EXPERIMENT NO: 1 Temperature sensors

PART A: Resistance temperature detector

Aim: To measure temperature by resistance temperature detector (RTD-PT100)

Theory: Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

RTD using metals is Sir Humphrey Davy’s contribution to temperature measurement. Then
Siemens preferred the use of platinum as temperature sensing element. Platinum RTD is used as
interpolation standard from -182.96 ͦC to 630.74 ͦC that is from oxygen to antimony.

Platinum wire is bound as bifilar on either ceramic bobbin or glass bobbin. This reduces noise
pickup this is then to be matched for temperature. The latest version has Platinum film deposited
on a small flat ceramic substrate. Size is small and responses faster but these are less stable.

For measurement of temperature number of sensors are available. One of the most linear, stable,
and reproducible temperature sensors is the RTD, resistance temperature detector. In RTD the
output resistance changes with temperature. RTD is a positive temperature Coefficient device. The
resistance of the metal increases with temperature.

The resistivity property of the metal is called its resistivity. The resistive property defines length
and cross section area required to fabricate and RTD of given value the resistance is proportional
to length and inversely proportional to cross sectional area and is given by relationship where R is
resistance of metal Alpha is resistivity of metal I is length of metal, and A is a is area of cross
section of the metal.

Resistance temperature detector RTD is as the name implies is a sensor used to measure
temperature by correlating the resistance with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length
of fine collide wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quiet fragile,
so it is often placed inside a sheltered probe to project it. The RTD element is made from pure
metal as mentioned below. The material property to have the predictable change in resistance as
the temperature changes are used to determine temperature.

Typical Platinum RTD has 100 ohms resistance at 0 ͦC and 139.25 ohms at 100 ͦC. This is useful
up to 800ͦC. It is necessary to protect this element from contamination. Typically, silica reducing
to Silicon is refractory forms an alloy with Platinum making is brittle. These are used down to 20ͦ
k. Platinum thermistors for industrial use have to confirm to equivalent quotes. The RTD and
thermistor are generally used either in three wire or four wire configuration. Four wire is preferred
when RTD is provided with only two lead wires. Then an equal length of wire loop running from
bridge arm is carried up to the locations of RTD. This gives a complete compensation of variation
in resistance of lead wire due to environmental temperature variations.
In another alternative, current sources exiles RTD element and the output voltage across RTD
which is proportional to resistance variation due to temperature. Which are measured using very
high input impedance type DVM.

Three wire circuit is used to avoid the expense of fourth wire and also when three leads are
available from RTD. This provides the best temperature compensation for lead length. The outer
sheet of 316 or 314 stainless steel provides for temperature range stability preferably up to 600ͦ C
or 873 K. A material called hi-purity alumina forming an outer sheath enabled withstanding up to
1200ͦoC or 1473 K. However, keep in mind that use of thermo-well i.e., protective jackets degrade
the response of temperature. In gas or steam flow, avoid placing the probe in direct contact with
the high-velocity flow.

Note also the effect of cavitation on the probe that is placed in the high-velocity liquid flow. These
effects may be introducing errors in measurements. The charts give performances capabilities of
standard, and smart RTD has built in electronics to take care of extraneous variations in error
introducing parameters.

RTD-PT100
A metallic resistance element changes its resistance with temperature in a very specific manner.
Pure elements have been used for measurement of temperature by effect as it is accurate.

Electrical conductivity i\of a metal element is given by:

α= ne2t1/m
e= electron charge
m= mass of electron
t1= Relaxation time

Before performing the practical on RTD, one must be well versed with

1 The importance of temperature measurement for various units of temperature measurement and
2. Conversion of one unit to another.
3 Knowledge of various methods of temperature measurement.
4 The meaning of terms like process lag, positive and negative temperature coefficient, negative
temperature, virtual temperature, etc..
5. Knowledge of active and passive inducers.

Metal Range Del R/Deg C

Platinum -190 to 680 Deg C 0.385

Copper -150 to 250 Deg C 0.43
Nickel -0 to 325 Deg C 0.63
Temperature

Temperature is a measure of average heat or thermal energy of particles in the substance. Since it
is an average measurement, it does not depend on some particles in an object. In that sense, it does
not depend on the number of particles in the object. In that sense, it does not depend on a size of
it. For example, the temperature of a small cup of boiling water is the same as the temperature of
a large pot. But large pot is much bigger than the cup and has millions and millions of water
molecule. The basic unit of temperature (T) in the internal system of units (SI) is the kelvin (K).
The commonly used other units of temperature are degree Celsius and degree Fahrenheit.
.
Electrical resistance

The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow of an electric current
for the wide range of materials and conditions. The electrical resistance does not depend on the
amount of the current through or the potential difference across the Object.

That means the resistance R is constant for the given temperature and material.Therefore the
resistance of an object can be defined as the ratio of voltage to current, by Ohm's law. The unit of
resistance is in Ohms. R=V/I.

Metals used to make RTD sensors

1. Platinum
2. Nickel copper
3. Balco (rare)
4. Tungsten(rare)

The criterions for selecting a material for an RTD

1. Malleability to form small wires

2. Linear relationship between resistance and temperature
3. Replicability and stability
4. Corrosion
5. Low cost
 6. Easy availability

Temperature calculations:
RTD are manufactured from metals whose resistance increases with temperature. Within a limited
temperature range, its resistance increases linearly with temperature.

Rt= R0+α(t-t0)

Where, Rt =resistance at temperature ‘t.'.

R0= resistance at a reference temperature (Ω/◦C).
Setting t0 to 0◦C and rearranging to the standard linear y=mx+b form, it's clear that resistance vs.
temperature is linear with slope equal to R/R0= α*t+1.

The Callender Van Dusen equation is used in standard IEC 751 which is the most popular used for
RTD. Platinum RTDs are defined by standards such as DIN 43760(BS1904), IEC 751-1983, and
JIS C1604. RTD materials

RTD performance specifications:

Temperature Coefficient: it is the change in resistance of the material for degree change in
temperature. This value should be as high as possible to give the higher accuracy of temperature
measurement.

Apparatus:

1. Characteristics of temperature sensors setup-IT15

2. Temperature sensor, RTD-PT100
2. Digital multimeter (in Ohms range)

Procedure:

1. Connect mains chord to 5A socket. Switch on the mains power supply to the system.
2. Insert the RTD-PT100 temperature sensor into the slot provided in the heated block.
3. Set the temperature to 60oC and wait for it to be stabilized.
4. Connect the RTD sensor wired turnouts to digital multimeter set on 200E resistance scale.
5. At a stable set temperature, note the reading in Ohms.
6. Refer to the formula to calculate the resistance theoretically. The temperature coefficient of
resistance (α) is 0.00385 Ω/ oC (for Standard RTD-PT100, DIN 43760, Class B, 0.5%).
7. The procedure can be repeated at various temperatures with an interval of 10 oC upto 130oC.
8. Plot graph of temperature (x-axis) versus Ohms measured and calculated (y-axis).

Observation:
 Set temperature on Resistance measured Resistance calculated Absolute error (Ω)
PID controller (oC) on digital multimeter from formula (Ω)
(Ω)
A B C D = |B – C|

Figure 1: Temperature versus Ohms of PT100 measured or calculated for RTD

Results:

The resistance of RTD-PT100 varies linearly with temperature. The resistance at room
temperature is ___.

Hence, RTD-PT100 can be referred to as positive temperature coefficient (PTC).

The change in resistance with increase in temperature is small.

Conclusion:Temperature measurement using RTD-PT100 sensor has been studied.

PART B: Thermistor

Aim: To measure temperature by thermistor

Theory:

NTC thermistor is a generic name given to thermally sensitive resistors. A negative temperature
Coefficient thermistor is generally called a thermistor. A thermistor is semiconductor ceramic
device produced by sintering the material at high temperature. As the temperature increases the
resistance decreases vice versa. This phenomenon is just opposite to the effect of temperature
changes in the metals. The thermistor resistance measurement must be made precisely while
applying essentially zero power to assure measurement accuracy.

Applications
1. Temperature measurement and control
2. Temperature compensation of transistor
3. Current source separation
4. Time delay
5. Fluid level detection
6. Flow measurement and control
7. Amplitude and gain control
8. Power measurement and control
9. Voltage stabilization and control

NTC thermistor curve

The resistance temperature characteristics for a negative temperature Coefficient (NTC).

The resistance temperature plot for negative temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor is
approximately exponential and is reasonably well described by the relationship R=AeB/T.

1. The temperature Coefficient Alpha of a thermistor can be derived and is defined as

α=dR1d/T.
2. In above formula, for R is differentiated and substituted,integration to the algebraic
equation for temperature Coefficient becomes
Α= -B/T2.
3. The graph gives a typical resistance temperature plotting along with the graphical
interpretation of Alpha. .R=Ae. α = -B/ T2 -2%/◦C -5%/◦C

NTC thermistor applications: Low-cost temperature measurement. The high sensitivity of

thermistor makes it an ideal candidate for low-cost temperature measurement. Utilizing two
thermistors in a bridge circuit. The addition of the second thermistor makes the circuit twice as
sensitive and permits the use of lower sensitive meter.

Apparatus:

1. Characteristics of temperature sensors setup-IT15

2. Temperature sensor, thermistor
3. Digital multimeter (in Ohms range)

Procedure:

1. Connect mains chord to 5A socket. Switch on the mains power supply to the system.
2. Insert the thermistor into the slot provided in the heated block.
3. Set the temperature to 60oC and wait for it to be stabilized.
4. Connect the thermistor wired turnouts to digital multimeter set on 200K resistance scale.
5. At a stable set temperature, note the reading in Ohms.
6. The procedure can be repeated at various temperatures with an interval of 10 oC upto 130oC.
7. Plot graph of temperature (x-axis) versus Ohms measured and calculated (y-axis).

Observation:

Set temperature on Resistance measured

PID controller (oC) on digital multimeter
(Ω)
A B

Figure 2: Temperature versus Ohms of thermistor measured

Results:

The resistance of thermistor varies lograthmically with temperature. The resistance is high at
room temperature.

Hence, thermistor can be referred to as negative temperature coefficient (NTC).

Conclusion:

Temperature measurement using thermistor has been studied.

PART C: Thermocouple
Aim: To measure temperature by thermocouple

Theory:

THERMOCOUPLE

Due to the low cost and ease of use, thermocouples are still a popular means for making
temperature measurement, up to several thousand degrees centigrade. A Thermocouple is made by
joining wires of two different metals. The output voltages are approximately proportional to the
temperature difference between the measuring junction and the reference junction. This constant
of proportionality is known as the Seebeck coefficient and ranges from 5m V/ͦ C to 50 m V/ͦC for
commonly used thermocouples.

Because a Thermocouple is sensitive to a temperature difference, the temperature at referenced

junction must be known to make a temperature measurement. One way to do this is to keep the
reference junction in an ice bath. This has the advantage of zero output voltage at 0ͦ C, making
Thermocouple table usable.

A more convenient approach known as cold junction compensation is to add compensating voltage
to the Thermocouple output so that the reference junction appears to be zero degree Celsius. That
is independent of the actual temperature, if this voltage is made proportional to temperature, with
the same constant of proportionality.

There will be several sources of error involved when measuring temperature with Thermocouple.
The most basic of these is tolerance of Thermocouple itself, due to varying composition of the
wire material. Note that this tolerance states how much the voltage vs. temperature characteristic
differs from that of an ideal. Thermocouple has nothing to do with non-linearity.

Tolerance is typically ± ¾ %of reading for J, K, and T types or ±1/2 % for S and R types, so that
measurement of 1000ͦC maybe off by as much as 7.5ͦC. Special wire is available with half the error
guaranteed.

The additional error can be introduced by the compensation circuitry. For perfect compensation,
the compensation circuit must match the outpoint referenced Thermocouple at ambient. It is
difficult to match the thermocouples nonlinear voltage vs. temperature characteristic with the
linear absolute temperature sensor. So a “best fit” linear approximation must be made.

The K Type is most linear while S type is one of the least linear. When using an absolute
temperature sensor for cold junction compensation, compensation error is a function of both
Thermocouple on linearity, and also the variation is ambient temperature, since the straight line
approximation to Thermocouple characteristic is more valid for small Deviations.

Thermocouple non-linearity is not so gross so that a numerical error calculation is better than the
graphical approach. Most Thermocouple functions have positive curvature, So that a linear
approximation with minimum means square error with intersecting the function at two points. As
a first cut, one can pick these points at 1/3 and 2/3 points across the ambient temperature range.
Then calculate the difference between the linear approximation and the Thermocouple.

This error will usually then be a maximum at the midpoint and end points of the temperature range.
If the error becomes too large at either temperature extreme, One can modify the slope of the
intercept of the line. Once the linear approximation is found that maximizes error over the
temperature range. Use its slopes, the Seebeck coefficient value when designing a cold junction
compensation.

Apparatus:

1. Characteristics of temperature sensors setup-IT15

2. Temperature sensor, thermocouple (K-type)
3. Digital multimeter (in mV DC)

Procedure:

1. Connect mains chord to 5A socket. Switch on the mains power supply to the system.
2. Insert the thermocouple at least 50 mm deep into the slot provided in the heated block.
3. Set the temperature to 60oC and wait for it to be stabilized.
4. Connect the thermocouple wired turnouts to digital multimeter set on 200M resistance scale.
5. At a stable set temperature, note the emf in mV DC.
6. Note down the room temperature of mercury glass thermometer.
7. Refer to standard chart for the thermocouple type (K-type, ANSIC 96, 1%) to get
corresponding voltage (mV) at room temperature (say, 1.53 mV at 28 oC)..
8. The procedure can be repeated at various temperatures with an interval of 10 oC upto 130oC.
9. Plot graph of temperature (x-axis) versus mV measured and calculated (y-axis).

Observation:

Set temperature Voltage Temperature in Temperature Absolute error

on PID controller measured on mV, in mV from (mV)
(oC) digital Thermocouple emf chart (mV)
multimeter (mV) (mV)
A B C = B + 1.53 D E = |C – D|
 Figure 4: Temperature versus voltage measured for thermocouple

Specifications: input data

Thermocouple: K type
Accuracy: AnSIC 96, 1%
Room Temperature: 28 deg C
Resistance in DMM: 200M Ω
Voltage measured at room temperature from mercury thermometer: 1.53 mV

Results:

The thermo emf of thermocouple varies linearly with temperature. The emf is low at room
temperature.

The change in thermo emf increases with increase in temperature is small.

Conclusion:

Temperature measurement using thermocouple has been studied.

PART D: First order system

Aim: To study first order system using thermocouple, thermistor and RTD

Apparatus:

1. Characteristics of temperature sensors setup-IT15

2. Temperature sensor, thermocouple (K-type), NTC thermistor and RTD
3. Digital multimeter
4. Digital stopwatch/timer

Procedure:

1. Connect mains chord to 5A socket. Switch on the mains power supply to the system.
2. Wait for stabilization to room temperature. Set the temperature to a greater value say, 70 oC.
4. Connect the any one of the sensor wired turnouts to digital multimeter set on corresponding
unit in multimeter and note the values for corresponding temperature at definite interval.
5. Insert the sensor at least 50 mm deep into the slot provided in the heated block.
6. Start the timer and note the observations at least for every 5 to 10 seconds.
7. Plot graph of time (x-axis) versus voltage measured (y-axis).

Observation:

Set temperature on PID controller (oC) =

Time (seconds) Voltage measured on digital

multimeter (mV)
A B
 Figure 5: Time versus voltage measured for thermocouple

Results:

From the plot above, response time, τ is estimated as the time taken for the output to reach 63.2%
of the set value.

Conclusion:

Hence, we have studied first order system for thermocouple.

PART E: Signal Conditioned

Aim: To study signal conditioned using OPAMP for amplifying signals from Thermistor.

Apparatus:

1. Characteristics of temperature sensors setup-IT15

2. Temperature NTC-Thermistor
3. Digital multimeter (in mV DC) for thermistor (ohms range)
4. Digital stopwatch/timer

Procedure:

1. Connect mains chord to 5A socket. Switch on the mains power supply to the system.
2. Wait for stabilization to room temperature. Set the temperature to a greater value say, 70 oC.
4. Connect the sensor wired turnouts to OPAMP circuit provided for specific sensor on the
device, and connect digital multimeter set on corresponding unit in multimeter in the OPAMP
circuit and note the values for corresponding temperature at definite interval.
5. Insert the sensor at least 50 mm deep into the slot provided in the heated block.
6. Start the timer and note the observations at least for every 5 to 10 seconds.
7. Plot graph of time (x-axis) versus voltage measured (y-axis).

Observation:

Set temperature on Resistance measured

PID controller (oC) on digital multimeter
(Ω)
A B
Set temperature on PID controller (oC) =

Figure 6: Time versus resistance measured for thermistor

Results:

From the plot above, it is observed that the OPAMP circuit and thermistor can be used to
measure temperature.

Conclusion:

Hence, we have studied signal conditioned for thermistor