile depending on the direction of the loads.

Bearing Stress 13

 A form of compressive stress where one object presses against another.

Shear Stress (𝜏) 14

 Here the forces act parallel to the area concerned, causing shearing of the material.
 15
 The resulting stress developed is shear stress.
Mean shear stress: 𝜏 = 𝑃Τ𝐴

 Shear strain is given by 𝜑 = 𝛿𝑙 Τ𝑙

Hooke’s Law and Young’s Modulus 16

 A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original, unloaded dimensions when load
is removed.

 Hooke’s law states that when a material is loaded within its Elastic Limit, the stress is
proportional to the strain.

𝜎 𝛼 𝜀, within the elastic limit of the material

or, 𝜎 = 𝐸 𝑥 𝜀

Where E = A constant of proportionality known as Modulus of Elasticity of Young’s Modulus.

It has the same units as stress.
Stress-Strain Curves 17

Stress – Strain Curve for Mild Steel

Points of Interest 18

 Point A - The Proportionality Limit: Stress is proportional to strain.

 Point B – The Elastic Limit: Deformations are recoverable.
 Points C and D – Upper and Lower Yield Points: Deformations are non-recoverable.
 Point E – Ultimate Strength: Maximum load that can be sustained by the material without
failure.
 Point F – Fracture or Failure Point.

 Modulus of Resilience: Area under stress-strain curve up to elastic limit.

 Modulus of Toughness: Area under stress-strain curve up to fracture point.
 19

Stress – Strain Curve for High Strength Steel

 20

Stress – Strain Curve for Concrete

 21

Stress – Strain Curve

Comparison
Deformation of Bars 22

 The change in length of a linearly elastic and prismatic bar -

𝑃𝑙
𝑑𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸
Where AE = Axial Rigidity of the bar

 The change in length of a uniformly tapering round bar –

4𝑃𝑙
𝑑𝑙 =
𝜋 𝐸 𝑑1 𝑑2
Where d1 and d2 are the diameters at opposite ends of the bar
 23

 The change in length of a uniformly tapering rectangular bar –

𝑃𝑙 𝑊2
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝐸 𝑡 (𝑊2 − 𝑊1 ) 𝑊1
Where t = Thickness of the bar
W2 and W1 are the width of the bar at opposite ends
Poisson’s Ratio 24

 When an object is elongated or compressed in one direction, there is a change of width

in the other two mutually perpendicular directions.

 Thus every direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its own direction and an opposite
kind of strain in every direction at right angles to it.

 These are known as Primary and Secondary strains, respectively.

 The ratio of Secondary strain to Primary strain is constant for a material within its elastic
limit.
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𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

 This constant is known as Poisson’s ratio and is denoted by 𝜈 𝑜𝑟 𝜇 𝑜𝑟 1/𝑚

 The lateral strain can be used to find the change in the lateral dimensions.

𝑑𝑡 = 𝜈 𝑥 𝜀 𝑥 𝑡
𝑑𝑏 = 𝜈 𝑥 𝜀 𝑥 𝑏

Where b = Breadth of the bar

t = Thickness of the bar
Volumetric Strain 26

 A force or a system of forces acting on a body cause a change in its volume.

𝑑𝑉
Volumetric Strain 𝜀𝑣 =
𝑉

Where, V = Original Volume

dV = Change in Volume = Final volume – Original volume
 27

 When subjected to a force in a single direction,

𝜀𝑣 = 𝜀 (1 − 2𝜈)
Where 𝜀 is the linear strain

 When subjected to 3 mutually perpendicular forces in x, y and z directions,

𝜀𝑣 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧

Where 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝜀𝑧 are strains in x, y and z directions respectively.

 28
 When the stresses cause tension,
1
𝜀𝑥 = [𝜎 − 𝜈 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 ]
𝐸 𝑥
1
𝜀𝑦 = [𝜎 − 𝜈 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧 ]
𝐸 𝑦
1
𝜀𝑧 = [𝜎𝑧 − 𝜈 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 ]
𝐸

 Sign Convention: Tensile strain is positive, Compressive strain is negative

Bulk Modulus 29

 If a body is subjected to the same direct stress 𝜎 in three mutually perpendicular

directions, then

𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
= = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐾
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑣

Where K is the Bulk Modulus (N/mm2)

Shear Stress and Shear Strain 30

 When a block is subjected to shear stress 𝜏 on two sides, complementary shear stresses
𝜏′ are induced to maintain equilibrium. These stresses form couples.

𝜏 = 𝜏′
 31

 The state of pure shear with stress 𝜏 produces tensile and compressive stresses along
the diagonals, also of magnitude 𝜏.

 The corresponding strain along the diagonals is equal to half the shear strain.
∅
=
2
Where ∅ is the shear strain
Modulus of Rigidity 32

 Within the elastic limit, shear stress is proportional to shear strain.

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏
= = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐺
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜑

Where G is the Modulus of Rigidity (N/mm2)

Relationship between Elastic 33

Constants
1. Relationship between E and K
𝐸 = 3𝐾 (1 − 2𝜈)
2. Relationship between E and G
𝐸 = 2𝐺 (1 + 𝜈)
3. Relationship between K and G
3𝐾 (1 − 2𝜈)
𝐺=
2 (1 + 𝜈)
3. Relationship between E, K and G
9𝐾𝐺
𝐸=
(3𝐾 + 𝐺)
Temperature Stresses 34

 Materials expand on heating and contract on cooling. This is known as thermal

expansion or contraction.

 If a material is constrained, and is not partly or fully free to change its length, then
stresses are developed in the material.

 These stresses are called temperature stresses.

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 36
 Expansion or contraction of the bar when unconstrained is given by

𝑑𝑙 = 𝛼 𝑡 𝑙
Where 𝛼 = Coefficient of linear expansion of the material ( /°C or /K)
t = Change in temperature ( °C or K)
l = Original length

 Stress in the bar when its ends are constrained is given by

𝜎=𝐸𝛼𝑡
Where E is the Modulus of Elasticity of the material
 37
 If the support only partially constrains the bar and yields by an amount a, then
deformation is given by
𝑑𝑙 = 𝛼 𝑡 𝑙 − 𝑎

 Stress in the bar when its ends are partially constrained is given by

𝐸 𝛼𝑡𝑙 −𝑎
𝜎=
𝑙
Temperature Stresses in Composite 38

Bars

 When a bar consists of 2 materials rigidly joined together, thermal stresses are induced
even without the bar being constrained.
 39
 The material with higher 𝛼 experiences compression as its expansion is restrained by the
material with lower 𝛼.

 Conversely, the material with lower 𝛼 experiences tension as its expansion is increased
by the material with higher 𝛼.

 The net deformation of this composite section will lie between the deformation of the two
materials.

 The force and strain developed in the two materials will be the same, while the stress
developed will depend on their cross-sectional area.
Composite Sections 40

 A composite section consists of two or more materials bonded rigidly together such that
the straining action of the load is shared by them.
 To analyse composite sections we need two equations –
41
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2

𝑃1 𝐿1 𝑃2 𝐿2
= , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2
Where 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 are loads in materials 1 and 2
𝐿1 , 𝐿2 are lengths of materials 1 and 2
𝐴1 , 𝐴2 are cross-sectional areas of materials 1 and 2
𝐸1 , 𝐸2 are Moduli of Elasticity of materials 1 and 2

 MODULAR RATIO (m) – The ratio of the modulus of elasticity of two materials

𝐸1
𝑚=
𝐸2