1 Data representation

1.1 Number systems

1 Understand how and why computers use binary to represent all forms of data
Example of Data –
 Text
 Image
 Sound
 Numbers
Why computers use binary to represent all forms of data?
• Computer consist of transistors / logic circuits
• … that can only store/process data in two states / as high-low / on-off / 1 and 0
How computers use binary to represent all forms of data?
Text: Each character in a text document is assigned a unique binary code, called
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) code. For example, the
letter "A" is represented by the binary code 01000001.
Images: Each pixel in an image is represented by a set of binary values that describe
its color. The number of bits used to represent each pixel determines the range of
colors that can be displayed. For example, a 24-bit image uses 8 bits each for red,
green, and blue, allowing for over 16 million possible colors.
Audio: Audio signals are converted into digital data by sampling the sound wave at
regular intervals and assigning a binary value to each sample. The number of bits used
to represent each sample determines the quality of the audio recording. For example, a
16-bit audio recording can represent 65,536 different levels of sound.
Numbers: Binary can also be used to represent numbers. In binary, each digit
represents a power of 2, starting with 20 on the right-hand side. For example, the
binary number 1011 represents 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11.

2 (a) Understand the denary, binary and hexadecimal number systems

• Denary is a base 10 system
• Binary is a base 2 system
• Hexadecimal is a base 16 system

(b) Convert between

 (i) positive denary and positive binary
(ii) positive denary and positive hexadecimal
(iii) positive hexadecimal and positive binary
Activity 1.1 to 1.6

3 Understand how and why hexadecimal is used as a beneficial method of data representation
Why and how?
[Compact representation: Hexadecimal is a more compact way of representing large
binary numbers. This is because four bits can be represented by a single hexadecimal
digit, whereas it takes three decimal digits to represent the same number. This makes
hexadecimal more space-efficient and easier to read than binary.
Easy conversion: Hexadecimal is easy to convert to and from binary. Since each
hexadecimal digit represents four bits, it's easy to convert between the two. This
makes it a convenient way to represent binary data, especially in computer
programming.
Human readability: Unlike binary, hexadecimal is much easier for humans to read and
work with. This is because hexadecimal uses digits and letters that are familiar to us,
rather than just 0s and 1s. For example, the binary number 1101 0110 is much easier
to read as D6 in hexadecimal.
Color representation: Hexadecimal is commonly used to represent colors in web
design and graphics software. In this context, each color is represented by a six-digit
hexadecimal number that represents the red, green, and blue values of the color.
In summary, hexadecimal is a beneficial method of data representation because it is
more compact, easier to convert, more readable, and commonly used in color
representation.]  for AIR1
The benefits of using hexadecimal rather than binary for a programmer are:
• Hexadecimal is a shorter way of representing binary, so it takes up less space on the
computer screen or piece of paper. // more can be displayed on a screen for addresses etc.
• Hexadecimal is easier for a programmer to read, write and understand.
• Hexadecimal is easier to debug and locate errors in data
• faster than binary for entering numbers
 Uses of hexadecimal -
 To represent Error codes
 To represent MAC address
 To represent IP address
 To represent HTML colour codes

Describe what is meant by a MAC address?

• used to identify a device
• it is a unique (address)
• it is a static address // it does not change
• it is set by the manufacturer
• the first part is the manufacturer ID / number / identifies the manufacturer
• the second part is the serial number / ID.

4 (a) Add two positive 8-bit binary integers

Activity 1.8 and 1.9

(b) Understand the concept of overflow and why it occurs in binary addition
• An overflow error will occur if the value is greater than 255 in an 8-bit register
• A computer or a device has a predefined limit that it can represent or store, for
example 16-bit
• An overflow error occurs when a value outside this limit should be returned

5 Perform a logical binary shift on a positive 8-bit binary integer and understand the effect
this has on the positive binary integer
• Bits shifted from the end of the register are lost and zeros are shifted in at the
opposite end of the register
• The most significant bit(s) are lost in left shift. The least significant bit(s) are lost
in right shift
• Each shift left is equivalent to multiplying the binary number by 2 and each shift
right is equivalent to dividing the binary number by 2.
Activity 1.11
6 Use two’s complement to represent positive and negative 8-bit binary integers
Activity 1.12, 1.13, 1.14

1.2 Text, sound and images

Candidates should be able to:
1 Understand how and why a computer represents text and the use of character sets, including
American standard code for information interchange (ASCII) and Unicode
• Text is converted to binary to be processed by a computer
• ASCII has limitations, such as its inability to represent characters used in languages
other than English.
• Unicode allows for a greater range of characters, and symbols than ASCII, including
different languages, mathematical symbols and emojis
• Unicode requires more bits per character than ASCII.

2 Understand how and why a computer represents sound, including the effects of the sample
rate and sample resolution
• A sound wave is sampled for sound to be converted to binary, which is processed by a
computer
• The sample rate is the number of samples taken in a second
• The sample resolution is the number of bits per sample
• The accuracy of the recording and the file size increases as the sample rate and
resolution increase

Describe what do you mean by Sample Resolution.

• The number of bits that are used per sample
• − … that provides the variation in amplitude that can be stored for each sample
• − … that determines how quiet/loud the sounds are that can be recorded.
• An example sample resolution e.g. 16-bit
• It is a crucial factor in determining the quality and accuracy of digital audio
recordings.
• Sample resolution refers to the number of bits used to represent the amplitude of the
sound wave at each sample point.
3 Understand how and why a computer represents an image, including the effects of the
resolution and colour depth
• An image is a series of pixels that are converted to binary, which is processed by a
computer
• The resolution is the number of pixels in the image
• The colour depth is the number of bits used to represent each colour
• The file size and quality of the image increases as the resolution and colour depth
increase

1.3 Data storage and compression

Candidates should be able to:
1 Understand how data storage is measured
2 Calculate the file size of an image file and a sound file, using information given
3 Understand the purpose of and need for data compression
File compression – reduce the file size
Compressing a file will reduce the size of the file that can have several benefits, such as:
• Not as much storage space is needed to store the file.
• It will take less time to transmit the file from one device to another.
• It will be quicker to upload and download the file.
• Not as much bandwidth is needed to transmit the file over the internet.

Describe how lossless compression compresses the text file.

A compression algorithm such as RLE/run length encoding is used
Repeating words/characters/phrases are identified // Patterns are identified
… and indexed
… with number of occurrences
… with their position

4 Understand how files are compressed using lossy and lossless compression methods
Miriam needs to use a large high-resolution photo as a thumbnail image on a website. She
will use lossy compression to reduce the file size of the photo to create the thumbnail image.
(a) State why a smaller file size is appropriate for this situation.[1]
 Smaller file size reduces download / display time // reduces upload time
(b) Explain how lossy compression reduces the file size[4]
 A compression algorithm is used like MP3, MP4, JPGE
 Permanently deleting some data // file cannot be restored to original
 Reduce the range of colours used/Colour depth /bits per pixel/ palette can be reduced
 Reduce the number of pixels / image resolution removes data that will not be noticed
by the user // removes unnecessary data

2 Data transmission
2.1 Types and methods of data transmission
Candidates should be able to:
1 (a) Understand that data is broken down into packets to be transmitted
(b) Describe the structure of a packet
• A packet of data in a unit of data contains a
– packet header
– payload
– trailer
• The packet header includes the:
– destination address
– packet number
– originator’s address

(c) Describe the process of packet switching

• Data is broken down into packets
• Each packet could take a different route
• A router controls the route a packet takes
• Packets may arrive out of order
• Once the last packet has arrived, packets are reordered

2 (a) Describe how data is transmitted from one device to another using different methods of
data transmission
– serial
– parallel
– simplex
 – half-duplex
– full-duplex
(b) Explain the suitability of each method of data transmission, for a given scenario
• Advantages and disadvantages of Serial and Parallel method Table 2.1

3 Understand the universal serial bus (USB) interface and explain how it is used to transmit
Data Table 2.2

2.2 Methods of error detection

Candidates should be able to:
1 Understand the need to check for errors after data transmission and how these errors can
occur
 Errors can occur during data transmission due to interference, e.g. data loss, data gain
and data change

2 Describe the processes involved in each of the following error detection methods for
detecting errors in data after transmission: parity check (odd and even), checksum and echo
check
Parity Check:
• Parity can be set to odd or even
• Sender and receiver agree on parity to use
• Data/email/image is split into bytes // blocks of 7 bytes
• Sender counts the number of 1s/0s in each group/byte
• Each group/byte is assigned a parity bit to match the parity/odd/even
• Receiving device/server recounts the number of 1s/0s in each group/byte
• … and compares to parity used/odd/even and if it does not match the parity, an error
is reported/identified
• (in block check) the location of the error(s) can be identified/estimated at the
intersection
State why a parity check may not detect transmission errors.
• Transposition error // bits are interchanged//If two of the bits change value following
data transmission, Bits still add up to even number
 • More than one bit has been modified during data transmission. The byte has clearly
been corrupted, but the bytes have retained agreed parity.

Checksum
» when a block of data is about to be transmitted, the checksum is calculated from the
block of data
» the calculation is done using an agreed algorithm (this algorithm has been agreed by
sender and receiver)
» the checksum is then transmitted with the block of data
» at the receiving end, the checksum is recalculated by the computer using the block
of data (the agreed algorithm is used to find the checksum)
» the re-calculated checksum is then compared to the checksum sent with the data
block
» if the two checksums are the same, then no transmission errors have occurred;
otherwise a request is made to re-send the block of data.

Eco Check
» a copy of the data is sent back to the sender
» the returned data is compared with the original data by the sender’s computer
» if there are no differences, then the data was sent without error
» if the two sets of data are different, then an error occurred at some stage
during the data transmission.

3 Describe how a check digit is used to detect errors in data entry and identify examples of
when a check digit is used, including international standard book numbers (ISBN) and bar
codes
Refer ISBN 13 and Modulo 11

4 Describe how an automatic repeat query (ARQ) can be used to establish that data is
received without error
Automatic Repeat request (ARQ)
• Uses acknowledgement and timeout
• Sender starts a timer when data is transmitted
 • Receiver uses an error checking method to check whether the data has been received
accurately
• If no error detected a positive acknowledgement is returned to sender
• If error detected negative acknowledgement is returned to sender
• If sender gets no acknowledgement within the set time it resends the data
• ARQ is often used by mobile phone networks to guarantee data integrity.

2.3 Encryption
Candidates should be able to:
1 Understand the need for and purpose of encryption when transmitting data
Encryption –
• Scrambles data
• The process of making data meaningless/ unintelligible using encryption keys;
without the correct decryption key the data cannot be decoded (unscrambled)
• Data / plain text is changed to cipher text
• A method of securing data for storage or transmission that scrambles it and makes it
meaningless.

2 Understand how data is encrypted using symmetric and asymmetric encryption

• Asymmetric encryption includes the use of public and private keys

Symmetric: a type of encryption that uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt
data.
Asymmetric: a type of encryption that uses two different keys to encrypt and decrypt
data.

The process for symmetric encryption is:

• Plain text is encrypted into cipher text using an encryption key.
• The cipher text and the encryption key are sent separately to the receiving device.
• The same key is then used to decrypt the cipher text back into its plain text form.

The process for asymmetric encryption is:

• Plain text is encrypted into cipher text using a public key. This is also a type of
encryption algorithm.
 • The cipher text is transmitted to the receiving device.
• The cipher text cannot be decrypted using the public key, it is decrypted using a
private key.
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3 Hardware
3.1 Computer architecture
LO - 1 (a) Understand the role of the central processing unit (CPU) in a computer
• The CPU processes instructions and data that are input into the computer so that the result
can be output

LO – 1 (b) Understand what is meant by a microprocessor

• A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip

LO - 2 (a) Understand the purpose of the components in a CPU, in a computer that has a Von
Neumann architecture
architecture: the design of a computer system, including the components it contains.
• Including:
– units: arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU)
– registers: program counter (PC), memory address register (MAR), memory data register
(MDR), current instruction register (CIR) and accumulator (ACC)
– buses: address bus, data bus and control bus
Component Description
Program Counter (PC) A register that holds the address of the next instruction to be
processed. After each instruction is processed, the PC
contents must be incremented by 1.
Memory Address Register A register that stores the address of where data or an
(MAR) instruction is located in RAM
Memory Data Register A register that stores a data or an instruction when it is
(MDR) fetched from RAM
The contents of MDR then passed to CIR during fetch-
decode-execute cycle
Current Instruction A register that holds the instruction that is currently being
Register (CIR) processed.
Accumulator (ACC) A register that is built into the ALU that is used to store the
interim results of calculations.
Control Unit (CU) A component that sends signals to control the interactions of
all other components during the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
The control unit ensures synchronisation of data flow and
program instructions throughout the computer.
Arithmetic Logic Unit A component that performs arithmetic (e.g. +, - and
(ALU) Shifting) calculations and logical (e.g. AND, OR, XOR)
operations required during the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
It is possible for a computer to have more than one ALU to
carry out specific functions. Multiplication and division are
carried out by a sequence of addition, subtraction and left or
right logical shift operations.
Address Bus A bus that is used to transmit addresses within the CPU and
to, and from RAM.
The address bus is unidirectional (i.e. bits can travel in one
direction only)
Data Bus A bus that is used to transmit data or instruction within the
CPU and to, and from RAM.
The data bus is bidirectional (allowing data to be sent in both
directions along the bus).
Control Bus A bus that is used to transmit control signals that are sent by
the control unit. The control bus is also bidirectional.

LO – 2 (b) Describe the process of the fetch–decode–execute cycle including the role of each
component in the process
• How instructions and data are fetched from random access memory (RAM) into the CPU,
how they are processed using each component and how they are then executed
• Storing data and addresses into specific registers
• Using buses to transmit data, addresses and signals
• Using units to fetch, decode and execute data and instructions

How the fetch stage operates

Steps:
1. PC
2. PC to MAR (Address bus)
3. MAR to MDR (Data Bus)
4. MDR to CIR
5. PC=PC+1
6. Decode and Execute

CIR is part of a the control unit (CU). It is the CU that is responsible for the next stage of the
cycle, the decode stage.

The decode stage

The decode stage of the cycle begins when the instruction is received by the CU.
The CU is the unit in the CPU that decodes the instruction.
The instruction needs to be decoded so that the CPU can understand what is required to
execute the instruction.
To decode an instruction the CU uses an instruction set. This is a set of all the
commands that are understood and can be processed by the CPU. These commands
are in machine code. Once the instruction is decoded using the instruction set, it can
now be executed.

The execute stage

The execute stage is when any actions that are required for the instruction are carried
out. This is likely to involve some mathematical and logical calculations. If these kinds
of calculations are required, the data used in the process is sent to ALU.
Interim values may be created whilst these calculations are being performed, the ALU
has a special register built into it called the accumulator (ACC). It is this special register
that will store the interim values that are created in any calculations. Once any
calculations have been performed, the actions for the instruction can be performed,
e.g. the file can be opened or the letter typed can be displayed.

How do all the different components know what they are doing in the fetch-decode-execute
cycle? They have a conductor! This conductor is the CU. It sends signals to all the
components within the CPU to tell them when they need to perform their different roles. The
CU uses the control bus to send these signals.

Que 1 Where is data stored before it is fetched into the CPU?

2 Which component in the CPU is responsible for making sure the fetch-decode-execute
cycle is performed correctly?
3 What is the role of a bus?
4 Why does the ALU need the ACC? What would have to happen if it didn't have
this special register?
Ans 1 RAM
2 Control unit
3 To transmit data or signals in the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
4 It needs it to store interim results of calculations. If it did not have the accumulator,
it would need to write and read the interim result to and from RAM each time
LO - 3 Understand what is meant by a core, cache and clock in a CPU and explain how they
can affect the performance of a CPU
• The number of cores, size of the cache and speed of the clock can affect the performance of
a CPU
 The number of cores - A single core in a CPU contains all the components that are
used to perform the fetch-decode-execute cycle. Therefore, if a CPU has one core, it
can perform one fetch-decode-execute cycle at a time.
If a CPU has two cores (this is often called a dual core processor) it can perform two
fetch-decode-execute cycles at the same time, one on each core.
Some CPUs have four cores (this is often called a quad core processor) and can
perform four fetch-decode-execute cycles all at the same time.
Therefore, if a CPU has multiple cores, its performance can be increased.
Multiple cores also allow a computer to multitask.
 Speed of the clock - A CPU contains an internal clock that controls the speed at which
instructions are processed. The speed is measured in hertz. A CPU that has a clock
speed of 1 hertz is able to process one instruction per second.
Most modern computers have a clock speed that is measured in gigahertz (GHz).
A CPU with a clock speed of 2 GHz can process 2 billion instructions a second. That
is definitely a busy CPU! If a computer has two cores, each core can process 2 billion
instructions a second.
 Size of the cache - A CPU contains a cache. The cache is a type of data storage within
the CPU. Instructions and data that the computer uses most can be stored in the cache.
This means that the CPU doesn't need to fetch this data from the RAM, just from the
cache, so that process will be quicker. If the CPU can get the data and instructions
quicker, the performance of processing those instructions will improve. If a computer
has a larger cache, so it has more storage space to store the instructions and data it
uses most, then it can store more of them, so will need to spend less time going to the
RAM.

1. Which CPU can process more instructions at the same time, a quad core or a dual
core? Quad
2. How many instructions per second can a dual core 2.4 Ghz CPU process? 4 800 000
000
 3. If the cache size of a CPU is too big, this can actually have a negative effect on the
performance of the CPU. Why might this happen?
If there are a large amount of frequently used data and instructions stored, it will take
longer for the CPU to search through the cache to find the one it is looking for. It
could be quicker in this case for the CPU to get the instruction or data from RAM,
rather than searching a large amount of data in a large cache to find it.

Board Que –
1 A student uses a computer and several hardware devices to complete his schoolwork.
The computer has a central processing unit (CPU).
(a) The student uses a keyboard to complete his schoolwork.
Tick (√) one box to show which type of device the keyboard is.
A input
B memory
C output
D storage [1]
(b) The student uses a printer to print his schoolwork.
Tick (√) one box to show which type of device the printer is.
A input
B memory
C output
D storage [1]
2 A component in the CPU sends signals to manage the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
State the name of this component. [1] Control Unit
The CPU has a clock speed of 2.4Ghz. Describe what is meant by a 2.4Ghz clock speed. [2]
− The CPU completes 2.4 billion
− … cycles/clock pulses per second
The CPU contains registers including the memory data register (MDR). Describe the role of
the MDR in the fetch-decode-execute cycle. [2]
− Stores data that is read from/written to RAM
− … from the address in the MAR
− … which is passed to CIR
Identify three other registers contained in the CPU. [3]
− Memory address register // MAR
− Program counter // PC
− Current instruction register // CIR
− Accumulator // ACC
3 A user’s computer has a central processing unit (CPU) that has a clock speed of 2GHz.
She wants to change it to a CPU that has a clock speed of 3GHz.
(a) (i) State what is meant by clock speed. [1]
− The (maximum) number of FDE cycles/instructions a CPU can perform in a second
(ii) Explain the effect this change will have on the performance of the CPU. [2]
− Increases the performance of the CPU // Tasks can be performed quicker
− … because more FDE cycles/instructions can be processed in a second
(b) The CPU contains a memory address register (MAR).
Describe the role of the MAR in the fetch–decode–execute cycle.[2]
− To temporarily store addresses
− … of data that is written to/read from RAM
(c) The CPU has a list of all the machine code commands it can process.
State the name of this list of commands. [1]− Instruction set

LO - 4 Understand the purpose and use of an instruction set for a CPU

• An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU and the
commands are machine code

LO - 5 Describe the purpose and characteristics of an embedded system and identify devices
in which they are commonly used
 An embedded system is a combination of hardware and software which is designed to
carry out a specific set of functions. The hardware is electronic, electrical or electro-
mechanical. Embedded systems can be based on: microcontrollers, microprocessor,
system on chips (SoC)
 An embedded system is used to perform a dedicated function,
 Examples: domestic appliances (microwave ovens, washing machine, freezer etc), cars,
security systems, lighting systems or vending machines.
 This is different to a general purpose computer that is used to perform many different
functions, e.g. a personal computer (PC) or a laptop
Characteristics:
 − Performs a single/limited/dedicated function
− Normally based around a microprocessor/ It has a microprocessor
− Often don’t require an operating system
− It is normally built into a larger device/system
− It has dedicated hardware
− Uses firmware
− User normally cannot reprogram
− It does not require much power
− It is cheap to manufacture
− Works automatically // works without human intervention
− It is small (in size)
− It is a real-time system
An embedded system must contain a processor, memory and an I/O capability //
Dedicated hardware

--------------------------------

3.2 Input and output devices

LO - 1 Understand what is meant by an input device and why it is required
− (A device that allows) data to be entered (into a computer system)
LO - 2 Understand what is meant by an output device and why it is required
− (A device that allows the user to) view/hear the data (that has been entered into a computer
system
LO - 3 (a) Understand what is meant by a sensor and the purposes of sensors
(b) Identify the type of data captured by each sensor and understand when each sensor would
be used, including selecting the most suitable sensor for a given context
7 A room has an automatic lighting system. Electric lights are automatically turned on when a
person enters the room and the natural light level in the room is 10 or less. Explain how
sensors and a microprocessor are used to control the electric lights in the room.
Ans –
 Uses light sensor and infrared/Motion/Pressure sensor
 (The light sensor detects the ambient light level in the room, while the
infrared/pressure sensor detects the presence of a person entering the room.)
 The data from both the sensors, which is typically in analogue form, undergoes
conversion to digital using an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC).
 This digital data is then sent to the microprocessor for further processing.
 Microprocessor compares this digital data to stored values/pre-set values
 If light value is <=10, infrared/pressure sensor value is checked
 Upon detecting a person's presence through the infrared/pressure sensor, the
microprocessor sends a signal to an actuator to turn on the lights
 Lights remain on for set period (and then turn off)
 If the light value >= 10 or if the infrared/pressure sensor no longer detects movement,
the microprocessor sends a signal to turn off the lights via the actuator.
 If infrared/Pressure sensor is in range/out of range or light is >10 then signal sent to
turn lights off
 The entire process is continuous, with the microprocessor continually monitoring both
the sensors.

Que – An air conditioning system is used to control the temperature in a hospital.

The air conditioning system uses temperature sensors and a microprocessor.
The temperature must remain between 21°C and 24°C.
Describe how the sensors and the microprocessor are used to control the temperature
of the hospital.
o Sensor(s) send data/signals to the microprocessor
o Analogue signal/data from sensor is converted to digital (using ADC)
o Microprocessor compares data value against pre-set data
o If value between 21 and 24, no action taken
o If value > 24 °C or value is < 21 °C - signal is sent from microprocessor to
turn conditioning unit ON
o Process is repeated for a continuous operation
3.3 Data storage
Candidates should be able to:
1 Understand what is meant by primary storage
 Primary storage is directly accessed by the CPU
• Including the role of:
– random access memory (RAM)
– read only memory (ROM)
• Including why a computer needs both RAM and ROM, and the difference between them
Why - RAM provides fast and temporary storage for actively used data and programs,
allowing the CPU to access and manipulate information quickly. On the other hand, ROM
stores critical and unchanging data that is essential for the computer's basic operations and
initial startup. The combination of both RAM and ROM is crucial for a computer to function
effectively and efficiently.
LO: 2 Understand what is meant by secondary storage
• Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU and is necessary for more permanent
storage of data

LO: 3 Describe the operation of magnetic, optical and solid-state (flash memory) storage and
give examples of each
 magnetic storage: a type of secondary storage that uses the properties of magnetism to
store data.
 optical storage: a type of secondary storage that uses lasers to store data.
 solid-state storage: a type of secondary storage that uses transistors to store data
• Magnetic storage uses platters which are divided into tracks and sectors. Data is read and
written using electromagnets
Magnetic storage relies on the properties of magnetism to store data. A modern
magnetic storage device normally has circular plates called platters that spin to allow
data to be read and written. The platters are separated into tracks and sectors. It has
a read/write head that moves across the platters to read or write the data. It uses an
electromagnet to magnetise dots on each platter that store the data. If a dot is
magnetised it stores the binary value 1. If a dot is demagnetised it stores the binary
value 0. Each platter has billions of these magnetised dots. An example of this type
device is called a hard disk drive.
Disadvantage - they have moving parts. This made them vulnerable to wear and tear and also
damage if they were dropped.

• Optical storage uses lasers to create and read pits and lands
Optical storage uses lasers to read and write data to and from a circular disk. The
disk spins and a read/write heads moves across the surface to allow data to be read
or written. To write data, a laser burns pits into the surface of the disk. These pits
are organised in a spiral track that starts at the centre of the disk. The surface of the
disk between each pit is called a land. A laser is also used to read the pits and lands
to obtain the data that they store. Examples of optical media are a CD, DVD and a
Blu-ray.
• Solid-state (flash memory) uses NAND or NOR technology. Transistors are used as control
gates and floating gates
Solid state storage doesn't have any moving parts. Instead it is created using semiconductor
chips. Solid-state storage is sometimes known as flash memory. This is because of the ways
that the data is read and written to the chips, it is said that it is 'flashed' onto them.
Solid state storage contains cells and transistors that are laid out in a grid. The transistors can
be wired together in two different ways. In a NOR flash structure, the cells are wired together
in a parallel structure. In a NAND flash structure, the cells are wired together in series. The
intersection of the rows and columns of transistors are the cells.
One of the transistors is called a control gate and one of the transistors is called a floating
gate. The control gate sits on top of the floating gate.
The floating gate can store electrical charge, typically in the form of electrons. The presence
or absence of charge on the floating gate determines the stored data state of the memory cell
(typically representing a binary 1 or 0). Control gate is used to control the flow of electrical
charge to and from the floating gate.
When a voltage is applied to the control gate, it determines whether electrons are trapped in
the floating gate (writing process) or released from it (erasing process).
When a solid-state storage device is first created, all the transistors are set to the binary value
1. The electric current reaches each control gate and then flows through to the floating gate to
be stored. When data is stored in a transistor, it is converted to the binary value 0.
e.g A solid state drive (SSD, USB flash memory drive/USB stick/memory stick/thumb drive
(Solid-state storage is non-volatile. This means that the data is not lost when the power is
turned off. Solid-state storage is made of transistors that are laid out in a grid. Gates are used
to control the flow of the electrons through the transistors. This changes the data in the
transistors from 1 to 0, or from 0 to 1.)

Difference between HDD and SSD

• HDD has moving parts but SSD does not
• HDD uses magnetic storage whereas SSD uses flash memory
• HDD is slower to access data than SSD // HDD has greater latency than SSD
• HDD will create noise/heat, whereas SSD runs quieter/cooler
• HDD has higher power consumption than SSD
• HDD have greater longevity/more read-write cycles whereas SSD has lower
longevity/limited number of read-write cycles
• HDD larger in physical size/heavier than SSD
• HDD is normally cheaper for the same capacity of storage as SSD
• HDD is available in a larger storage capacity than SSD

LO: 4 Describe what is meant by virtual memory, how it is created and used and why it is
necessary
• Pages of data are transferred between RAM and virtual memory when needed
Pages of data are transferred to the virtual memory so that RAM doesn't become full
Virtual memory is also a type of memory that is created for temporary use. It is created
as an extension to RAM. Sometimes, a computer is given a large number of tasks to
complete at a given time. This means that it will need a lot of data to do this. All this
data will need to be sent to the RAM to be ready to be processed. A computer system
only has a set amount of RAM, so what happens when this RAM becomes full? It
needs some extra help! This is where virtual memory can help.
Virtual memory is created in a computer system with a hard drive component.
A section of that hard drive is partitioned off and is effectively an extra bit for RAM
instead. When the RAM gets full, the computer system can transfer some data to
the virtual memory to be held there until it is needed. It will choose to send data that
isn't as immediately required as other data. The data that is transferred is collected in
a structure called a page. These pages of data are transferred to the virtual memory
to make sure there is enough room in the RAM for the immediate data that is being
processed. Once the pages of data are required again, they can be sent back to the
RAM to be processed.
If the RAM became full and the computer did not have the ability to transfer pages
of data to the virtual memory, this could cause it to crash, as it may not be able to
complete the task it is currently working on.
---------------
Board Question:
(a) Draw a diagram to represent how virtual memory is created and used. [4]

(b) A student is using software to create 3D models. This process often requires the use of
virtual memory. Explain why virtual memory is needed for this process.[3]
• to extend the RAM capacity
• … to stop the 3D modelling software from freezing/crashing when the physical
RAM is full
• to allow the computer to process the large amount of data required for 3D
modelling.
(c) A computer has pages A, B and C that are stored in RAM. Page D needs to be sent to the
RAM but the RAM is full. Page B is not needed immediately.
Explain how virtual memory can be used in this scenario. [4]
The secondary storage / hard drive can be partitioned to create the virtual memory
… and page B sent to the virtual memory …
… which makes space for page D in RAM
… Once page A / C / D / another page is not required / has been processed
… page B can be sent from the virtual memory back to RAM when it is required

LO: 5 Understand what is meant by cloud storage

Cloud storage: data storage that is owned by a third party and accessed by the user, using the
internet.
• Cloud storage can be accessed remotely in comparison to storing data locally
• Physical servers and storage are needed to store data in cloud storage
Server: a component that acts as a central resource for the storage of data and applications or
for providing a service.

LO: 6 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of storing data on the cloud in comparison
to storing it locally

3.4 Network hardware

Candidates should be able to:
1 Understand that a computer needs a network interface card (NIC) to access a network
• A NIC is a hardware component that enables a computer to connect to a network,
either wired or wireless.
• Without a NIC, a computer cannot directly communicate with other devices on a
network. The NIC serves as the intermediary between the computer and the network,
facilitating data transmission.

2 Understand what is meant by and the purpose of a media access control (MAC) address,
including its structure
 A network interface card is given a MAC address at the point of manufacture
 MAC addresses are usually written as hexadecimal
 MAC addresses are created using the manufacturer code and the serial code
Media Access Control (MAC) address refers to a number which uniquely identifies a device
on a network. The MAC address refers to the network interface card (NIC) which is part of
the device. The MAC address is rarely changed so that a particular device can always be
identified no matter where it is. A MAC address is usually made up of 48 bits which are
shown as 6 groups of two hexadecimal digits (although 64-bit addresses also exist):
NN – NN – NN – DD – DD – DD
or
NN:NN:NN:DD:DD:DD
where the first half (NN – NN – NN) is the identity number of the manufacturer of the device
and the second half (DD – DD – DD) is the serial number of the device.
For example:
00 – 1C – B3 – 4F – 25 – FE is the MAC address of a device produced by the Apple

3 (a) Understand what is meant by and the purpose of an internet protocol (IP) address
 An IP address is allocated by the network and they can be static or dynamic
Each device connected to a network is given an address known as the Internet Protocol (IP)
address.

Static IP addresses are permanently assigned to a device by the internet service provider ISP);
they don’t change each time a device logs onto the internet.
Static IP addresses are usually assigned to:
 remote servers which are hosting a website
 an online database
 a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server. FTP servers are used when files need to be
transferred to various computers throughout the network.

Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by the ISP each time a device logs onto the internet. This
is done using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). A computer on the internet,
configured as a DHCP server, is used by the ISP to automatically assign an IP address to a
device. As the name suggests, a dynamic IP address could be different every time a device
connects to the internet.
Dynamic IP address
1. Dynamic IP addresses change each time a device connects to the internet, enhancing
security and efficient IP distribution.
2. These addresses are assigned temporarily by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) server.
3. It's ideal for networks with many devices, eliminating the need for manual
configuration.
4. Dynamic IPs are not permanently tied to specific devices.
5. Commonly used in home, corporate, and public Wi-Fi networks where devices
frequently join and leave.

(b) Understand that there are different types of IP address

 Including the characteristics of and differences between IPv4 and IPv6
 An IPv4 address is a 32-bit number written in denary or hexadecimal form: e.g.
109.108.158.1 (or 77.76.9e.01 in hex). IPv4 has recently been improved upon by the
adoption of IPv6. An IPv6 address is a 128-bit number broken down into 16-bit
chunks, represented by a hexadecimal number.
 For example: a8fb:7a88:fff0:0fff:3d21:2085:66fb:f0fa
 IPv6 uses a colon (:) rather than a decimal point (.) as used in IPv4
LO: 4 Describe the role of a router in a network
 A router sends data to a specific destination on a network
 A router can assign IP addresses
 A router can connect a local network to the internet

Router: a network component that examines a data packet to obtain its destination address
and then forwards the packet to this address
----------------
Board Question:
Draw and annotate a diagram to represent the role of a router. [4]
The diagram demonstrates (one mark for each part):
− The router examining the packet …
− … looks for the packet header
− … looking for the IP address of destination
− The packet being sent toward its correct destination
− … by the fastest route // decides which route it takes
− Router is shown connecting devices/networks
− Router is shown assigning an IP address to a device
4 Software
4.1 Types of software and interrupts
LO: Describe the difference between system software and application software and provide
examples of each
• System software provides the services that the computer requires, including
operating system and utility software
• Application software provides the services that the user requires

System software manages the running of the hardware and other software, and allows
communication between these components.
These are tasks that help the computer perform its functions and improve or maintain
its efficiency.
Two types of system software are the operating system (OS) and utility programs.
Utility programs are programs that maintain the computer system, for example:
• System clean-up-searches for and removes un-used programs and data.
• Defragmentation-rearranges files so that they are located together (contiguously)
and that the free spaces is located together.

Application software allows the user to perform a task - it provides the services for
the user, for example, write a letter, view a website, etc.
• A word processor allows the user to create written documents.
 • A spreadsheet allows the user to perform calculations on data.
• A database allows the user to store and search a set of data.
• A web browser allows the user to view and navigate websites.

2 Describe the role and basic functions of an operating system including:

– managing files
– handling interrupts
– providing an interface
– managing peripherals and drivers
– managing memory
– managing multitasking
– providing a platform for running applications
– providing system security
– managing user accounts
Memory Management:
• Prevents two processes occupying the same memory space
• Organises memory e.g. paging/segmentation
• Makes uses of virtual memory
• Keeps track of allocated and free memory locations
• Allocates memory to processes
• Ensures fair use of memory
• Releases memory when a process stops
• Deciding which processes need to be in main memory at any one time
• Location of processes within the memory • By example, e.g. when process terminates,
memory is made available

File management
• Specifies tasks that can be performed on a file (e.g. open, close, delete, copy, create,
move etc.)
• Storage space is divided into file allocation units
• Space is allocated to particular files
• Maintains / creates directory structures (cmdtree /F)
• Specifies the logical method of file storage (e.g. FAT or NTFS)
• Provides file naming conventions
• Controls access // implements access rights // implements password protection // Makes
file sharing possible

Hardware management (input/output/peripherals):

• Install/manage device drivers
• Control of hardware usage by processes // allocation of devices to processes // inter
process communication
• Device detection
• Power Management
• Keep track of device status (free or busy)
• Sends/receives data from a buffer // buffer management //
• Sends commands to the device
• Receives/handles messages/signals/interrupts from the device
• Controls access to data being sent to / from hardware / peripherals
• Manages communication between devices /hardware and software

Process /resource management

• Scheduling of processes / multi-tasking / multi-programming etc.
• Resolution of conflicts when two or more processes require the same resource

Error detection and recovery management

• Deals with interrupts
• Deal with run time errors generated by software
• Deal with hardware faults
• Error diagnostic messages
• Deadlock detection and recovery
• Safe-mode boot-up routines
• System shutdown
• Saves system restore points

Interrupt handling
• Identifies priorities of interrupts
• Save current memory / process values / saves data on power outage
• Loads appropriate Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)

Managing Multitaking:
• It allows computers to carry out many tasks/processes at a time.
• Each process will share hardware resources under the control of the OS.
• It monitors:
• allocation of resources to a process for a specific time limit
• interruption of processes while running
• prioritisation of a process for resource allocation

Managing User Accounts

• allows more than one user to log onto the system
• allocates users a part of memory protected by passwords and user IDs
• allows a user to customise
Security management
 Creates accounts/passwords
 Provide /upgrade firewall / anti-malware
• Makes provision for recovery when data is lost
• Provides usernames and passwords /encryption / user accounts
• Prevents unauthorised access
• Ensures privacy of data

LO: Understand how hardware, firmware and an operating system are required to run
applications software
• Applications are run on the operating system
• The operating system is run on the firmware
• The bootloader (firmware) is run on the hardware
Firmware is a type of software stored in hardware devices, acting as an intermediary layer
between hardware and software.
Typically stored in non-volatile memory (e.g., ROM or flash memory), it remains intact even
when the device is powered off.
Plays a crucial role in booting, initializing CPU and hardware, and loading the operating
system.
Provides a standardized interface for software to interact with hardware, abstracting low-level
details.
Can be customized or updated by users/manufacturers for new features, security, and stability
enhancements.
Note: Firmware is vital for device operation, enhances security, and ensures stable hardware
functionality, but users usually interact with firmware settings indirectly, and it serves as a
bridge between hardware and system/application software.

LO: Describe the role and operation of interrupts

• Including:
– how an interrupt is generated
– how it is handled using an interrupt service routine
– what happens as a result of the interrupts
Interrupt - It is a signal sent from a device or software to a CPU/processor requesting
attention. The CPU/processor suspends all operations until the interrupt has been serviced.
An interrupt has a priority level. A high-priority interrupt needs the attention
quickly, for example, hardware failure. A low-priority interrupt needs the
processor but it's not urgent, for example, data input. This is managed by the
interrupt handler (IH).
When an interrupt is generated it is put in a queue according to its priority.
The sequence of activities is:
• When the processor finishes its current fetch-decode-execute cycle ( or before the starting
the next FDE cycle), it checks the interrupt queue.
• It checks whether there is an interrupt with a higher priority than the current task it is
processing.
• If it is, it:
• Stores the current process and fetches the interrupt.
• Checks the source of the interrupt.
• Calls the relevant interrupt service routine (ISR). This is a sequence of instructions
that handle the interrupt.
• When finished the stored process is returned to memory or another higher priority
interrupt is fetched.
• If it isn't, it runs another FDE cycle.
interrupt handler (IH): a program that organises interrupts into an order based
upon priorities.
interrupt service routine (ISR):a program that retrieves an interrupt and performs the required
action(s).

4.2 Types of programming language, translators and integrated development environments

(IDEs)
LO: Explain what is meant by a high-level language and a low-level language, including the
advantages and disadvantages of each
• Advantages and disadvantages include:
– ease of reading and writing code,
e.g. low-level is hard to read
– ease of debugging code
– machine independence
– direct manipulation of hardware

2 Understand that assembly language is a form of low-level language that uses mnemonics,
and that an assembler is needed to translate an assembly language program into machine code
3 Describe the operation of a compiler and an interpreter, including how high-level language
is translated by each and how errors are reported
• A compiler translates the whole code at once before executing it, producing an executable
file
• An interpreter translates and executes the code line-by-line
• A compiler provides an error report for the whole code if errors are detected
• An interpreter stops execution when an error is found

LO: Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a compiler and an interpreter

• To include an understanding that an interpreter is mostly used when developing a program
and a compiler is used to translate the final program
LO: Explain the role of an IDE in writing program code and the common functions IDEs
provide
• Including:
– code editors
– run-time environment
– translators
– error diagnostics
– auto-completion
– auto-correction
– prettyprint

Integrated Development Environment (IDE): a piece of software that allows a user to write,
test and run program code.
 Code editor: A feature that allows the user to enter and amend program code.
 Auto-completion: a feature of an editor that gives the user options when they start
typing a command.
 auto-correction: a feature of an editor that identifies spelling errors and changes them.
 prettyprint: a feature of an editor that changes the colour of text, for example, to
highlight key words.
 run-time environment: a feature of an IDE that allows a program to be run and lets the
user interact with the program.
For example, in a simple Python code that adds two numbers:
a=5
b=7
print(a + b)
Code editor: The IDE's code editor will highlight keywords such as print and operators like +
to make them stand out.
Run-Time Environment: You will see the output of 12 printed in the console.
Translators: For the above code, the IDE will interpret and execute the Python code, so the
programmer doesn't need to worry about compiling or translating the code manually.
Error Diagnostics: For example, if you misspelled print as prit in the code above, the IDE will
highlight this as an error and suggest a correction.
Auto-Completion: For example, as you type print( in your code, the IDE may suggest closing
the parentheses and/or adding a new line, e.g., print().
Auto-Correction: For example, if you type prit instead of print in your code, the IDE may
suggest changing prit to print automatically.
Prettyprint: For example, if you write a line of code without proper indentation or spacing,
the IDE's prettyprint feature can automatically format the code for you.

An IDE can also provide debugging features, or error diagnostics, these help you find
the problems in your code. Some examples are:
• Break points; the user sets these points and the code stops running on that line.
This lets you check the values and output from the code to that point.
• Variable watch window; the values of the variables are displayed while the code is
running, so they can be checked whether they are correct.
• Stepping; the program will run one line at a time, and the user has to tell the
program to move on to the next line, so it can be checked line by line.
You can write and run programs without an IDE. You can write your code in a basic
text file without any formatting, and then run it (usually) through a command line
interface by entering the correct instructions. An IDE is much more user friendly,
with lots of tools to help you write, amend and correct your code.
5 The internet and its uses
5.1 The internet and the world wide web
1 Understand the difference between the internet and the world wide web
• The internet is the infrastructure
• The world wide web is the collection of websites and web pages accessed using the
internet
internet: a very large global network that allows users to access the world wide web. The
world wide web is the collective term for all the websites and web pages that are available.
The world wide web is accessed by using the internet.

2 Understand what is meant by a uniform resource locator (URL)

• A URL is a text-based address for a web page; it can contain the protocol, the
domain name and the web page/file name
–
The components of URL

3 Describe the purpose and operation of hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and hypertext
transfer protocol secure (HTTPS)
Hypertext transfer protocol (http) is a set of rules that must be obeyed when transferring files
across the internet. When some form of security (for example, SSL or TLS) is used, then this
changes to https (you will often see the green padlock in the status bar as well). The ‘s’
stands for secure, and indicates a more secure way of sending and receiving data across a
network (for example, the internet).
Purpose: HTTP is a protocol used for transmitting hypertext (web pages) over the internet. It
is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, enabling users to access
websites and other resources.
Operation: Client-Server Model: HTTP operates on a client-server model. A client (usually a
web browser) sends a request to a server for a web resource (such as a web page).

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

Purpose: HTTPS is an extension of HTTP, providing secure communication over a computer
network. It is used to protect the integrity and confidentiality of data between the user's
computer and the site they are visiting.
The HTTPS protocol is the standard HTTP protocol with a layer of security combined, that is
either the secure sockets layer (SSL) or transport layer security (TLS) protocol. TLS is a
newer version of SSL. This is the protocol that is used to create the encryption. You can
check visually whether a website is secure by seeing if it uses the HTTPS protocol. If it does,
you will see this at the start of the URL in the address bar in the web browser. You will also
see a small padlock before the start of the URL. Most web browsers also have an option for
you to view the digital certificate for the website. This is often found by right clicking your
mouse on the padlock.

Operation:
Hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS) - This protocol has an additional layer of
security that encrypts any data that is transferred.
It involves the use of digital certificates. This is a certificate that the owners of the website
need to apply for from a certificate authority. A certificate authority is an organisation that
checks whether a website is authentic and trustworthy. If the certificate authority believe the
website is authentic, they will issue them with a digital certificate. This is how the additional
layer of security is created.
• Before the web browser sends a request to the web server to ask for the web pages, it sends
a request to the web server asking it to provide a digital certificate.
• The web server sends a copy of the digital certificate to the web browser.
• The web browser checks if the digital certificate is authentic.
• If the certificate is authentic, the web browser will allow communication to continue with
the web server and any data that is transmitted between the two is encrypted.
• If the certificate is not authentic, the web browser will report that the website is not secure.

A web browser requests a digital certificate to allow encrypted data transmission

4 Explain the purpose and functions of a web browser
• The main purpose of a web browser is to render hypertext markup language (HTML) and
display web pages
• Functions include:
– storing bookmarks and favourites
– recording user history
– allowing use of multiple tabs
– storing cookies
– providing navigation tools
– providing an address bar

5 Describe how web pages are located, retrieved and displayed on a device when a user
enters a URL
• Including the role of:
– the web browser
– IP addresses
– domain name server (DNS)
– web server
– HTML
How is a web page requested and retrieved by our computers?
 The user opens the web browser and types the URL into the address bar.
 The web browser then sends the URL for the website to the domain name server
(DNS). (The DNS is a special kind of server that stores all the different domain
 names along with their equivalent IP address. )
 The DNS looks through its database of domain names to find the equivalent IP
address. There are billions of websites, so these are not all stored on a single DNS.
Therefore, the first DNS will search its database and if it doesn't find the domain
name, it sends it to the next DNS. This will happen until the domain name is found.
 When the DNS find the domain name, it sends the equivalent IP address back to the
web browser - the IP address of the web server that stores the website

A web browser requests an IP address from a DNS

 The web browser receives the IP address for the website from the DNS.
 The web browser sends a request to the web server to ask for the web page from the
website.
 It uses a protocol called the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) to send the request to
the web server.
 Each web page is created using hypertext markup language (HTML), cascading style
sheets (CSS) and may include active script such as JavaScript.
 When the web server receives a request for a web page, it sends the data for the
website, including the HTML, CSS and any active script, back to the web browser
using the HTTP.
 The web browser then renders the HTML and CSS and runs any active script to
display the web page
The web browser requests a web page and renders the HTML and CSS
6 Explain what is meant by cookies and how they are used, including session cookies and
persistent cookies
• Cookies are used for functions, including:
– saving personal details
– tracking user preferences
– holding items in an online shopping cart
– storing login details

Session cookies are temporary files that are created when you visit a web page. As soon as
you close your web browser, these cookies are deleted. If you open your web browser again
and go back to the same web page, the web page will not recognise you. That means that it
will not be sent any cookies by your web browser, about your personal details or preferences,
as this type of cookie are not saved by the browser once it is closed. You might have
experienced this type of cookie when you are online shopping. You may have added several
items that you wanted to buy to a shopping cart on a website, you then close your web
browser. You then open your web browser at a later date and go back to the web page, only
to find that the items you put in the online shopping cart are no longer there. This is because
it is a session cookie that is used to temporarily store them.
Session cookies
Persistent cookies are permanent files that are created when you visit a web page. These are
stored by your web browser onto the hard drive of your computer. When you visit the same
web page again, the cookie file is sent back to the web server that stores the web pages to
provide the data about your personal details or preferences. This will allow your login details
to be automatically entered, for example. These cookies will remain stored on your hard drive
until you manually delete them, or your browser deletes them because they have expired.
Each persistent cookie file is sent with an expiration date. When this expiration date is
reached, the web browser will delete this cookie from your hard drive
Persistent cookies
5.2 Digital currency
LO: Understand the concept of a digital currency and how digital currencies are used
• A digital currency is one that only exists electronically
When you pay for products and services using the internet, you will normally use a digital
currency. A digital currency is one that exists electronically.

It is a method of payment that is similar to paying with coins and bank notes. However, rather
than exchanging physical bank notes and coins to make the payment, the currency is
exchanged digitally using computers. There are several different forms of digital currency,
the most popular are payments using credit cards, mobile phones and smart watches. The
most common of these is using credit cards when making payments using the internet. When
the data about the payment with the digital currency is sent from one computer to another, it
is encrypted to keep it secure. The method of encryption used is the HTTPS protocol. The
payment details for the use of a digital currency can be stored in a persistent cookie. That
means that each time you visit the website to buy a product, your payment details will be
automatically entered so you don't need to type them in each time.

LO: Understand the process of blockchain and how it is used to track digital currency
transactions
• Blockchain, in its basic form, is a digital ledger, that is a time-stamped series of records that
cannot be altered
One type of digital currency is Bitcoin. This type of digital currency is more specifically
known as a cryptocurrency. The banks that we use to manage our money on a daily basis are
called centralised systems. This means that there is an authority at the centre managing the
process in which they are used. In this case, the bank is the authority.
A cryptocurrency is a decentralised system, this means that there is no central authority, like
a bank, managing the process of payments. Payments are also encrypted using this type of
currency. As there is no central authority managing the system of payments with this type of
digital currency, a different system called blockchain is used to keep track of the payments.
In its most basic form, blockchain is a list of all the records made with the digital currency.
This is called a digital ledger. Each time a payment is made with the digital currency, a
record is added to the ledger that includes a digital signature with the time and date that the
payment is made. In blockchaining, once these records are added to the digital ledger, they
cannot be changed. Data that is stored in a digital ledger is also encrypted. This prevents
anyone being able to change the data. However, anyone who wants to view the data in the
digital ledger is able to do so.

5.3 Cyber security

Candidates should be able to:
1 Describe the processes involved in, and the aim of carrying out, a range of cyber security
threats
– brute-force attack
– data interception
– distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack
– hacking
– malware (virus, worm, Trojan horse, spyware, adware, ransomware)
– pharming
– phishing
– social engineering
Brute-force attack

Data interception

Draw and annotate a diagram that demonstrates the cyber security threat of data interception.
− Data is being sent from one device to another
− The data is being examined during transmission
− Packet sniffer is used
− Intercepted data is reported to a third-party during transmission …
− … and analysed for anything useful
− Connection hacked to spoof destination address
Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack

Draw and annotate a diagram to represent the process of a DDoS

Hacking
Pharming
Diagram shows:
User clicks/opens attachment/link that triggers download
Malicious software downloaded onto user's computer
User enters website address
User is redirected to fake website
Phishing

What happens?  The perpetrator sends out emails or messages that appear to be from
a legitimate source, such as a bank, social media platform, or online
store.
 These messages often contain links to fake websites that look similar
to the real ones.
 The victim is tricked into entering their personal information, such
as login credentials, credit card numbers, or other sensitive data, on
these fake websites.
What is the aim?  The aim is to steal sensitive information from the victim for
financial gain, identity theft, or unauthorized access to accounts.
 The perpetrator may sell the stolen information on the dark web, use
it to make fraudulent transactions, or gain access to sensitive data for
further malicious activities.
What security  Use email filters: Implement email filtering solutions to detect and
solutions can be block phishing emails before they reach the inbox.
used?  Educate users: Regularly train and educate users about the dangers
of phishing and how to recognize suspicious emails and websites.
  Two-factor authentication (2FA): Enable 2FA on accounts to add
an extra layer of security, making it harder for attackers to gain
access even if they have the login credentials.
 Anti-phishing software: Use anti-phishing tools and browser
extensions that can detect and warn users about phishing attempts.
 Regular updates and patches: Keep software, browsers, and
operating systems up-to-date with the latest security patches to
protect against known vulnerabilities.
 Verify sources: Always verify the authenticity of any unsolicited
messages or requests for personal information by contacting the
organization directly through official channels.

Social Engineering

Example 1 Large companies often have quite a large IT department that are often not too well
known by all the employees. It is a common occurrence that an employee may have an IT
issue with their computer in a morning. They will normally report this issue to the IT
department in their company and will be told someone will contact them from the
department, shortly. Therefore, a perpetrator can try and use this situation. They get hold of a
list of all the telephone numbers of the employees in the company and begin to call them.
They will say that they are from the IT department in the company and say that they are
aware of the IT issue that they have reported. Most employees will probably just say they
haven't reported an issue, but if they happen to call an employee that has, that employee will
think it is the IT department calling to sort their problem. The perpetrator will then say that
they just need the employees login details to access their system to see what is wrong with it.
The employee may be tricked into providing their login details and now the perpetrator can
get into the computer systems of the business and steal any data that they think could be
useful to them, or look to introduce malware
Example 2 Employees often go for dinner together or out for a relaxing coffee after work on
a Friday. A perpetrator finds out where employees do this for the company that they want to
target. The perpetrator places themselves close to where the employees will normally sit.
They will start a conversation with the employees and become friendly with them. They will
start to ask lots of questions about the company an employee works for. The employee may
mistake this as the person taking an interest in their life. Over a few what seem like accidental
meetings with the employee the perpetrator has asked lots of questions that has allowed them
to build up a profile about the company, such as information about where they store their data
and what kind of security systems they have. The perpetrator can use this information to hack
into the company systems and network.

2 Explain how a range of solutions are used to help keep data safe from security threats
– access levels
– anti-malware including anti-virus and anti-spyware
– authentication (username and password, biometrics, two-step verification)
– automating software updates
– checking the spelling and tone of communications
– checking the URL attached to a link
– firewalls
– privacy settings
– proxy-servers
– secure socket layer (SSL) security protocol

Access Levels

 Access Levels control who can access certain data and what actions they can perform.
Users are given permissions based on their roles within an organization. For example,
an administrator may have full access to all data and system settings, while a regular
user may only have access to their own files.

Anti-Malware

 Anti-Malware software is designed to detect, prevent, and remove malicious

software (malware) such as viruses, worms, trojans, and spyware.
o Anti-Virus: Scans the system for known viruses and removes or quarantines
infected files.
o Anti-Spyware: Detects and removes spyware, which is software designed to
gather data from a computer without the user's knowledge.

Authentication

 Authentication ensures that only authorized users can access the system. Methods
include:
 o Username and Password: The most common form of authentication. Users
must provide a valid username and password to gain access.
o Biometrics: Uses unique physical characteristics such as fingerprints, facial
recognition, or iris scans to verify identity.
o Two-Step Verification (2SV): Adds an extra layer of security by requiring
two forms of authentication. Typically, this involves a password and OTP
code sent to a mobile device.

Automating Software Updates

 Automating Software Updates ensures that software is always up-to-date with the
latest security patches and features. This reduces the risk of vulnerabilities that could
be exploited by attackers.

Checking the Spelling and Tone of Communications

 Checking the Spelling and Tone of Communications helps identify phishing

attempts and other fraudulent communications. Unusual language or spelling errors
can be a sign that a message is not legitimate.

Checking the URL Attached to a Link

 Checking the URL Attached to a Link involves verifying that a link points to a
legitimate website before clicking on it. Hovering over the link to see the actual URL
can help avoid phishing sites designed to steal personal information.

Firewalls

Firewalls act as barriers between trusted and untrusted networks. They monitor and control
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules, helping to
prevent unauthorized access and attacks.

Privacy Settings
  Privacy Settings allow users to control who can see their information and what they
can do with it. This can include settings on social media platforms, cloud services,
and within applications to ensure personal data is protected.

Proxy Servers

 Proxy Servers act as intermediaries between a user and the internet. They can
provide anonymity(Anonymity refers to the state of being anonymous, where an
individual's identity is unknown or concealed.), filter content, and prevent access to
harmful websites, thus enhancing security and privacy.

Secure Socket Layer (SSL) Security Protocol

 Secure Socket Layer (SSL) is a protocol for establishing encrypted links between a
web server and a browser. This ensures that all data passed between the web server
and browsers remain private and integral. Websites using SSL are identified by
"https://" in the URL, often with a padlock icon.

6 Automated and emerging technologies

6.1 Automated systems
1 Describe how sensors, microprocessors and actuators can be used in collaboration to create
automated systems
An automated system usually has the following features:
• Sensors - to measure the environment.
• Microprocessor - to process the data from the sensors and determine if an action needs to be
taken.
• Actuators - to create a movement.
The process in which doors open automatically when a person is detected–
2 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
scenario
• Including scenarios from:
– industry
– transport
– agriculture
– weather
– gaming
– lighting
– science
Example 1, industry
Car manufacturing.
• Initial cost: this will be high because the robots need purchasing. The software will also
need developing and could be expensive.
• Running cost: this could be high because the systems need maintenance, but it could
perform actions more efficiently than humans which could save money. However, there may
be fewer employees, therefore saving money long-term.
• Safety: it should be safer because they can monitor their environment and stop if there is
any danger, whereas people can be distracted, and more accidents could happen.
• Replacing people's jobs: jobs that the system now performs will be lost, but more
jobs will be made to maintain the system.
• Continuous work all day every day: this would mean that more cars can be built.
• Precision: human errors will not be made so there are less faulty cars.

Example 2, science
Nuclear power plant.
• Initial cost: will be high because of the purchase of the devices and development
of the system.
• Running cost: may be lower because fewer people are needed, however maintenance might
be expensive.
• Safety: less risk of human error therefore increasing the safety, also people will not need to
work in dangerous places.
• Replacing people's jobs: some jobs will be replaced for the functions the system does, but
new jobs will be made to maintain the system.
• Continuous work all day every day: it is important that the power plant is monitored all day
every day without getting tired and therefore less errors.
• Precision: this is important in a high-risk scenario and an automated system will measure
and perform actions with more precision, therefore fewer errors.

Example 3, agriculture
Growing conditions within a greenhouse.
• Initial cost: this may be high for the installation and programmmg.
• Running cost: there will be a cost for electricity and maintenance but it is a small system so
may not be high.
• Safety: this may not be relevant because it is not a dangerous process.
• Replacing people's jobs: it might replace jobs of people who monitored the conditions, but
this is unlikely to be a large number.
• Continuous work all day every day: this will allow the system to adapt as soon as
there is a problem, instead of waiting for a person to check and make changes.
• Precision: this may not be as important, but it will allow readings to be more accurate and
instant changes to be made.

6.2 Robotics
Candidates should be able to:
1 Understand what is meant by robotics
A robot is a mechanical device that performs an action, usually an action that a human
would perform. Robotics is an area that covers the design, construction and operation
of robots.
A robot can be controlled by a person, or they might be automated, or a mixture of the
two.
One example is a drone. This is a robot, it can be controlled by a person, and it can be
programmed to be perform movements depending on its surroundings.
Another example is the machines that build components in industry, for example,
manufacturing devices. The robots that put the components together can be automated
so that they can build the components without human interaction.
2 Describe the characteristics of a robot
Robots have a range of features:
• A mechanical structure or framework. This is the body of the robot.
• Electrical components such as:
• Sensors to record its environment, for example, the position of the component it is
building.
• Microprocessors, to take the reading from the sensor and decide the action to
perform.
• actuators, to make the robot move.
Robots are also programmable; a program can be written for the robot to follow
3 Understand the roles that robots can perform
and describe the advantages and disadvantages of their use
• Robotics is a branch of computer science that incorporates the design, construction and
operation of robots
• Examples include factory equipment, domestic
robots and drones
• Including:
– a mechanical structure or framework
– electrical components, such as sensors,
microprocessors and actuators
– programmable
• Robots can be used in areas including:
– industry
– transport
– agriculture
– medicine
– domestic
– entertainment
6.3 Artificial intelligence
Candidates should be able to:
1 Understand what is meant by artificial intelligence (AI)
Artificial intelligence (Al) is the development of programs to simulate human
behaviour. There is a broad range of areas within AI:
• Image recognition; to identify objects or people in an image.
• Speech recognition; to identify words spoken and store them.
• Natural language; to receive a command or instruction that is not in a set format and
perform the required response.
• Computer games; to move elements or characters independently based upon the
environment.
• Diagnosis systems; for example, medical diagnosis
2 Describe the main characteristics of AI as the collection of data and the rules for using that
data, the ability to reason, and can include the ability to learn and adapt
3 Explain the basic operation and components of AI systems to simulate intelligent behaviour
Artificial intelligence programs can be simplified to the four key features:
1 Collection of data: A program will need data input, this might come from a user
(e.g. speech recognition) or from its sensors (e.g. a robot that uses infra-red sensors
to work out its position and where it can and can't move).
2 A set of programmed rules: These are stored for the program to use to make
decisions. For example, a calculation to determine which decision to make. A rule
that if an object is in front of the sensor, turn to the right.
3 The ability to reason: Reasoning is an area of logic, where you have rules, and
from these you can develop facts. For example, all dogs eat meat. Fred is a dog.
Therefore, Fred must eat meat.
4 The ability to learn and adapt: Not all AI systems will do this, this is a specialist
area known as machine learning. Systems can be programmed to learn, and
change their own rules and logic. This often involves training. If you want a
program to differentiate between an image of a dog and a horse, you can train the
system by showing it images of dogs and horses and telling it what the images are
showing. The program will then learn the characteristics of a horse and a dog, so
when it is tested with a new image it will hopefully identify the animal.
Notes and guidance
• AI is a branch of computer science dealing with the simulation of intelligent behaviours by
computers
• Limited to:
– expert systems
– machine learning
• Expert systems have a knowledge base, a rule base, an inference engine and an interface
Expert systems
An expert system is a special type of system that attempts to emulate the expertise of
a human, for example, an engineer, or doctor. The system asks the user questions to
determine the solution or answer. Depending on each answer, the system will ask a
different question.
For example, a program to help you fix a printer might first ask:
'Is there a green light on the printer?'
If the user says No, then they may be told, 'Press the button to turn the printer on.'
If the user says Yes, then they may be asked, 'Is there a red light underneath the
paper picture?'
An expert system has four key features:
1 A knowledge base. This is a list of facts, for example, there is a green light below
the power symbol.
2 A rule base that links the facts. For example, If the green light is on then the
printer has power.
3 Inference engine. This is the part of the program that decides which question to
ask next, or which answers it gives.
4 The user interface. This is the part that outputs questions and statements to the
user, and allows the user to enter data.
• Machine learning is when a program has the ability to automatically adapt its own processes
and/or data
Machine learning: a computer program that can adapt its stored rules or processes.
Some AI systems do not learn, for example, in a computer game the characters can move and
interact with your character and adapt to what you do, but they are not learning what you do,
they are following their pre-programmed rules.
Machine learning can be supervised, or unsupervised.
Supervised means that user is telling the program what its data means, for example, in
the image recognition example the user says this image shows a horse.
Unsupervised means that data is input, and then the program learns from the data.
An example of this is clustering. The data is plotted on a graph, and then the program
identifies which items of data are close to each other.
In image recognition, the shapes in the images could be input and then the features plotted,
the program can then group the images according to these features. This is done without any
human interaction needed.