SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Module 6
Microbiology & Drug Discovery

• Introduction to Biological Classification:

Biological classification is a fundamental framework that organizes the incredible diversity of life
on Earth into meaningful groups. These classifications serve as a roadmap for understanding and
studying living organisms. They're based on various criteria, shedding light on the mechanisms
that sustain life.

Two critical aspects of classification are based on how organisms harness energy and utilize carbon
and how they handle the excretion of nitrogenous waste products. By categorizing organisms
according to these criteria, we gain insights into their ecological roles, evolutionary relationships,
and adaptability to their environments. This knowledge not only deepens our understanding of
the intricate web of life but also provides valuable insights for ecological, evolutionary, and
physiological studies.

• Classification Based on Energy and Carbon Utilization:

1. Autotrophs (Auto): Organisms capable of synthesizing their own organic molecules (e.g., sugars)
from inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide.

Some autotrophs, like green plants and algae, are phototrophs, which means they convert
electromagnetic energy from sunlight into chemical energy. Autotrophs use electron transport chains
or proton pumping to establish an electrochemical gradient.

While most autotrophs use water as the reducing agent, some can use other hydrogen compounds,
like hydrogen sulfide.

They act as producers in a food chain, providing energy for other organisms (in contrast to
heterotrophs that consume autotrophs). Autotrophs do not need a living source of energy or organic
carbon.

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 1

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Examples:
Plants: They use photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide into glucose, utilizing energy from sunlight.

Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae): These photosynthetic bacteria produce their own organic
compounds, contributing to oxygen production in aquatic ecosystems.

2. Heterotrophs (Hetero): Organisms that rely on external sources for organic molecules (e.g.,
obtaining carbon from consuming other organisms).

Heterotrophs are primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers in food chains but not producers. More
than 95% of living organisms are heterotrophic, including animals, fungi, some bacteria, and protists.

Chemoheterotrophs (e.g., humans and mushrooms) use chemical energy, while photoheterotrophs
(e.g., green non-sulfur bacteria) use light for energy.

Examples:
Animals: They consume plants or other animals to obtain organic molecules for energy and growth.

Fungi: Fungi obtain organic matter by secreting enzymes to break down complex substances and then
absorbing the simpler nutrients.

3. Lithotrophs (Litho): Organisms that use inorganic compounds as a source of both energy and carbon
for their metabolic processes.

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 2

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Lithotrophs belong to either the domain Bacteria or

the domain Archaea. The term "lithotroph"
originates from the Greek terms 'lithos' (rock) and
'troph' (consumer), meaning "eaters of rock. They are
diverse and use inorganic substrates, such as sulfur or
ammonia, as energy sources.

Examples:
Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria: These microorganisms
derive energy from the oxidation of inorganic sulfur
compounds while fixing carbon dioxide.

Methanogenic Archaea: These microbes produce methane by using carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas
as carbon and energy sources.

• Classification Based on Nitrogenous Excretion:

1. Ammonotellic: Organisms that primarily excrete ammonia (NH3) as their primary nitrogenous waste
product. Ammonia is highly soluble in water and toxic to tissues. It is a very toxic substance to tissues
and extremely soluble in water. Only one nitrogen atom is removed with it.

A lot of water is needed for the excretion of ammonia; about 0.5 L of water is needed per 1 g of
nitrogen to maintain ammonia levels in the excretory fluid below the level in body fluids to prevent
toxicity.

Ammonotelic animals, like aquatic protozoans, crustaceans, and echinoderms, excrete ammonia
directly into the water.

Examples:

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 3

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Fish: Many aquatic fish excrete excess ammonia into the water as it is highly soluble and can be
eliminated through diffusion.

Amphibians: Amphibians, like frogs, often excrete ammonia, which is excreted through their moist skin
and kidneys.

2. Ureotellic: Organisms that excrete urea (a less toxic nitrogenous compound) as their primary
nitrogenous waste product. Urea is less toxic and requires less water for excretion. It requires 0.05 L of
water to excrete 1 g of nitrogen, approximately only 10% of that required in ammonotelic organisms.

Ureotelic animals, such as humans and amphibians, efficiently excrete urea in less water.

Examples
Mammals: Most mammals, including humans, excrete urea through the kidneys as it requires less
water for excretion compared to ammonia.

Marine Birds: Birds excrete urea in a semi-solid form as a way to conserve water in their saltwater
environments.

3. Uricotellic: Organisms that excrete uric acid, a highly insoluble nitrogenous compound, as their
primary nitrogenous waste product. Uric acid is highly insoluble in water, requiring very little water for
excretion. Uric acid is less toxic than ammonia or urea. It contains four nitrogen atoms, and only a small
amount of water (about 0.001 L per 1 g of nitrogen) is needed for its excretion.

It can be stored in body tissues without toxic effects and is the most efficient nitrogenous waste
removal method. Uricotelic animals typically have white pasty excreta, and some mammals, including
humans, excrete uric acid as a component of their urine in small amounts.

Examples:
Reptiles (excluding birds): Many reptiles, such as snakes and lizards, excrete uric acid, allowing them
to conserve water in arid environments.

Birds: While birds are ureotellic, they further convert urea into uric acid to minimize water loss,
particularly in their concentrated urine and solid excreta.

• Introduction to Microbiology:

Microbiology, the study of microscopic organisms, opens a fascinating window into a world teeming
with minuscule life forms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and protozoa. This field is integral
to understanding life's fundamental processes, from the roles these microorganisms play in nutrient
cycling and disease to their applications in biotechnology, genetics, and medicine.

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 4

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Microbes are not only diverse but also immensely adaptable, showcasing their resilience and
importance in shaping Earth's ecosystems. The study of microbiology is pivotal for tackling infectious
diseases, developing biotechnological innovations, and exploring new frontiers in medicine, making it
a cornerstone of modern science.

Certainly, here's the requested structure for the classification and details of each type:

Classification and Details:

1. Bacteria:

Size: 0.2-1.5 by 3-5 µm

Important Characteristics:

- Prokaryotic

- Unicellular

- Simple internal structure

- Grow on artificial laboratory media

- Reproduction asexual (mostly simple cell division)

Practical Significance:

- Some Cause Diseases

- Some contribute to the natural cycling of elements and increase soil fertility

- Manufacture of valuable compounds in the industry

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 5

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

2. Fungi: (Yeast and Molds)

Size: Varies (e.g., yeast cells are typically 5-10 µm, while molds grow as hyphae)

Important Characteristics:

- Eukaryotic

- Mostly Multicellular (except yeast)

- Chitin cell walls

- Heterotrophic

- Reproduction Asexual and Sexual

Practical Significance:

- Decomposers in ecosystems

- Used in food production (e.g., bread, cheese)

- Some cause diseases (e.g., candida)

3. Protozoa:

Size: Varies widely (e.g., an amoeba is around 20-30 µm)

Important Characteristics:

- Eukaryotic

- Unicellular

- Heterotrophic

- Can be Free-living or Parasitic

- Complex Cell Structures (e.g., cilia, flagella)

Practical Significance:

- Play roles in food chains (predators and prey)

- Some are pathogenic (e.g., plasmodium causing malaria)

- Indicator organisms for water quality

4. Archaea:

Size: Similar to Bacteria

Important Characteristics:

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 6

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

- Prokaryotic

- Unicellular

- Distinct Biochemistry

- Often Extreme Environments (e.g., extremophiles)

- Reproduction Asexual (Binary Fission)

Practical Significance:

- Decomposers

- Important in biotechnology and genetic research

- Key in understanding early earth conditions

5. Algae:

Size: Varies widely (e.g., microscopic diatoms to giant kelp)

Important Characteristics:

- Eukaryotic

- Mostly Aquatic

- Photosynthetic

- Diverse Forms (e.g., green, brown, red algae)

- Cell Walls Made of Cellulose

Practical Significance:

- Major oxygen producers

- Base of aquatic food chains

- Potential sources of biofuels

6. Viruses:

Size: Very Small (20-400 nanometers)

Important Characteristics:

- Acellular (Not Composed of Cells)

- Genetic Material (DNA or RNA) Enclosed in Protein Coat

- Obligate Intracellular Parasites

- Replicate Inside Host Cells

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 7

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Practical Significance:

- Cause Numerous Diseases (e.g., HIV, Influenza)

- Important in Biotechnology (e.g., Gene Therapy)

- Study of viruses has led to advances in molecular biology

• Bacterial Growth Kinetics

Growth in Populations: Phases and Significance

Population growth is a fundamental and dynamic biological feature exhibited by the populations of all
species. It reflects changes in the size and structure of populations over time and is crucial for
understanding ecological processes, resource management, and the dynamics of various species.
Population growth can be categorized into several phases, each with its own significance:

1. Lag Phase:

In the context of bacterial growth, the lag phase is a crucial starting point. The bacterial population
initiates from a small size, and growth is initially slow. During this phase, resources are abundant, and
competition among cells is relatively low. The lag phase plays a vital role as it allows bacterial cells to
adapt to their environment and establish a foothhold. Cells require this time to activate their metabolic
machinery, a process highly dependent on the availability and type of nutrients present. This phase
serves as a period of colonization and acclimation for the bacterial population.

2. Log Phase (Exponential Growth)

The log phase of bacterial growth is characterized by rapid and unrestricted population growth. Birth
rates are significantly higher than death rates during this phase. The log phase represents the
population's maximum growth potential, and it is essential for bacterial species to maximize

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 8

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

reproduction when abundant resources are available. This phase can lead to the colonization of new
areas and is marked by exponential growth.

3. Stationary Phase:

In the stationary phase, bacterial population growth begins to slow down, and birth and death rates
become approximately equal. As a result, the population size remains relatively constant. The
stationary phase is a critical stage for resource management and the survival of the bacterial species.
It indicates that the population has reached equilibrium with its environment, preventing the over-
exploitation of available resources.

4. Death Phase:

During the death phase, the bacterial population experiences a decline, with death rates exceeding
birth rates. This decline may occur due to the depletion of resources or external factors affecting the
population. While the death phase might seem negative, it is a natural aspect of population dynamics.
It serves to prevent overpopulation, which can lead to resource depletion and ecological imbalances.
Importantly, even in the death phase, some viable bacterial cells may still persist (feeding on dead
cells), contributing to the overall resilience of the population.

Understanding these four phases of bacterial population growth is essential for bacterial research,
particularly in microbiology. It provides insights into how bacterial species adapt to their environment,
optimize reproduction, maintain stability, and respond to changing conditions, ultimately contributing
to the balance of microbial ecosystems.

Drug Discovery
Microbes and model organisms play a pivotal role in drug discovery and pharmaceutical research.
Microbes like bacteria and fungi are valuable sources of natural compounds that serve as the basis for
many pharmaceutical drugs, including antibiotics. These organisms produce a diverse range of
secondary metabolites with therapeutic potential.

Model organisms, on the other hand, provide crucial insights into the molecular and cellular processes
underlying various diseases. They help scientists understand disease mechanisms and test potential
drug candidates.

The use of model organisms like mice, fruit flies, and nematodes allows researchers to study drug
efficacy and safety before advancing to clinical trials. Together, microbes and model organisms
contribute significantly to the development of new drugs, leading to advances in medical treatments
and improved human health.

• Model Organisms in Medical Science

Model organisms are non-human species that serve as essential tools in scientific research, offering
invaluable insights into biological processes. These organisms are carefully selected for their unique
characteristics that make them ideal subjects for investigation. While numerous model organisms exist,
each with its distinct advantages, some offer more benefits than others due to specific features.

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 9

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

These features include genetic similarity to humans, ease of maintenance and breeding, short
generation times, and relevance to various scientific domains. The choice of a model organism
depends on the research goals, as different organisms provide diverse insights into fields such as
genetics, aging, disease mechanisms, and developmental biology.

The selection of a model organism is a critical decision that influences the outcome and scope of
scientific studies, making it essential to match the organism's attributes with the research objectives.

1. Escherichia coli (E. coli):

E. coli is widely used as a model organism in medical science

due to its ease of maintenance and breeding in a laboratory
setting and its meticulous experimental advantages. Its
extensive use stems from several specific aspects:

Genetics: E. coli's simple nutritional requirements, rapid

growth rate, and well-established genetics make it a valuable
tool for genetic research and evolutionary experiments.

Cell Division: With an average cell division rate of once every

30 minutes, E. coli facilitates quick adaptation to changing
environments and allows for the study of environmental
responses.

Applications: In medical science, E. coli is employed in various contexts, including the investigation of
bacterial genetics, antibiotic resistance mechanisms, and the understanding of infectious diseases. Its
significance extends to biotechnology, where it plays a crucial role in protein production for medical
and industrial applications.

Diseases Explored: E. coli is explored in the context of urinary tract infections, gastroenteritis, sepsis,
and other bacterial infections, contributing to the understanding and treatment of these diseases.

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 10

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

2. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast):

S. cerevisiae is a valuable model organism in medical science, particularly in the study of aging and
cellular processes, due to specific aspects:

Genetic Simplicity: The yeast's simple genetics

make it a valuable tool for exploring genes and
pathways associated with aging and senescence.

Fermentation: Its pivotal role in fermentation

makes it relevant for understanding metabolic
processes that have implications for age-related
diseases and cellular function.

Applications: Yeast research is instrumental in understanding the genetic basis of aging and age-related
diseases. It is also employed in studying cellular processes such as DNA replication, gene regulation,
and signal transduction pathways with direct relevance to medical science.

Diseases Explored: While not directly related to medical diseases, yeast models are used to study the
fundamental mechanisms underlying age-related disorders, DNA replication, and genetic pathways
with implications for conditions like cancer.

3. Drosophila melanogaster (Fruit Fly):

Fruit flies are crucial in medical research due to specific features, making them a valuable model
organism:

Genetic Similarity: Their relatively small genome

and high genetic homology with humans enable
the study of human disease genes.

Relevance to Disease: Fruit flies play a central

role in the study of neurodegenerative diseases,
developmental biology, and genetic pathways
that regulate essential biological processes.

Applications: Fruit flies are instrumental in

exploring diseases like Parkinson's, Huntington's, Alzheimer's disease, and developmental disorders.
They provide insights into the genetic and molecular underpinnings of these conditions, advancing
medical science.

Diseases Explored: Fruit flies contribute to the understanding of diseases such as Parkinson's,
Huntington's, Alzheimer's, and various developmental disorders, helping identify potential therapeutic
targets.

4. Caenorhabditis elegans (Nematode/Round worm):

C. elegans is a valuable model organism in medical science primarily for research into neural
development, aging, and genetics, with specific aspects contributing to its significance:

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 11

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Simple Nervous System: The nematode's simple nervous system makes

it a bridge between invertebrate and vertebrate nervous systems,
essential for understanding neural processes.

Aging Studies: It aids in research on aging and age-related diseases and

plays a key role in identifying genes linked to aging and
neurodegenerative conditions.

Applications: C. elegans contributes to studying neural development,

aging mechanisms, neurodegenerative diseases, and genes associated
with conditions like Alzheimer's.

Diseases Explored: Research involving C. elegans focuses on age-

related disorders, neurodegenerative conditions, and genes implicated
in Alzheimer's disease, providing insights into disease mechanisms and potential interventions.

5. Arabidopsis thaliana (Thale Cress):

A. thaliana is widely used in plant sciences and indirectly affects medical science due to specific
features:

Genetic Insights: Its genetic relevance to plant development allows it to

serve as a foundation for plant molecular biology and provides a model
for investigating plant traits.

Botanical Research: It aids in advancing botany, genetics, crop science,

and genetic engineering, indirectly affecting medical science through
food production.

Applications: While not explored for medical diseases directly, A.

thaliana research has implications for plant diseases and genetics,
indirectly impacting agricultural research and food security, a critical
aspect of medical science.

Diseases Explored: A. thaliana research primarily contributes to plant

diseases and genetic insights relevant to crop health and food production.

6. Mus musculus (House Mouse):

Mice are widely used in medical research due to their

genetic similarity to humans, ease of maintenance, and
high reproductive rate, with specific aspects contributing
to their significance:

Genetic Proximity: Mice share a high homology with

humans, allowing for research on genes and genetic
factors with relevance to medical science.

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 12

SVKM's NMIMS University Elements of Biology

Disease Modeling: Their central role in studying various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, genetic
disorders, and immunological responses, makes them valuable in understanding and treating these
conditions.

Applications: Mice are instrumental in studying various diseases and are critical for testing therapeutic
strategies and potential treatments, contributing to advances in medical science.

Diseases Explored: Mice are explored in the context of cancer, diabetes, genetic diseases, autoimmune
disorders, and various other medical conditions, ultimately advancing medical research and
intervention strategies.

Assignment:

1. What is the significance of the lag, log, stationary, and death phase in bacterial growth, and why
is it essential for bacterial cells to have this phase?

2. How do autotrophs, such as plants and cyanobacteria, contribute to the ecosystem? Explain the
role of heterotrophs in nutrient cycling and food webs within ecosystems. What distinguishes
lithotrophs from other energy utilization categories?

3. Explain the classification of organisms based on nitrogenous excretion.

4. Why are fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) important in the study of diseases such as
Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, and what characteristics make them suitable as model organisms?

5. What specific role does the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans play in medical science, and in
which areas of research are they commonly used?

6. How do mice contribute to understanding various diseases in medical research, and what genetic
similarities make them valuable for this purpose?

7. What are the key differences between bacteria, fungi, protozoa, archaea, and viruses in terms
of their characteristics, genetic makeup, and practical significance in various scientific fields?

Module 6- Microbiology & Drug Discovery 13