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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
CHAPTER 1
About 1750 BC, Hammurabi, King of Babylon, created one of the first bodies of written law-
the Code of Hammurabi. The code was then implemented to detect those who refused to obey the
law. It imposes the Lex Taliones (Law of Retribution) principle where the punishment of an offender
was equal to what he did. The principle also refers to the concept known as “An eye for an eye and a
tooth for a tooth.”
1. Ten Tithing- this was done by grouping a hundred of person into one under the charge
of a High Constable. Hue and Cry were employed. The constable who was considered the
first form of English Police dealt with more serious breaches of the law.
2. Tithing- This was performed by grouping then persons to protect one another and to
assume responsibility for the acts of the group’s members. The one who heads the group
called Chief.
Note:
William Norman divided England into shires (District) and was headed by reeve
(Ruler).
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
The Roman Emperor Augustus picked out special, highly qualified members of military to form
the Praetorian Guard, the Praefectus Urbi and the Vigiles of Rome. Their functions were as follows:
1. Praetorian Guard. This guard was considered too be the first police officer in Rome, with
the job of protecting the palace of Rome and the emperor.
2. Praefecturs Urbi. The function of the Praefectus Urbi was to protect the City, exercising
both executive and judicial power.
3. Vigiles of Rome. The Vigiles began as firefighters, granted with the law enforcement
responsibilities and patrolled Rome’s streets day at night. They were considered as civil police
force designed to protect citizens. They were considered quite brutal and it is where the word
“vigilante” came from.
The Statue of Winchester was enacted to establish a rudimentary criminal justice system in
which most of the responsibility for law enforcement remained with the people themselves. This statue
was promulgated by Winchester. The statute established the following;
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
In 1751, henry published a pamphlet entitle An Inquiry into the Causes of the Lane increase of
Robbers, which called for many sweeping changes in the laws and the execution of their laws.
The blind John was known as the “Blind Beak” and allegedly able to recognized 3000 criminals
by the sounds of their voices.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
Patrick also had the idea of publicly funded police force. His main contribution was the
introduction of crime prevention, or preventive policing- the fundamental principle to the English police
system.
He was credited as the founder of La Surete, the France’s National detective organization and
was considered and the Father of Modern Criminology in French Police Department. He was also
regarded as the first private detective.
It is also guided by the concept of crime prevention as a primary police objective, it also
embodied the belief that such a force depended on the consent and cooperation of the public and the
idea that police constables were to be civil and courteous to the people.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
The force became the model for other police forces in Great Britain, informal names are, “The
Met” and “MPS”. In Statues it is referred to in the lower case the “Metropolitan Police Force” or the
Metropolitan Police, without the appendage “service”. The MPS is also referred to as Scotland Yard
after the location of its original headquarters.
Police are often referred to as “Bobbies” or “Peelers after Sir Robert (Bobby) Peel. The
primary role of the Police in Britain was to keep the Queens Peace, which continues to the present
days. He also introduced the techniques in detecting crimes such as detective concealing themselves,
and secretly photographing and recording conversations. London Metropolitan Police employed the
first undercover officer.
The great contribution of Sir Robert Peel led people to regard him the Father of Modern
Policing. His most memorable principles, “the police are the public, and the public are the police.”.
England (1833)
Scotland Yard employed the first undercover officer. in U.S.A, the first daytime paid police
department was established in Philadelphia.
She was the first woman detective in the history of criminal investigation. She was hired by the
Pinkerton Agency and contributed to solving big cases in the United States of America.
U.S.A (1859)
The Appellate Court of U.S.A recognized and accepted photographs as evidence in court
proceedings upon its relevancy and after thorough verification.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
He was a keen-minded individual who trained his detectives in recognizing individual criminal
techniques. He founded the criminal “modus operandi”. This is a Latin phrase, approximately
translated as “Method of Operation”, the term as used to describe someone’s habit of working
particular in the context of business of criminal investigation. In English, it is often shortened as M.O
The gang made the first hold-up which marked the beginning of the gangs 15 years hold-up
and robbery spree (12 bank hold-ups and 12 train stage coach robberies in 11 states). Clay
County Saving Association was their first victim and took $60,000.00
1. Body: height, reach from fingertips to fingertips, length of trunk and head or height
sitting;
3. Limbs: length of left foot, length of left middle finger, length of left little finger, length of left
forearm. These measurements were recorded on cards and classified according to the length of the
head;
He is an English man who published this study on classifying fingerprints and recognized the
uniqueness of the fingerprints to be used as evidence against a suspect.
England (1819)
A new concept was introduced in the field of Criminal Investigation, known as “Team
Policing”. In this concept, there is no patrol division or criminal investigation per se. in this system, a
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
team of police officers is assigned to patrol and investigate all criminal matters within their area of
jurisdiction or district.
The US Supreme Court established procedural guidelines for taking criminal confession. The
case is the origin of the present Miranda rights of every accused under custodial investigation.
USA (1977)
The FBI introduced the beginning of Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) with
the first computerized scan of fingerprints.
England (1986)
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) typing was first used to solve a crime. DNA is unique to every
individual and can be sued for personal identification.
USA (1987)
DNA profiling was introduced for the first time in U.S criminal court. Based on analysis
performed by Life Codes, Tommy Lee Andrews was convicted of a series of sexual assaults in
Orlando, Florida.
This was the first case in which the admissibility of DNA was seriously challenged. It set in
motion a string of events that culminated in a call for certification, accreditation, standardization and
quality control guidelines for both DNA laboratories and the general forensic community.
USA (1999)
The FBI upgraded its computerized fingerprint database and implemented the Integrated
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), allowing paperless submission, storage and
search capabilities directly to the national database maintained at the FBI.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
The recovery of a large sum of money stolen from the Adam Express Company and the
discovery of a plot to murder Abraham Lincoln in 1861 made way to his reputation.
During the American Civil War, he organized the secret service of the U.S Army. During the
railroad strikes of 1877, his agency provided strikebreakers. His books include Strikers, Communist
and Tramps (1878) and Thirty Years a Detective (1884).
He was considered as the America’s foremost private Detective. This individual truly deserves
the title of “America’s Founder of Criminal Investigation”. Among methods he pioneered were
“shadowing,” the art of suspect surveillance, “roping”, Working in undercover capacity with a motto
“We never sleep”.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
He is a British physician, novelist, and detective-story writer. Dr. Arthur C. Doyle is best known
as the creator of the character of master sleuth Sherlock Holmes. The characterization of Holmes,
particularly his ability of ingenious deductive reasoning, was based on o ne of Conan Doyle’s own
university professor.
Dr. Alec John Jeffrey’s
He used DNA fingerprinting and profiling to identify Colin Pitchfork as the murderer of two
young girls in the English midlands. Significantly, in the course of the investigation DNA was first u
sed to exonerate and innocent suspect.
Flaviano Guerrero
He is the only Filipino member of the United Sates Federal Bureau of Investigation.
1901
The Criminal Investigation Service (CIS) now known as CIDG, can trace its humble beginnings
out of an urgent need for a unit that would handle investigation of major crimes especially against
national security, and at the same time, free other Philippine Constabulary Units from this time-
consuming and highly specialized of Criminal Investigation. Hence, this crime-fighting unit came into
being with the creation of investigation Section (IS) pursuant to Section 2 of Act No. 235 of the
Philippine Commission enacted on October 3, 1901.
1901-1919
During the American occupation, the criminal investigation service was primarily organized out
of the great necessity of the Philippine Constabulary in the investigation of crimes.
1913
The genesis of criminal investigation in the Manila Police Department, presently known as the
Western Police District took place in 1913.
1920-1936
The CIS then known as the Information Service led to the successful investigation on the
theme Colurom rebellion. Sakdalista Movement and the Asedillo uprising. It also became successful
in suppressing and investigating crimes including those committe4d against the security of the state.
1936
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
The Division of Investigation (DI) was created by virtue of Commonwealth Act No. 181 during
the reign of the late President Manuel L. Quezon. The DI, with the 45 initial members, was organized
after the Federal Bureau of Investigation of United States of America.
1942-1945
During the Japanese occupation, the DI was affiliated with the Bureau of Internal Revenue
(BIR) and the Philippine Constabulary (PC) known as the Bureau of Investigation.
1946
The CIS tapped to perform highly specialized task of investigation and intelligence work as a
criminal investigation branch of G2.
1947
1950
The CIS was commissioned to gather intelligence and assume as the role main investigating
outfit of the Philippine Constabulary in response to the resurgence of various criminal syndicates, like
the Black Shirt and the Kamlon Gang coupled with the organization various anti-government
movements, such as Hukbalahap.
1987
The mandate of the 1987 Constitution establishing the National Police Force that should be
national in scope and civilian in character under the Department of Interior and Local Government
(DILG) paved the way for the creation of the Philippine National Police (PNP).
Consequently, the CIS is retained as one of the National Support Units of the PNP under the
name of Criminal Investigation Service Command (CISC), this distinguishes it from the operating unit
of the administrative support unit crated pursuant R.A 6975 which assumes the name of the “Service”
while operating support units assumed the name of command.
1991
Due to the media publicly of investigations of sensational cases committed by local executives
Organized Crime Groups (OCGs), the CIS as mandated by R.A 6975, acted as the primary
investigating arm of the PNP on major crimes, OCC’s and economic sabotage.
to being the premier arm of the PNP as the “Spirit and Soul
of the Force”.
1996
Related Cases:
It originated from the American jurisprudence Mr. Ernesto Miranda who was accused of
kidnapping and rape in the State of Arizona. The Arizona Police interrogated him exhaustedly leading
to his confession. Based on his confession, he was charged tried and convicted. Appeal of his
conviction was made before Arizona Supreme court but his conviction was affirmed. The appealed
was then elevated to the U.S Court where there was a reversal of the decision and he was acquitted
on constitutional grounds.
It was in this caser that the U.S Supreme Court laid down the constitutional rights
of the accused during the custodial interrogation. This constitutional right was also
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
incorporated in the 1972 Philippine constitution and later in the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines.
This is known as the Miranda Rule, Doctrine or Warning.
1. Right to remain silent. Anything that he/she may say may be used against him/her in any
court of law.
2. Right to have a counsel preferably of his/her own choice and if he/she has none, the
government must provide one for him.
3. Right to be informed of the nature of the charges against him and whatever he/she may
be used for or against him/her
These rights could be validly waived in writing and with the assistance of a counsel in
order that the ensuring confession be admissible in evidence. The confession must also be in writing
singed and sworn to by the accused.
In Miranda v. Arizona case, the court addressed the question of how to enforce a
suspect right to counsel and right against self-incrimination. The court concluded that police officers
must specifically inform suspects of these rights and inform them that if they give up these rights their
statement can be used against them.
The Supreme Court held that the Sixth Amendment which guarantees criminal defendants the
right to counsel, requires state government to provide attorneys for indigent (poor) criminal
defendants.
The court held that a suspect has a right to have an attorney present when being interrogated
in police custody as well as during a trial.
The supreme court of the Philippines ruled in this case and made a clear remark that the
Miranda Warning as it is generally called have to be made so that a confession can be admitted.
The state establishes and maintains one police force which shall be national in scope and
civilian in character, to be administered and controlled by the National Police Commission. The
authority of the local executives over the police shall be provided by law.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
An Act defining certain rights of person arrested, detained and or under custodial
investigation as well as the d ties of the arresting, detaining and investigation officers and providing
penalties for violation thereof.
CHAPTER 2
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
INVESTIGATION
Latin terms: Investigat – which means “to inquire or to discover” during the 5th century.
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
It is an art which deals with the identity and location of offender and provides evidence of his
guilt through criminal proceedings.
Criminal Investigation
It is the collection and analysis of facts/truths about persons, things, places that are
subjects of a crime to identify the guilty party, locate the whereabouts of the guilty part, and provide
admissible pieces of evidence to establish in the guilt of parties involve in crime.
Criminal Investigation
It is the logical, objective and legal inquiry involving a possible criminal activity. The
result of the inquiry, if successful, will answer the 5 Ws (who, what, where, when, why) and the H
(How) questions.
Criminal Investigation
It is a legal inquiry by virtue of a complaint to follow up, examine, trace, track and
search, step by step examination or process and meticulous observation, the fact of the commission
of a crime, the identity of the actors and the circumstances attendant thereto, by careful evaluation of
all available pieces of evidence to the end that violators of the law be brought to the bar of justice, and
the innocent be relieved the ire from.
Criminal Investigation
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
It is a lawful search for people and things useful in reconstructing the circumstances of
an illegal act or omission and the mental state accompanying it. It is the probing form the known to the
unknown, backward in time and its goal is to determine the truth as far as it can be discovered in any
post-factum inquiry.
Criminal Investigation
It is an official effort to uncover information about a crime. There are generally three
ways that a person can be brought to justice for a criminal act.
1. Motive
- it is the moving power or force which compels a person to commit acts towards a definite
result.
Generally, motive is immaterial in incurring criminal liability; it is intent which is material. Motive
becomes material when the act brings variant crimes. There is a doubt whether the accused
committed the crime or the identity of the accused is doubtful, the evidence in the commission of
crime is purely circumstantial or the evidence of the guilt of the accused is inconclusive.
2. Opportunity
- It is the chance or time given to the offender in committing the crime. Without such chance or
opportunity given to the offender, there could be no crime committed in many instances, the victims
are the ones making opportunity for the offender to commit such crime.
3. Instrumentality/Capability
-It is the use of materials and the other mans which are essential in the commission of the
crime. Thus, crime will not occur if all the elements of the crime exist. Further, if one of the elements
of crime is absent eh crime will not and will never be happen.
MODES OF INVESTIGATION
2. Proactive Mode of Investigation- identities and arrest suspects before crime will
happen. It is designed to catch a criminal in the act of committing a crime rather than
waiting until a crime is reported by a concerned citizen.
Investigation is a science because there are certain rules that should be followed to conduct a
successful investigation and because the pure and applied science play an increasingly important role
in investigation.
Criminal Investigation is considered as an art because it is not governed by rigid rules of fixed
legal procedures but most often based on intuition (logic and tested knowledge, immediate
learning/consciousness) and sometimes by change.
It was Dr. Hans Gross who said that criminal investigation is 95% perspiration, 3 % inspiration
and 2 % luck. This means that the investigators should not only depend on inspiration or luck or else
they will fail 95% in their investigation. One hundred percent effort must be exerted because
inspiration or luck may never come in this way.
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATOR
It refers to the person who performs an investigation. It is also known as prober and a
considered as the superstar in the process of Investigation.
POLICE INVESTIGATOR
It refers to the PNP uniformed personnel both Police Commissioned Officer (PCO) and Police
Non-Commissioned Officer (PNCO) conferred with the appropriate certification to investigate with
care and accuracy, by conducting step-by-step examination, through patient inquiry and meticulous
observation, data and other pertinent matters to support crime theories and establish relevant facts to
aid in identifying the offense and criminal offender, locating him and providing evidence oh his guilt
leading to the successful filing and prosecution of the offense.
A police investigator must be a graduate of Criminal Investigation Course (CIC) for PNCP and
the Investigation Officer Basic Course (IOBC) for PCO’s.
POLICE DETECTIVE
It refers to the PNP uniformed personnel who was previously certified as a police investigator
but was able to complete 18 units of Masters Degree, and completed the Police Detective Course
(PDC), and acquired the requisite experience relating to investigation of cases and appearance in
court duties to support the successful filing and prosecution of offense.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
1. Perseverance- it refers to the steadfastness, persistence and resolution to bring the desired
conclusion is spite of obstacles connected with criminal investigations.
2. Endurance. This is the ability of the investigator to last physically and mentally hence
he/she must have the extraordinary physical and metal energy, enduring sleepless nights and
tiresome days.
3. Incorruptible honesty and integrity. This refers to the degree of honesty and integrity of
the investigator on several temptations over money that are offered to affect the investigation. Women
and drinks are ticks of temptations.
4. Intelligence and Wisdom of Solomon. This is very important in order that the investigator
could easily decipher falsehood from truth and separate the grain from the chaff.
5. Acting Activity. It refers to the ability of the investigator in stopping down to the level of a
minor, the prostitute or the slum dwellers, professionals or other members of the elite during the
investigation process.
6. Oral and Written Communication. Every investigator should have a basic knowledge on
both oral and written communication in probing a certain issue in order that he/she will not suffer
setback in getting the accurate facts information. This includes the use of appropriate words in making
a report and writing observations and descriptions of places, things and events.
7. Observation and Descriptions. The investigator should keen observer and knows how to
accurately describe anything. This is important in crime scene investigation and in conducting an
interview and interrogation.
8. Courage. It is the moral fortitude of the investigator to tell the truth irrespective of who gets
hurt.
9. Knowledge on Laws. The investigator should have basic knowledge on legal matters
concerning investigation.
10. The power to “Read between the lines”. This refers to the ability of the investigator to
interpret the words or phrases encountered in the process of investigation into their deeper meaning
in order to arrive with a concrete meaning oft the certain statement.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
11. Technical Knowledge. This refers to the investigator’s capability of defense tactics, use of
firearms and the like. In many occasions, he/she will be alone in confronting arresting, bringing to
headquarters and interrogating the suspects.
1. Recognition
It involves the effort of identifying data, including physical things that may provide relevant
information regarding the criminal cases being investigated. That is why recognition is otherwise
known as identification stage of investigation.
The earlier significant facts are identified, the sooner the case will be solved.
Significant things that must be recognized may be in the form of bloodstains ate the crime
scene, neighbor who accidentally saw/witnessed a burglary in progress, or bank record of a drug
dealer. These are highly relevant facts that can be used by the investigator, to be developed on a
well-founded belief that a crime has in fact been committed.
2. Collection
It refers to the act of gathering those identified data or facts, or physical things that are
significant to the case under investigation. Collection may be done by scaping the bloodstains found
at the crime scene, interviewing the neighbor who saw the burglary or examination of drug dealer’s
bankbook.
3. Preservation
It is a function that is almost simultaneously performed during the collection stage. It includes
the act of keeping the collected pieces of evidence in their true and original form, preventing
contamination or destruction of their substantive value.
Preservation does not only involve the process of packaging physical evidences in order that
they can be safely transmitted to the evidence custodian or to the crime laboratory but covers the
process of maintaining the objectivity of facts or information also fathered from the testimony of
witnesses, victims of other persons involve in the criminal cases.
4. Evaluation
Probative Value- refers to the strength of the evidence or its worth/weight in successfully
establishing a proof that a crime has in fact been committed and that the suspects/accused is
the one who is responsible for it.
5. Presentation
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
It is primarily manifested in the courtroom. The investigator, with the help of the prosecutor,
must be able to present facts and information in a very simple and convenient manner in order to
convince the court and other parties involved in the criminal case about the validity and truthfulness of
the evidence they are trying to prove or establish.
1. Who Questions:
These are questions used to inquire on the identify of the victims or offended party, name of
the suspected accomplices, accessories and witnesses of the crime.
2. What Questions.
The purpose of these types of questions is to find out what happened or what took place
before, during and immediately after the commission of the offense.
1. What happened?
2. What specific actions did the suspect/victim/witness do?
3. What is the nature of the crime?
4. What was/were the weapons/tools/used by the culprit?
3. Where Questions.
These are the questions that localize the place of the incident-the city or town, the district or
barangay, the street or road, the number of the house or building.
4. When Questions.
These are questions needed to determine and fix the time, day, month and year when the
crime was committed.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
5. Why Questions.
These are questions that endeavor to ascertain the motives, causes, antecedents, previous,
incidents, related facts, background occurrences that might help explain the commission of the
offense.
6. How Questions.
These are designed to help the investigator to determine how the crime was committed, the
means/tools that were employed, how the crime was discovered and how the culprits entered the
building room.
“Never touch, alter, move or transfer any object at the crime scene unless it is
properly marked, measured, sketched and or photographed”.
The purpose of this rule is to avoid the mutilation, alteration, and contamination
(MAC) of the physical evidence found at the crime scene.
1. INFORMATION
2. INTERVIEW/INTERROGATION
3. INSTRUMENTATION
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
3. Interrogator- it is the person who performs skillful questioning of hostile witness and
suspects for purposes of obtaining confession or admission.
5. Suspect- it denotes any person associated to the commission of a crime. A suspect may
also refer to any person whose guilt is considered on reasonable ground to be a practical possibility.
6. Witness- is a person other than the suspect, who is requested to give information
concerning an incident. He/she may be a victim, complainant, an accuser, a source of
information, and a observer of the occurrence, a scientific specialist who has examined
physical evidence or a custodian of official documents.
1. INFORMATION
This is the knowledge which the investigator gathered and acquired from persons, records and
“modus operandi file”. Information is important in investigation because it answers the question, WHO
DID IT? The ability to secure information is considered the chief asset of an investigator.
1. Regular sources
- records, files from government or non-government agencies and news items,
intercepted radio or telephone messages and stored computer data.
2. Cultivated sources
- information furnished by informants or informers.
3. Grapevines sources
- information coming from the underworld characters such as prisoners or ex-
convicts.
INFORMERS
Are those persons who provide information to the police on a regular basis. They are either
paid regularly or in a case to case basis, or none at all. They are cultivated & established by the police
on a more or less permanent character & as long as they are loyal and useful to the police
organization.
INFORMANTS
It refers to any person who furnishes the police an information relevant to the crime under
investigation or about the activities of the criminals or syndicates. Informant may openly give the
information or offer himself to be a witness.
CONFIDENTIAL INFORMANT
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
It is one who provides the police with the confidential information concerning a crime. The
informant does not want to be identified as the source of information. Under the law, these types of
informants are protected & their identity could not be revealed by the police even under the order of
the Court unless an exceptional case where there is a claim of the defense that the informant framed-
up the accused.
TYPES OF INFORMANTS:
1. Anonymous Informant
- a phone caller, letter writer or a text sender. Never tell the informant that the
investigator already knows the information. The duty is to receive the information & not to
reveal to the caller any other information or facts about the case.
2. Rival-Elimination Informant
- maintains identity being anonymous. His purpose is to eliminate rival person or gang
due to competition or other motives such as revenge & etc.
3. False Informant
- Usually reveals information of no consequence, value or stuff connected with thin air.
His purpose is to appear to be on the side of the law & for throwing out suspicion from himself or from
his gang or associates.
4. Frightened Informant
- possesses fear or has self interest in giving information to the police. He might be one
of the lesser gang members who runs to the police when his gang mates are about to be involved in a
dangerous situation or when the gang is hot on the police trail. He is motivated by anxiety & self-
preservation of his well-being & will furnish information to protect himself or sustain self-importance.
This type is the weakest link in the composition of criminal chain.
5. Self-aggrandizing Informant
- moves around the centers of criminals, group or syndicate & delights in surprising the
police about bits of information. His information may be of value by way of authentication in the
intelligence operation.
6. Mercenary Informant
- The informant has information for sale. He may have been victimized in a double-
cross or little share in the loot or given a dirty deal & seeks revenge as well as profit in his disclosure.
7. Double-crosser Informant
- he uses his seeming desire to divulge information as an excuse to talk to the police in
order to get more information from them than he gives. To counter this kind of informant, the police
apply deception method by giving him false information that will lead to his capture.
8. Women Informant
- a female associate of the criminals, who was roughed up, marginalized in the deal or
being eased out from the group. care must be given to this kind of informant because women, given
the skills & expertise are more dangerous than men. They often give free romance that will result in
blackmailing the investigator or will result to an extended family for support.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
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9. Legitimate Informant
- desire to give information that springs from legitimate reasons. They may be a
legitimate business operator who abhor the presence of criminals in their trade & parents who are
afraid that their siblings will be influenced by their friends who are suspected to be criminals. Others
are included where their desires to give information are impressed with lawful motive.
MOTIVES OF INFORMANTS
1. Vanity
The motive is for self-aggrandizement by gaining favorable attention &
importance by the police.
2. Civic Mindedness
It is imbued with the sense of duty & obligation to assist the police in their task.
4. Repentance
Those lesser criminals such as accomplices or accessories who will have a
change in heart to unburden their conscience.
The saying that says: “It needs a thief to catch another thief”. The history of the French
police proved that this saying is true. The elite French Surete, task to investigate criminal cases, hired
an ex-convict as an informer. This ex-convict produced outstanding successes in the solution of cases
seemingly difficult to be solved. The ex-convict later became the Chief of the French Surete & the
man was Vidocq.
SELECTION OF INFORMERS
There is no hard and fixed rule in the selection of informers. This is addressed to the sound
discretion of the investigator. The informer may be to a fixed period of assignment or into a case-to-
case basis.
The informer must be indoctrinated that they are not immune from arrest & prosecution if they
commit crime. They should not bring shame & dishonor to the police service. When they will commit
crimes, they should be punished like the rest.
All sectors of society must be covered, & their composition must include but not limited to taxi
drivers, jeepney & bus drivers, vendors, conductors, waiters, dancers, ex-convicts, shady or
underworld characters, hostesses, bankers, security guards, businessmen, prostitutes, the elite in the
society & others.
They should be planted as moles or stole pigeons practically in all corners of social order.
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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of SDSSU | Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation and Intelligence
WOMEN INFORMERS:
This is the most effective among informers because they could easily penetrate the ranks of
criminals with less suspicion. Besides they could mingle with the crowd easily & could obtain
information more than their male counterparts, especially if their beauty attracts attention. They have
easier access to women associates of male criminals. However, care must be employed as they could
easily double-cross the police once they fall in love with criminals.
1. Government Records
Police files, NBI files, Bureau of Immigration files, Comelec files, files from the local
jails, National penitentiaries & other government agencies.
2. Private Records- from private offices & business & non-government organizations.
3. Intercepted Messages
It is from telephones, cell phones, radio telecommunications & other means of
communications. (RA 4200 and RA
4 Records of Firearms & Explosive Unit concerning licensed holders of firearms &
authorized possessor of explosives.
5. Fire Bursting
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6. Records of foreign & local manufacturers of vehicles concerning the engine &
chassis numbers of the suspected vehicles used in the commission of crimes or are the
subject of carnapping.
2. INTERVIEW
It is the simple questioning of a person believed to possess information, which are relevant to
the investigation of a crime or on criminal activities.
In an interview, the interviewee is willing and cooperative with the person conducting
the interview.
1. Cognitive Interview
This is conducted to willing and cooperative witnesses, where they are given the full
opportunity to narrate their accounts without intervention, interruption and interference from the
interviewer.
After the subject finished his/her narration, the investigator now subjects him/her to the style
of direct examination and cross-examination to clarify the unexplained portions to arrive at the vivid
(bright) and complete picture of the testimony.
The questioning should be in agreement with the facts and conditions at the crime scene. The
questioning will lead wayward for the interviewer who had not seen personally the crime scene and
he/she will not be in a position to distinguishes half-truths exaggerations of falsehood from t he
answers of the person being interviewed.
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1. Rapport
It refers to the good relation between the interviewer and the interviewee, which is
conducive to a fruitful result. It is winning the confidence of a person being interviewed in order that he
will tell all the information in his/her possession. The interviewer must be in a respectable civilian attire
because, most often and the majority of people, the police uniforms is barrier in establishing good
rapport. To many, the uniform is intimidating.
2. Forceful Personality
The appearance of the interviewer and other qualities such as skills of communication
techniques or the force of language are the mainstay of the strength of his character. He/she must be
understanding, sympathetic and without showing official arrogance, vulgarity of expression and air
superiority.
3. Knowledge on Psychology/Psychiatry.
This will help the interviewer determine the personality and intelligence of the suspect;
he/she must go down and up to the level of understanding of his/her particular subject.
5. Acting Qualities
He/she must possess the qualities of an actor, salesman and psychologist and know
how to use the power of persuasion. This is done to convince the person to disclose what he/she
knows about the issue being investigated.
6. Humility
He/she must be courteous, sympathetic and humble, ready to ask apologies for the
inconvenience of the interview. This is usually done at the end of the interview that may give a good
impression to the being interview.
1. Fear of Reprisal
Witnesses who lack the courage to face the suspect, his associates or relatives always
entertain the fear of reprisal. This is natural, especially those who have no means to protect
themselves, or no influential person for them to rely on.
This is prevalent among the generally underprivileged sectors of our society. The
investigator must remove these fears from the mind of his/her witnesses either by offering protection
or by the explanation that unless the suspect is not put behind bars, the fear will not disappear. The
investigators power of persuasion plays a vital role.
2. Great Inconvenience
On the part of those of hands-to-mouth existence there is this real inconvenience,
which will deprive them the time to earn for their living especially during the ordeal of testifying during
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the trial. To those unemployed, the inconvenience is greater thus the investigator must sincerely help
them through his/her contacts with the business community.
5. Avoidance of Publicity
There are witnesses who are shy and they shun publicly that will bring discomfort to t
heir ordinary or obscure way of living. The investigator must hide these witnesses away from the
reporters.
6. Family Restriction
Some famous and respected families preserve their reputations by instilling to their
members the need of the approval of their elders on matters affecting the families. The investigator
must talk to the elders for their approval for a member to testify.
PHASES OF INTERVIEW
1. Preparation
Investigator must review the facts at the crime scene and information from other
sources in order that he/she would be ready for the questioning. A background data of the subject
should be available so that he/she could adapt himself/herself to the kind of approach to the
employed.
2. Approach
This is done through investigator’s careful selection of the kind of approach to use,
which may be a single kind, a combination of two or the application of all techniques.
3. Warming Up
This is done by preliminary or exploratory or exploratory questions to clear the
atmosphere and promote a conducive place for cordiality, respect and trust for each other.
4. Cognitive Interview
This is performed by allowing or already asking now the subject to narrate his/her
account without interruption, intervention or interference. It is only after the completion of the
uninterrupted narration that the investigator begins the direct and cross-examination.
Rules in Questioning
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3. Simplicity of Question
A short simple question at a time is required. If the answer needs qualification, then, it
should be allowed. Avoid legalistic questions such as who is the murderer, or who are in conspiracy
with the subject.
4. Saving Face
Embarrassing questions on the subject on matters of exaggeration or hones errors
about time, distance and description can be avoided if the investigator will cooperate with the subject
to save his face. The investigator should not fault or ridicule the subject on these matters.
TYPES OF WITNESSES
1. Know-nothing Type
This is a reluctant type of witness. It is found among the uneducated and of low level
of intelligence. The technique to be applied is to be with their level of intelligence and by interrogation.
2. Disinterested Type
This refers to an uncooperative and indifferent subject. To deal with this type is to
find out his/her field of interest so that he/she will talk. His/her indifference should be demolished to
arouse interest or be flattered instead.
4. Talkative Type
This is a witness who is prone to exaggerate adding irrelevant or new matters to their
narration. The skillful investigator could prune the unnecessary matters from the relevant ones.
5. Honest Witness
This is a liar type of witness. Let him /her lie and order later to repeat several times the
narration.
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6. Deceitful Witness
This is a liar type of witness. Let him/her lie and order later to repeat several times the
narration. He/she will be enmeshed in contradictions. If possible, the lies must be tape recorded for
the confrontation about the contradiction.
Pressure him/her for possible cases of perjury or obstruction of justice and he/she will tell the
truth.
7. Timid Witness.
This is a shy witness. The approach must be friendly and reassuring
confidentiality of the information. It should be hidden from the devouring press by
interview or photo sessions.
INTERROGATION
It is confrontational in the sense that the investigator places the guilt on the accused. This
process could also be applied to an uncooperative or reluctant suspect/witness.
Interrogation is one of the most difficult but most interesting phases of criminal investigation
and detection. It is a challenging battle of wit between the investigator and the suspect. It is a mental
combat where the weapon is intelligence and the use of the art. Victory depends upon proper and
effective use of the art. Witnesses or victims are interview, and suspects are interrogated.
GOALS OF INTERROGATION
3. To gain all facts in order to determine the method of operation or modus operandi and the
circumstances of the crime in question.
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When the accused confessed to the commission of a crime/he or she accepts the facts
constituting the offense but if he/she interposes self-defense or other exculpatory ground, then the
acknowledgment is not a confession butt admission.
CONFESSION
ADMISSION
KINDS OF CONFESSION
These reason for the above rule is to guard the accused against conviction based upon false
confession of guilt. It is possible that a person might have confessed his/her guilt regarding an
offense, which someone has committed and when asked of his/her victim of the nature of the injuries
inflicted by him/her, it does not coincide with the identify or nature of the injuries receive by the
victim.
Note:
Confession obtained from the defendant by means of force or intimidation/violence is
null and void, and cannot be used against him/her during the trial (Doctrine of Poisonous Tree).
2. Judicial Confession
This confession is made by the accused in open court. The plea of guilt may be made during
arraignment or any stage of the proceedings where the accused changes plea or not guilty to guilt.
This is conclusive upon the court and may be considered to be a mitigating circumstance to criminal
liability.
A plea of guilty when formally entered on arraignment is sufficient to sustain conviction of any
offense, even a capital one, without further proof.
“Judicial admission is made by the party in the pleadings, or in the course of the trial or other
proceedings do not require proof and cannot be contradicted unless previously shown to have been
made through palpable mistake.
TECHNIQUES OF INTERROGATION
1. Emotional Appeal
This is the technique whereby the investigator, combining the skill so f an actor and
psychologist, addresses the suspect with an emotional appeal to confess. This is applicable to firs
time offender or those who are of the emotional type of characteristics displayed by nervousness or
emotional disturbances. Devotees of a religion may belong to this type.
2. Sympathetic Approach
The investigator, in his/her preliminary or probing questions must dig deep into the past
troubles.
3. Friendliness
A friendly approach coupled with a posture of sincerity may induce the suspect to
confess.
b. Weakest Link
Among the suspects, there must be a careful selection of who among them is
the weakest link where the interrogation will begin. By tricks and bluffs, this weakest link will be told
that his/her companions had already confessed and that this weakest link had dealt the fatal blow or
that he received the lion share of the loot in order to intrigue him.
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c. Drama
The weakest link maybe used to fake pain and agony by ordering him/her to
shout, accompanied by banging a chain on the wall to make it appear that a Commotion is going on.
The other suspects in separate rooms must hear the drama before telling them that t heir partner had
confessed.
e. Line Up
The complainant, witness or victim is requested to point positively to the
suspect in the police line-up. The witness’s victims or complainant are previously coached about the
identity of the suspect.
f. Reverse Line up
The suspect is placed among other persons in a line up and he/she is identified
by several complainants and witnesses who will associate the suspect in other several crimes.
This will cause the suspect to become desperate and confess only to the case under investigation, to
avoid from being charged on false accusations.
g. Stern Approach
The investigator displays a stern (demands immediate response) personality
towards the suspect by using the following methods:
1. Jolting- In the questioning process, the investigators select the right moment to shout a pertinent
question in an apparent righteous outrage. The suspects nerves will break to a confession.
2. Opportunity to Lie- the suspect is given all the opportunities to lie. The suspect is questioned
about his/her personal life, family, friends and his/her knowledge about the complainant and
witnesses. Then the suspect is questioned about his/her activity prior, during and after the
commission of the crime. This is repeated many times, to include the investigator focusing questions
about the knowledge of the suspect of the crime. The suspect will be enmeshed in contradiction,
which is not capitalized by the investigator to get the truth from the suspect, if possible, the
interrogation must be taped recorded for purposes of emphasis during the confrontation of the
contradictions.
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5. Rationalization
It is the use of reasons, which is acceptable to the subject that led to the commission of
the crime. Thus, it may be said that sometimes, killing is necessity rather than by purpose of design.
Robbery is maybe a necessity to feed a starving family. The application of this technique depends
upon the nature of crime.
7. Projection
It is the process of putting the blame to other persons, not alone to the suspect. The
murderer may blame the mastermind for corrupting him/her with big sums of money or the
mastermind blaming the greediness of the victim or the husband blaming the wife for her infidelity. Or
that it is a necessary evil as the victim is planning to kill the suspect.
8. Minimization
It is the act of minimizing the culpability of the suspect. The investigator convinces the
suspect that a confession will reduce the offense and the penalty. Thus, the investigator could study if
there is a way to downgrade murder to homicide or the introduction of mitigating circumstances with
the result of the penalty being within the range of probation.
1. Excessive Sweating
The profuse sweating indicates tension, anxiety, shock or fear. Extreme nervousness is
also the cause of sweating.
2. Change of Facial Color
Anger is indicated if the face is blushing. It is also the result of extreme nervousness of
embarrassment. It is necessary as a sign of deception on guilt. A place is a reliable indicator of guilt
or deception.
3. Dry Mouth
This is a sign of great tension and is reliable symptom of deception. Swallowing,
constant movement of the Adams Apple, and sweating of the lips are indications of
dryness of the mouth.
4. Excessive Breathing
An effort to control breathing during the critical questioning is an indication of
deception. Gasping of breath is the ultimate result of the control in breathing.
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When observed at the side of the neck, the investigator has to discover the increase of
pulse beat which is indicative of deception.
CHAPTER 3
Arrest
It came from the Latin word:
Arrestare- cause to stop
Restare- stay behind
ARREST
It is the taking of a person into custody in order that he/she may be bound to answer for the
commission of an offense.
1. Arrest Warrant
It is an order in writing issued in the name of the People of the Philippines signed by a judge
directed to a peace officer, commanding him/her to arrest the person designated and take him into
custody of the law in order that he/she may be bound to answer for the commission of an offense.
1. It must be issued upon probably caused which may be determine personally by a judge
after examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses she may
produce.
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Probable Cause
It refers to the evidence that warrants a person of reasonable caution in the belief that a crime
was committed.
It is a warrant containing no specific person to be arrested but only descriptions based on the
testimonies of the victims/ or the witnesses. It contains the physical description of the accused as well
as the other factors to be considered for the identification of the accused.
Alias Warrant
It refers to the warrant of arrest issued by a judge to the peace officer after returning the
original warrant of arrest after the lapse of the 10-day validity period.
Warrant Officer
It is any authorized member from the law enforcement agency usually from the Philippine
National Police or National Bureau of Investigation who holds a warrant for execution within 10 days
from receipt subject to renewal in case of failure to execute the same.
The general rule on who is authorized to issue warrant of arrest is the judge of any competent
court of the Philippines.
A s provided under Section 3 of Rule 113, the arresting officer has two primary duties:
1. While arresting the accused/suspect, the arresting officer should inform the cause of arrest
and the fact that a warrant had been issued to the arrested person;
2. Any police officer making a lawful arrest should take the person arrested without
unnecessary delay and deliver him/her to the nearest police station or jail.
In case of Warrantless Arrest, it is the inherent duty of the arresting officer to detain the
person/respondent and file the proper information within the specified time as provided under Article
125 of the RPC, which has been amended by Executive Order No 272 on July 25, 1987.
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Note:
It is not the physical delivery of the person that is required under the law. What is legally
required is filing the information against the arrested person in the proper court where the judge has
the authority to issue an order of release of confinement.
Executive Order No. 272, Amended Article 125 of the RPC (delay in the delivery of detained
person to proper judicial authorities).
It is extended the period authorized to detain a person prior to delivery to the judicial authority.
The law requires a police officer to detain a person for some legal ground and file the appropriate
information to the proper judicial authority, within the following periods and conditions.
Time/Period Penalties
12 Hours - Light penalties and their equivalent
18 Hours - Correctional penalties and their equivalent
36 Hours - Afflictive/capital penalties and their equivalent
The head of office to whom the warrant of arrest was delivered for execution shall cause the
warrant to be execution within 10 days from the receipt.
Within 10 days after the expiration of the period, the officer to whom was assigned for
execution shall make a report to the judge who issued the warrant. In case of failure to execute the
warrant, he/she shall sate the reasons therefore.
Even if not served within the statutory period of 10 days, a warrant of arrest remains valid. It
remains valid unless:
Note: A warrant of arrest has NO expiry date. It remains valid until arrest is effected or
warrant is lifted.
PRINCIPLES OF ARREST
1. A warrant of arrest is enforceable only within the territory of the government or state
issuing the warrant.
2. In a warrantless arrest based on the commission of a crime, the crime must have been
committed within the territory of the government or state whose agents are carrying out the
arrest.
3. In arrest based on a warrant of arrest, it is not essential that the arresting officer has the
warrant in the possession at the time he carries out the warrant.
As a general rule, it is a requisite that warrant should be issued in the name of the person to
be arrested. Any peace officer who arrest a person without warrant may be liable under Article 125 of
the Revised Penal Code (Arbitrary Detention). The following are the situations in which a police officer
may arrest a person without warrant based on (Rule 113, Section 5, Rules of Court).
Related Cases:
The Supreme Court held that rebellion is a continuing offense. Accordingly, a rebel
may be arrested, with or without a warrant, as he/she is deemed to be in the act of committing the
offense at any time of day or night.
It was held that then a police officer sees the offense, although at a distance, or hear
the disturbance created thereby, and process at once to the scene thereof, he may effect and arrest
without a warrant. The offense is deemed committed in the presence or within the view of the officer.
b. When an offense has in fact just been committed and he has probable cause to
believe based on personal knowledge of facts or circumstances that the person to be arrested
has committed. (Doctrine of Hot Pursuit)
HOT PURSUIT
It shall mean an immediate, recent chase or follow-up without material interval for the
purpose of taking into custody any person wanted by virtue of a warrant or one suspected to have
committed a recent offense while fleeing from one police jurisdiction to another, necessitating the
pursuing. Police Unit may cross jurisdictional boundaries that will normally require prior official
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personal inter-unit coordination but which the pursuing unit cannot at that moment comply with due to
the urgency of the situation.
A Team Leader of the Local Police Units operating outside their Area of Responsibility
(AOR) and National Support Unit shall coordinate personally or through an official representative with
the concerned territorial Police Office within whose jurisdiction the operation to conduct using the
prescribed Coordination Form prior to the launching of the operation, except in cases of hot pursuit
where the inter-unit coordination through the written form cannot be made due to the nature and
urgency of the situation.
In such case, the Police Unit in pursuit shall endeavor to notify the territorial unit by any means
of appropriate communication at any time during the hot pursuit and if not possible, shall accomplish
and furnish the territorial police unit a written incident report immediately after the termination of that
particular pursuit operation.
Related Cases:
Go vs Maguan
Six days after the shooting, the petitioner presented before the San Juan Police Station
verified news reports that he was being hunted. The police detained him because an eyewitness had
positively identified him as the gun who shot Maguan. The Supreme Court held that there was no
valid arrest; it cannot be considered as within the meaning of the offense had just been committed in
as much as Six days had already elapsed; neither did the policeman have personal knowledge of
facts that Go shot Maguan.
People vs Gerente
The case cites the policeman who saw the victim dead the hospital and when they
inspected the crime scene, they found the instrument of death, and the eyewitness reported the
happening and pointed Gerente as one of the killers. The warrantless arrest of Gerente only three
hours after the killing was held became valid, since the policeman had personal knowledge of the
violent death of the victim and of the facts indicting that Gerente and two others had killed the victim.
c. When the person to be arrested in an escape. Those who escaped from any penal
establishment or place where they are serving final judgement or are temporarily
confine while their cases are pending, or has escaped while being transferred form one
confinement to another may be arrested by an peace officer or private person without warrant.
Related Cases:
People vs Dural
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The illegality of the arrest is cured when the accused files a petition for bail.
Appellant is stopped from questioning the illegibility of the arrest when he voluntarily
submitted himself to the jurisdiction of the court by entering a plea of not guilty and by
participating the trial.
e. When an accused who was released on bail attempts to depart from the Philippines
without prior permission of the court where the case is pending.
f. Violent Insanity
a. During the Initial Contac with the person to be arrested, these steps should be followed:
b. In arresting without warrant, the officer must inform the person to be arrested of his/her
authority and cause of the arrest. However, these may not be exactly followed if;
Depending on circumstances, the person may first be handcuffed for the officer’s safety. The
arrested person should be searched for weapons and destructible evidence. In typical arrest situation,
an officer should;
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4. Can orally summon as menu person as he/she deems necessary to aid him during the arrest;
5. Can break into a building or enclosure where subject is or is reasonably believed to be, when
admittance is refused despite announcement of his/her authority and purpose, and she incurs no
liability for Trespass to Dwelling because the purpose is to serve the ends of justice.
6. Can break out of the building or enclosure when necessary to liberate himself/herself.
7. Can Search arrested person of weapon or anything used or constitute proof in the commission of an
offense.
Rule 7 of Police Operational Procedure provides that a reasonable force can be used
during an armed confrontation. The police may use reasonable force to overcome the threat
posed by the suspect. However, the Officer in-Charge of the operation shall at all times exercise
control over his/her men in the area, and shall ensure that no innocent civilian is caught in the
crossfire.
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Use of deadly force- The excessive use of force shall be avoided. The use of firearm is
justifiable by virtue of the Doctrine of Self-Defenses, Defense of Relative, and Defense of Stranger,
and if the police have probable cause to believe that the suspect poses and imminent danger of death
or serous physical injury to the police or other persons.
Police shall not use warning shots during any police intervention.
1. The arresting officer shall inform the subject or suspect, in the dialect or language known to
him/her, why he/she is being arrested, and of his/her right to remain silent and to have a counsel of
his/her own choice, to be informed of his/her authority and the cause of arrest, unless the person to
be arrested is then engaged in the commission of an offense or is pursued immediately after its
commission or after and escapes or flees or forcibly resist before the officer has opportunity to so
inform him, or when the giving of such information will imperil the arrest.
2. The arrested person shall be delivered to the proper authorities without unnecessary delay
and within the time prescribed in Article 125 of the Revised Penal Code as amended
3. The person arrested without a warrant shall be delivered to the nearest police station or jail,
and shall be the subject of inquest proceedings.
4. If the person arrested without a warrant waives his/her right to remain silent under the
provision of the Art 125 of the Revised Penal Code and opts to give a statement and present-
evidence for his defense, the arresting officer shall ensure that the waiver made by the person
arrested shall be in writing and in the presence of his counsel of choice.
Immediately after the arrest of a person ordered arrested by the court, or a suspect
under investigation, he/she should be subjected to a medical examination. Prior to his/her release or
any change of custody, the suspect should also be medically examined by a medico-legal officer, or in
the absence of such medico-legal officer, by any government physician in the area.
Prohibitions
No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other means which violates the
free will shall be used against a suspect. Secret detention places, solitary confinement
(incommunicado) or other similar forms of detention shall be prohibited.
Record Check
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The officer shall make a record check for the possibility that the arrested person is
wanted for crimes other that for which the same was arrested.
Police Blotter
Each PNP operating unit shall maintain an official police blotter where all types of
operational and undercover dispatches shall be recorded containing five “W”’s and one “H” of
information.
1. Senators and members of the House of Representatives while Congress is in session for
offenses punishable by not more than Six years imprisonment.
3. Those covered by a safety and immunity guarantee of the President of the Philippines
4. Rebels issued with safe conduct pass the by National Amnesty Commission for crimes/act
committed in pursuit of rebellion
5. Those, who during and in connection with any election allegedly committed and offense by
act or language tending to support or oppose any candidate, political party or coalition.
Usually, the problem in arrest is not in the capability to effect the arrest, but rather in
the task of locating the subject. When the expected resistance is considerable, a police officers
(arresting officer) may always seek to help of his/her colleagues. However, the following factors may
help the arresting officer locate the subject;
1. Complaint
2. Record Check
3. His office or previous places of employment
4. The neighborhood
5. Subjects hangouts.
The following are the possible areas where arrest may be executed:
1. At the subjects’ residence, as he/she steps out of the door of his/her house.
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1. Night Time
2. Holidays
3. Weekends, unless it is a citizen’s arrest, or an arrest resulting from surveillance or
entrapment, or for crimes against national security, or for notorious and dangerous criminals with
outstanding warrant of arrest, or for escapist and fugitives.
1. For subjects who are meek and non-violent, the situation may allow the arresting
officer to inform them of his/authority and the existence of a warrant of arrest. For
subjects who are elusive or violent, it is better to take them by surprise.
2. When the operation partakes of the nature of a raid, informing or coordinating with local
police authorities is advisable.
3. When an elusive subject is reported to be in house or building, somebody must case the
area first.
4. When intercepting an armed and violent subject who is inside a motor vehicle, it may be
dangerous to approached him openly to force an arrest. The wise thing to do is to seek cover
and order him/her out of the vehicle with arms raised.
5. In case of entrapment where the culprits are also armed and dangerous, the backup force
supporting the arresting officers must be situated at a distance that allows immediate
response.
6. In an arrest inside a building, the arresting officer must not accede to the subjects
request to go alone to the room and dress up.
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7. When the method of arrest is not simple but consist of coordinated actions, there must
be a briefing clearly understood by everybody. Time in watches must be synchronized.
8. Sometimes, disguises are effective in gaining entry into a building to carry out arrest. For
example, arresting officers may pose as PLDT repairmen or MERALCO lineman.
10. Do not hesitate to use handcuffs when the arresting officer feels insecure.
11. Arresting techniques come along-holds facilities and add finesse to the arrest of
unwilling subjects
12. When arresting a woman, it is advisable for the arresting officer to take along a lady
personnel of the agency or lady employee to avoid being misunderstood.
13. When escorting the subject in a vehicle soon after an arrest, the arresting officer must
pay close attention to the seating arrangement to prevent the subject from suddenly jumping
off the vehicle, grabbing a weapon, or attacking the officer.
The legal remedy for defense counsels is to petition for writ of habeas corpus to contest the
legality of detention
If you are a police officer executing an arrest, the following are possible misconduct
you will commit.
1. To take your subject to a secret detention place, and them to deny having arrested
him/her.
2. To make your subject sign waiver of detention, through intimidation or deceit, and then to
get a comrade lawyer to sign as counsel for your subject.
3. To frame up your subject to show a crime supposedly exist for which he was arrested.
4. to deny visitation by legal counsel by imposing a news blackout on subjects’ presence and
detention at police headquarters.
6. To delay proceedings upon a petition for habeas corpus. For example, a writ server may be
given the run around from one office to another.
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7. To make it appear that subject was already release when the fact the was already
liquidated.
1. Photographed
2. Fingerprinted
3. Medically examine and booked
4. Record Check
5. Interview/ Interrogated, when there is a pending investigation involving subject but:
1. It must be in the presence of defense counsel,
2. The subject must be informed of his/her constitutional rights.
6. Prepare joint affidavit surrounding the arrest. If arrest was made on the occasion of an
entrapment that is expected to led to an inquest.
8. Inquest or file charges the regular ways, as the case may be.
9. Return warrant of arrest, indicating that it was duly served to the issuing court.
11. Minors below 16 years of age, arrested for prostitution or other illicit conduct, shall be
delivered within 24 hours to the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) or its duly
authorized office or agency in the place for protective custody.
12. Arrest and detention of foreign nationals shall be communicated to the Department of
Foreign Affairs for information to the respective embassies.
13. Minors below 18 years old shall be referred to as Medico-Legal Officer for physical and
mental examination.
1. To be informed of the cause of arrest, and shown a copy of the warrant, if any, as soon
as possible.
3. To be visited by an to confer with his/her attorney, privately, at any hour of the day or night
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a. he posts bail duly approved by a competent court which then orders his
release, or
b. the court issuing the warrant revokes or lift said warrant of arrest for other reasons.
(But the detainee has to be released upon his/her acquittal or of the case even without a bail of lifting
order).
5. If he was arrested after escaping from a place where he/she is serving final
judgement, he /she shall be reconfined to serve his/her remaining sentence without prejudice to his
/her liability for the crime of Evasion of Service of Sentence.
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2. Carrying out justified arrest without warrant but detained the subject beyond 12/18/36 hours
without an inquest or without a valid waiver of detention.
3. Delaying any proceedings upon a petition for the liberation of such detainee.
5. Investigating or taking the sworn statement of any person arrested, detained or under
custodial investigation without informing him/her right to remain silent. And to have competent
and independent counsel, preferably of his/her own choice, or without providing him/her such counsel
free of charge if he/she cannot afford one.
6. Obstructing, preventing or prohibiting any lawyer, any member of the immediate family
of a person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation or any medical doctor or priest
or religious minister chosen by the subject or any member of his/her immediate family or counsel,
from visiting and conferring privately with him/her of from examining and treating him/her from
ministering to the spiritual needs at any hour of the day or urgent cases of the night.
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CHAPTER 4
SEARCH
Search
Anglo Norman word - searcher
French word - cerchier means to explore
Latin word - circare means to around in circles
Search Warrant
It is an order in writing issued in the name of the People of the Philippines, signed by
the judge and directed to a peace officer commanding him/her to search for personal property and
bring it before the court.
Rationale
“at the closed door of the home, be it a palace or hovel, even bloodhounds must wait til the
law, aby authoritative process, bids it open”.
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2. For compelling reasons stated in the application, any court within the judicial region where
the crime was committed if the place of the commission of the crime is known, or any court within the
judicial region where the warrant shall be enforced.
3. The judge must have personally examined, in the form of searching questions and answers,
the applicant and his witness and taken down their written depositions.
4. The search warrant must particularly describe or identify the property to be seized as far as
the circumstances will ordinarily allow.
5. The warrant issued must particularly describe the place to be searched and the person so to
be seized.
7. It must be having been issued more than 10 days prior to the Search made pursuant
thereto based from Sec. 4, Rule 126, Rules of Court.
No search of a house, room or any other premise shall be made except in the
presence of any of the following:
1. The officer must forthwith deliver the property seized to the judge who issued the warrant,
together with a true inventory thereof duly verified under oath.
2. 10 days after the issuance of the search warrant, the issuing judge shall ascertain if the
return has been made and if none, shall summon the person to whom the warrant was issued and
require him/her to explain why no return was made. If the return has been made, the judge shall
ascertain whether it has been complied with and shall require that the property seized be delivered to
him.
The return of the search warrant shall be filed and kept the custodian of the logbook on search
warrants who shall enter therein the data of the return, the result and other actions of the judge. A
violation of this section shall constitute contempt of court.
If one is legally arrested for an offense, whatever is found in his possess or in his/her control
may be seized and used in evidence against the subject. But articles found in his/her possession
which have nothing to do with the crime imputed against him/her must be return to him/her must be
returned to him/her, otherwise, the law enforcer responsible thereto shall be liable for theft or robbery
as the case maybe.
WARRANTLESS SEARCHES
This is legally accepted provided that the search is contemporaneous to the arrest and within
the permissible area. A person lawfully arrested may be searched for dangerous weapons or
anything, which may be used as proof of the commission of an offense, without search warrant.
The warrantless search and seizure, as an incident to a lawful arrest, may extend beyond the
person of the one arrested to include the premises or surrounding under his/her immediate control.
Related Case:
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The search involves illegal entry of smuggled goods in our country that may affect the local
businesses especially the small-time businessmen. The search is usually conducted by the officers
and agents of the Bureau of Customs.
Under the plain view doctrine, police officers can seize articles or object which inadvertently
comes to the view without exerting any efforts and which object is incriminatory to the accused.
Based from decision of trial court, the doctrine include the five senses of an individual to detection
violation of law.
The doctrine requires that a police officer in order to validate the confiscation of an object in
plain view must have a right to be in that place and whatever objects become obvious or apparent
without obstruction or impairment may be subject to seizure.
In the case of Harris vs U.S, it said that any object falling in the plain view is subject to seizure
and maybe introduced as evidence and contraband found in plain view during a lawful observation.
For the Plain View Doctrine to apply for discoveries, the three-prong Horton Test requires that
a. The officer to be lawfully present at the place where the evidence can be plainly viewed
b. The officer to have a lawful right of access to the object and
c. The incrimination character of the object to be “immediately apparent”.
The search of moving vehicles is popularly called as “check points”. This instances if
warrantless search cannot be done anytime. The checkpoints must be done during abnormal times
when the public welfare is at stake. Thus, every vehicle that passes the certain checkpoint can be
searched without a search warrant.
Inspectors of a certain building for the purpose of maintaining sanitation, fire and building
regulations are required to enter every building as well as every room necessary to be inspected
without arming themselves with a search warrant.
6. Consented Search
Related Case:
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a. People vs Omaweng
The accused while driving a vehicle, was stopped at a checkpoint, and when
the vehicle was inspected, the soldiers asked permission to see the contents of a bag which was
partially covered by a spare tire. The accused consented, and upon inspection, the bag was found
containing marijuana. The SC ruled that there was valid waiver.
b. People vs Ramos
The Supreme Court said that the evidence for the prosecution clearly disclosed
that Ramos voluntarily allowed himself to be frisked, and that he gave the gun to the police
voluntarily; thus, there was a valid waiver.
7. Frisk Search
Terry vs Ohio- established that officers can conduct a pat down of an individual they stopped if
they believe the person is armed and dangerous. This is a protective search for weapons only.
Exclusionary Rule
It established a rule that Federal Courts may not accept evidence obtained by
unreasonable search and seizure regardless of the relevance of these to the case.
The Supreme Court decide that this will be applicable to all courts. This applies not
only to illegally seized evidence but also to evidence obtained or developed from it, called as “fruit of
poisonous tree”. This means that evidence obtained in the process of illegal warrantless search is not
admissible as evidence in court.
INEVITABLE-DISCOVERY DOCTRINE
Inevitable Discovery Doctrine sates that evidence obtained illegally may be admissible
in a criminal trial if the prosecutor proves by the preponderance of the evidence that the challenged
evidence ultimately or inevitably would have been discovered by lawful means.
GOOD-FAITH DOCTRINE
trained officer would have believed that the warrant was valid. This has come to be known as the
“Good Faith” or Leon exception to the exclusionary rule. Many states, however, have rejected this
exception.
1. Wall Search
The initial purpose of this search is to put
the suspect in an “off balanced position”. This is
the safest type of search; it doesn’t not necessarily
require a wall.
2. Standing Search
This is done by instructing the subject to raise his hand above or behind his/her head
with feet spread apart as far as possible. In some situations, this is not recommended because some
suspects could still maintain their balance.
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3. Kneeling Search
This requires the suspect to kneel on the
ground with hands raised over or behind
his/her head. Note that some suspects could
still make counter actions against the arresting
officer even if they are assuming this position.
4. Prone Search
The suspect in this search lies on his
stomach with arms and legs outstretched.
One disadvantages of this search is that the
suspect’s frontal area cannot be search properly.
Using of Handcuff
Handcuff are the best method of restraint if it is applied properly, it is good preventive measure
but if improperly applied it could be dangerous.
RAID OPERATION
A raid must be legal, having its basis in lawful process and conducted in a legal manner
through, search warrant or warrant of arrest. Raid may be in pursuit of a person reasonably believe to
be guilty of a felony when it is known that the felony has just been committed.
Purpose of Raid
1. To effect apprehension
2. To obtain evidence of illegal activity by surprising the offender in flagrante delicto
3. To recover stolen property
Effectiveness of a Raid
1. Size of raiding party
2. Surprises
3. Speed
4. Superiority of arms
5. Simplicity of plan and operation
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4. The specific assignment and position of each member of the raiding party, the tactics to be
employed, the equipment and transportation to be used, the evaluation of possible danger points, and
optimum time to be selected should be stressed.
5. Numbers of individuals to be apprehended. Are they armed? With what? If uncertain,
assume they are armed.
6. Are photographs and description of subjects available to the shown during the briefing?
7. Determine the physical structure of the place where the criminals are located
8. Determine all possible escape routes
9. Need to directly photograph the place and immediate arrest
10. Type of neighborhood there the hideout is located
11. Volume and kind of activities in the neighborhoods at various time to determine the most
desirable time to conduct the raid.
12. Street plans of neighborhood for possible road blocks
13. Do the men have confidence in the ability of the raid leader?
14. What is your move-out plan?
15. What are the instructions concerning the use of firearms?
16. What the instructions concerning the possible handling of traffic?
17. What are the instructions concerning communications, signals, etc.?
18. How do you identify each other? Arm bands, password, insignia, etc.?
19. Make sure your plans avoid cross fires
20. Do you have all the equipment you may need, such as flashlights, searchlights,
vehicles, transceivers, loudspeakers, (public address system) firearms, tear gas, etc.?
21. Ask each participant to repeat his duties to the raid leader.
Raid Operation
Coordination of individual efforts is an essential element in the success of the raid. The
raiding party should act as a team. The members of the teams must thoroughly understand the
objectives, the plan and the orders.
Each man should hold his/her assigned position until his/her orders are changed by the team
leader. Before leaving the headquarters to proceed to the target, the team leader must conduct final
briefing to his/her entire personnel.
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operation in their area. This gesture of coordination is not only a manifestation of courtesy but also a
safety measure to avoid the possibility of a mistake encounter.
Don’ts in a Raid
1. Don’t take unnecessary chances
2. Don’t underestimate the ability or courage of the subject
3. Don’t raid when not properly prepared
4. Don’t endanger the livers of bystander.
5. Don’t use raiders that are not well-acquainted with each other
6. Don’t forget gas mask when employing tear gas.
7. Don’t make unnecessary rough on the subjects
8. Don’t shoot to kill unless very imperative
9. Don’t touch the evidence unless seen by witnesses or by the owner or occupant of the
place.
How is seizure conducted in a raid operation?
Seizure during the raid operation shall be performed through the following guidelines:
It is believed that as part of effecting arrest and search or enforcing the law we need to be
guided by legal established rules. Given below are situational questions and explanatory notes about
“shoot to kill order”.
Situational Questions:
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Question 1:
Would it be legal for the President of the Republic of the Philippines, or the Secretary
of Justice, or the Secretary of the Interior and Local Government, or any other superior public officers
to declare or issue a “shoot to kill order” against suspected criminal offenders or accused persons
who are at large and charged of heinous crimes, or against notorious criminals, or fugitives of
justice who are known to be heavily armed and dangerous?
Answer:
No. A “Shoot to kill order” is not only a palpable, flagrant, deliberate and intentional
violation of the constitutional and procedural due process and violation of human rights, but more
importantly, is inherently illegal per se. there is no existing law or jurisprudential authority in the
Philippines that legally allow such kind of order.
Question 2:
Why is a shoot to kill order inherently illegal per se?
Answer:
A shoot to kill order is not synonymous to a cautionary warning to law enforcers to be
extra-careful in pursuing the wanted criminals for being armed and dangerous.
It is a basic rule of law that in case of imminent danger to life to limb, the law enforcers
are legally bound, in the lawful performance of duty, to use reasonable force to prevent and repel
it. Obviously, a shoot to kill order is an implied insinuation for law enforcers to disregard the rule of law
and the rule of engagement if only to accomplish the ultimate purpose of subduing the illegal activities
of criminal elements. No matter how noble and patriotic the purpose may be, the means does not
justify the end.
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CHAPTER 5
CRIMINAL EVIDENCE
Evidence
It is the means, sanctioned by these rules of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth
respecting a matter of fact.
It also refers to any material which tends to persuade the court of the truth or probability of
some facts asserted before it.
It is the means by which any alleged matter of fact, the truth of which is submitted to
investigation, is established or disproved.
1. Physical Evidence
-also known as Object, Autoptic, or Real Evidence
These are Physical objects used as evidence which are obtained through searches at the
scene of the crime. Articles and materials found in connection with investigation, which aid in
establishing the identity of the perpetrator are known as physical evidence.
Legally, Object Evidence refers to the evidence made known or addressed to the sense of the
court. It is not limited to that which is known through the sense of vision but is extended to what he
senses of hearing, tastes, smell and touched.
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The body of the victim, prohibited drugs recovered. The body of the victim, prohibited drugs
recovered from a person, dagger with blood stains or fingerprints of the suspect, stolen motor vehicle
identified by planter numbers and by body or engine serial number are examples of corpus delicti
evidence.
2. Associative Evidence
These are pieces of physical evidence which link a person to a crime.
The offender may leave clues at the scene such as weapon, tools, garments, fingerprint or foot
impression. Broken headlights glass found at the crime scene in “hit in run homicide” may be
associated with the car found in the repair shop. Wearing apparel of the offender and other articles of
value may be recovered where the crime of rape was committed.
c. Tracing Evidence
These refers to evidence that may assist the investigator in locating the suspect. Aircraft of
ship manifest, physician’s clinic record shoring medical treatment of suspect for injuries sustained in a
encounter; blood stains recovered from the area traverse by the wounded suspect inter direction of
the movement are examples of tracing evidence.
4. Testimonial Evidence
This is the product of interview and interrogation from which witness smell, hear, taste and
touch are being described through oral and written testimony. Testimonial evidence also includes the
testimony of a physician who may be commanded to appear before a court as an ordinary witness
and or/ as an expert witness.
a. Ordinary Witness.
Any person who perceived the commission of a crime and testified before the court is just
considered as an ordinary witness. Also, a physician who testified in count on matters he/she
perceived from his/her patient in the course of physician-patient relationship is considered as an
ordinary witness.
A witness can testify only to those facts which he/she knows of his/her own knowledge; that is
which are derived from his/her own perception; except as otherwise provided on this rule.
b. Expert Witness.
For examples. A physician who confirmed before the court the cause of death of the victim is
considered as an expert witness.
1. Documentary Evidence
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It refers to the writings, including official records, or contents could speak for themselves when
ready by the investigators and the court. They may be collected through voluntary relinquishment or
by a Subpoena Duces Tecum (Court Order) which compels the party to bring the records of the
court.
3. Deposition
A Deposition is a written record of evidence given orally and transcribed in writing in the form
of questions by the investigator and the answer or the deponent and signed by the latter.
1. Direct Evidence
This proves the fact in dispute without the aid of any interference or presumption. The
evidence presented corresponds to the precise or actual point at issue.
2. Circumstantial Evidence
The proof of fact or facts from which, taken either singly or collectively, the existence of a
particular fact in dispute may be inferred as a necessary or probable consequence. However, the
following requisites must be present before a circumstantial evidence will become sufficient for
conviction.
b. Depending on the degree of its value in establishing disputed fact, evidence may be:
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2. Conclusive Evidence
This evidence is incontrovertible to one which the law does not allow to be
contradicted. It is the insurmountable evidence.
3. Corroborative Evidence
This evidence is of different kind and character as that already given and tends to
prove the same proposition.
4. Cumulative Evidence
This evidence is of the same kind and character as that already given and tends to
prove the same proposition.
b. Documentary Evidence
This refers to an evidence supplied by written instruments or derived from conventional
symbols and letters by which ideas are presented for material substances.
c. Testimonial Evidence
This evidence is either verbal or oral. It is an evidence which consists of the narration
or deposition by one who observed or has personal knowledge of that to which he/she is testifying.
d. Positive Evidence
This evidence exists if the witness affirms that a fact did or did not occur. It is entitled to
greater weight since the witness represents his/her personal knowledge about the presence or
absence of a fact.
e. Negative Evidence
This evidence exists if the witness states the he/she did not see or know of the
occurrence of a fact and there is total disclaimer of personal knowledge.
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Evidence is relevant if it has relation to the fact in issue as to induce belief in its
existence or non-existence.
2. Material Evidence
This evidence tends to prove the fact in issue, and is determined by the rules of
substantive law or the rules of court.
3. Admissible Evidence
Evidence is admissible if it is relevant to the issue and is not excluded by the Rules of
Court.
4. Credible Evidence
Evidence is credible if it is not only admissible evidence but also believable and used
by the court in deciding cases.
All items that were found in the crime scene should be collected. The collecting officer should
not decide whether a certain item is relevant or irrelevant. Small pieces of evidence is also must have
to be given importance, thus collecting them is necessary;
1. Blood
This becomes important evidence in homicide assault, robberies or other cases
where it may be spilled. Blood may be categorized into major groups of A, B, AB and O
depending on the condition of the stain on receipt.
2. Hair
This may be found anywhere in the crime scene. It is often found on the clothing of the
victim and suspect who has come into physical contact with each other. It can very important
evidence especially in rape cases. In most cases, there are rarely enough samples present for
positive identification of an individual. However, if can be determined if the hair is of animal or human,
whether the hair is dyed or bleached. If the hair if form the head or body as well as the racial origin of
the hair.
3. Fingernail Scraping
In cases where physical contact had been made, fingernail scraping should be
obtained. Rape cases or assault cases are good examples of cases where fingernail scrapings may
be important. Items sometimes found under fingernails include fibers, hair, and skin which may be
typed for its blood group.
4. Fiber
This is an excellent tracing evidence when clothing cross contamination takes places.
This is also important evidence in robbery and hit and run cases. Fiber may be found on clothing
snagged on projections, and even imbedded with vehicle paint. Examination of fiber determines
whether it is natural or a synthetic material, and the color and dye used. It may be physically matched
if the fragment was torn from clothing. Threads may be examined to determine twist, number of
strands and cloth weave.
5. Firearm
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The firearm, bullet, shotgun shell, shotgun pellets and wad, explosive reside and gun
powder pattern can provide vital evidence and specific answer to possible question in the case.
6. Bullet
This can provide information about the make and type of ammunition and weapon from
which the bullet was fired, and whether or not it was fired from specific weapon, provided the weapon
is available for test purpose.
8. Cartridge Case
This can also provide vital information as to the type of weapon used, the type of
ammunition, and whether or not the case was fired in a specific weapon if weapon is available for fire
testing.
As evidence as collected, it is individually marked with the initials of the investigator. The
marking tools depends upon the nature of the evidence. If it is hard object such as metals, the initial
are scratched or engraved by the use of sharp-pointed steel called stylus.
1. Revolvers
Must be marked separately on the barrel, frame, butt, cylinder, and stock. Tape should
also be put around the bore and the frame of the gun with signature of the investigator.
2. Pistols
Must be marked on the barrel, frame, butt, magazine and stock. Tape must also be put
around the gun with signature to avoid changing the parts of the gun that may affect the result of
the laboratory examination.
3. Rifles
Should be marked on the barrel, frame, magazine bolt or slide. All magazines and
accessories shall also be marked.
Strict regulations say that they must be marked inside the mouth of fired empty shells.
It is nearly impossible to marked them inside the mouth especially .22 caliber shells, but they could be
marked on side of the body of the shells, not on the base. It should be admitted that there is really the
big difference of what is being practiced in reality and theoretically written in books. The lesson is,
for as long as the evidence can be properly marked and kept as evidence.
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5. Bullets/Slugs/Balls/Pellets
This can be marked on the ogive or nose as well as on the base. The initial name
of the investigator and/or date should be marked on those parts so that the rifling marks found
in the bullet or slug will not be disturbed because they are very important in ballistic examination.
TAGGING EVIDENCE
When evidence which by their nature could not be marked on each surface such as blood,
hairs, or fibers, they are placed in the plastic container then marked. This practice is called tagging the
physical evidence with the use of a card where the initials of the investigators date and time of
collection, specific case and other information can be written.
Perishable evidence should be preserved along he way or the preservation is in order to reach
the court in the same physical condition as when they are collected from the crime scene.
1. Soil
This consist of organic natural materials such as rocks, minerals and decomposing plant, and
may also contain man-made materials such as bricks, concrete, glass or paint. The densities of soil
samples are analyzed via chemicals that separate the particles is similar, it indicates a match, this
common scientific technique of analyzing soil is called the density gradient tube.
2. Paint
Paint is a pigmented polymer that is applied and adheres to various surfaces. It is possible to
examine microscopically the color and shape of paint strips or other samples, as well as to determine
through the use of gas chromatography.
3. Tool Mark
Tool Mark is any mark that is created when an instrument has contact with another surface.
The mark left by the tool may indicate the type of tool, the size of tool and even the skill of the
perpetrator.
The shoe prints are created when material from the bottom of shoes is transferred to another
surface, leaving an outline of the bottom of the shoe. Shoe impressions and tire tracks are often left in
soft material, such as mud, snow and reveal the outline of the shoe or tire.
5. Videotape Evidence
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This is potentially extremely powerful form of evidence. If a crime is captured on video, there
may be a little doubt who committed the crime.
6. Dental Evidence
The two primary forms of dental evidence is dental identification and bite marks. In both
instances, the fact that individual has a unique set of teeth in terms of form, arrangement, dental work
and bite, makes dental evidence powerful form of criminal evidence. The physical characteristics of
bite marks and dental identification consist of the distance between teeth, the shape and moth/bite,
teeth alignment, teeth shape, missing teeth, and wear patterns of teeth.
7. Fingerprints
These consist of ridges, depression and separations. These remain unchanged and consistent
throughout lifetime; each fingerprint is unique and fingerprint cannot be forged.
a. Plastic Fingerprints
Are type of fingerprints formed if the fingers come in contact with a soft material such as soap,
we putty, wet cement, wet paint, dust or melted wax, a ridge impression may left sufficient for
performing a comparison.
These impressions have distinct three-dimensional appearances and do not require further
processing. They are documented using oblique photography.
b. Patent Fingerprints
Are easily identifiable as fingerprints by the unassisted eye. Fingers that have been in contact
with a colored material such as toner, ink, blood, paint oil or chocolate leave visible prints. Once the
material has soiled the fingers, the material may be transferred to a surface with which the ridges
come into contact. This print requires no processing to be recognizable as fingerprint and often
suitable for comparison.
c. Latent Prints
The most common type which requires additional processing to be rendered visible and
suitable for comparison. Body perspiration and oils might leave invisible residues on the surfaces that,
if visualized, would constitute a usable impression of the friction ridges. Processing of the latent prints
is accomplished through development, enhancement, or visualization appropriate for the type of
surface upon which the prints repose.
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Computers, cellular phones and personal digital assistants may provide a wealth of
information regarding communications, schedules and criminal behaviors and therefore are potentially
valuable source of evidence in criminal investigations. Examination of electronic hardware is quite
technical in nature and if not properly perform can result in loss of evidence.
However, evidence passes through several persons for several purposes. The principle of
china of custody must be observed.
Chain of Custody- it refers to the number of persons who handled and possessed the pieces of
evidence the moment that they were collected, marked and tagged up to the time of the final
disposition of the case.
Every link is documented by date, time handling individual, what was done with the evidence
by that individual. If the chain of custody is broken, and if the evidence cannot be accounted in one
step of its journey from crime scene to court room, it is rendered inadmissible; useless to the case.
In colored photographs variation may occur in the choice of the kind of film and printing
paper used. Identification of voice from the recording instrument may sometimes be difficult. Audi-
recording may be dependent on the speed, volume, pitch and timbre which may be changed by the
instrument used in the recording and replaying.
2. Sketching
If there’s no scientific apparatus to preserve evidence is available then a rough drawing
of the scene or object to be preserved is done. It must be simple, identifying significant items and with
exact measurement.
3. Description
It is done by putting into words the person or thing to be preserved. Describing a thing
requires keen observation and a good power of attention, perception, intelligence and experience. It
must cause a vivid impression on the mind of the reader, a true picture of the thing described. The
use of Portrait Parle may be used.
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5. Manikin Method
This makes use of a miniature model of a scene or of a human body indicating marks of the
various aspect of the things to be preserved. An anatomical model or statuette may be used and
injuries are indicated with their appropriate legends. Although it may not indicate the full details of the
lesion, it is quite impressive to the viewer as to the nature and severity of the trauma.
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A person who perceived something relevant for proper adjudication of a case may be a
witness in court if he/she has the power to transmit to others what he/she perceived. He/she would
just have to make a recital of his/she collection.
CHAPTER 6
CRIMINAL IDENTIFICATION
IDENTIFICATION
It is the process of determining the personality of a person or thing.
1. In the prosecution of the criminal offense, the identity of the offender and that of the victim
must be established; otherwise it will be a ground for the dismissal of the charge or acquittal of the
accused.
2. The identification of the person missing or presumed dead will facilitate settlement of the
estate, retirement, insurance and other social benefits.
3. Identification resolves the anxiety of the next-of-kin, other realties and friends as to the
whereabouts of a missing person or victim of calamity or criminal act.
1. The greater the number of points of similarities and dissimilarities of two persons compared,
the greater is the probability to be correct. This is known as the Law of Multiplicity of Evidence in
identification.
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2. The value of the different points of identification varies in the formulation of conclusion.
In a fresh cadaver, if the fingerprints on file are the same as those removed from the crime
scene, they will positively establish the identity of the person while bodily marks, like moles, scar,
complexion, shape of nose, etc. are merely corroborative. Visual recognition by relative of friends may
be a lesser value as compared with fingerprints or dental comparison.
3. The longer the interval between the death and the examination of the remains for purposes
of identification the grate in the need for expert in establishing identify.
4.In as much as the object to be identified is highly perishable, it is necessary for the team to
act in the shortest possible time especially in cases of mass disaster.
Methods of Identification
1. By Comparison
Identification criteria recover during the investigation are compared with records
available in the file or postmortem finding are compared to ante-Morten records for
example, latent fingerprints recovered from the crime scene are compared to the fingerprints
on file of an investigative agency.
2. By Exclusion
If two or more persons have identified an all but one is yet identified, the one
whose identify has not been established may be known by the process of elimination.
Identification of Person
Kinds of Gait
1. Ataxic Gait- a gait in which the foot is raise high, thrown forward and brought down
suddenly in seen in persons suffering from tabes dorsalis.
4. Paretic Gait- gait in which the steps are short, the feet are dragged and the legs are
held more or less widely apart.
5. Spastic Gait- A gait in which the legs are held together and move in a stiff manner
and the toes are dragged.
d. Mannerism
It may be:
1. Way of sitting
2. Movement of the hand
3. Movement of the body
4. Movement of the facial muscles
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The size, shape, and abnormalities may be the baes of identification. Foot or
hand marks found in the investigation of the crime scene may be:
f. Complexion
This may be determined when the whole body is exposed preferably to
ordinary sunlight.
h. Faces.
There different kinds of facial expression brought about by disease or racial
influence.
1. Hippocratic Face
The nose is pinched, the temple hollow, eyes sunken ears cold, lips relaxed
and skin vivid. The appearance of the face is indicative of approaching them.
2. Mongolian Face
Almond eyes, pale complexion, prominence of cheek bones.
3. Face Leonine
A peculiar, deeply furrowed, lion-like appearance of the face. This may be
observed in leprosy, elephantiasis and leontiasis ossia.
4. Myxedemic Face
Pale face, edematous swelling which does not pit on pressure, associated with
dullness of intellect, slow monotonous speech, muscular weakness and tremor.
6. Degree of Nutrition
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Points of Identification Applicable to both Living and Dead person before Decomposition
1. Occupational Marks
1. Painters have stains on the hands and fingernails
2. Engineers and mechanics may have grease on their hands
3. A dress maker develops multiple puncture marks on the fingertips
4. Baker and miller may have flour dust on their clothing and on their bodies
5. Mason has callosities on the palms of their hands
6. Other similar marks relative to individual’s occupation.
d. Wearing Apparel
Causal and customary wearing apparel may indicate race as well as
religion, nationality, region and customs.
3. Stature
A person ceases to increase in height after the age of 25. There is apparent shrinkage in
height after a long-standing debilitating disease. There is actual shrinkage in old age on account of
the compression of the inter-vertebral and also the curvature of the spinal column. The growth of a
person rarely exceeds five centimeters after the age of 18.
4. Tattoo Marks
This is the introduction of coloring pigment in the layer of the skin by multiple punctures. Tattoo
mark may be inf the form of initials, names, images of view which is helpful in the identification if
person in the body of the person.
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5. Deformity
This maybe congenital or acquired. Deformity may cause peculiar way of walking, body
movement, facial expression, mannerisms, etc. deformity like clubfoot, harelip, cleft palate, cystic
conditions, bony prominence, etc. could be bases of identification unless corrected surgically.
6. Birth Marks
Birth Marks which may be a spot naevi, port wine or a Mongolian blue spot could also be
bases of identification but it could be removed.
This is a mark on the skin by tattooing or branding. Tribal mark is placed in the exploded parts
of the body and used to identify person or membership of a tribe or social group.
This is also known as Bertillon System devised by Alphonese Bertillon. This method uses
anthropometrical measurement of the human body as the basis of identification. In addition, Bertillon
was the first person to introduce portrait parle as an aid in identification.
2. Body Mark
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3. Anthropometrical Measurements
a. Body Measurements- height, width of outstretched arms, and sitting height.
b. Head Measurements- length and breadth of head, bizygomatic diameter, and
length of the right ear.
c. Limbs Measurements- Length of the left foot, length of the left middle and left little
fingers, and length of left arm and hand from the elbow to the tip of outstretched middle finger are
measured.
Example:
1. Information developed after comparing questioned with inked fingerprints
2. Result of DNA analysis of Blood and semen
2. Tracing Identification
This involves the u sed of all other information that maybe indicative of the
personal identify of an individual.
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Example:
a. Description of witnesses as to the appearance of culprits
b. Information about the presence of a suspect’s personal belongings at the crime
scene.
CHAPTER 7
CRIME SCENE
It is said to be a treasure island in criminal investigation. It is because several
pieces of evidence are mostly found in the crime scene, which are very relevant for the
solution of the crime
It is the venue or place where essential ingredient of the criminal act took place.
It includes the setting of the crime and also the adjoining places of entry and exit of
both offender and victim.
a. As to Location
1. Indoor Crime Scene
This crime scene entails that the offender committed the crime in an enclosed
place; the crime could have been committed in a room or inside the house but not necessarily the
house of victim.
This crime scene has a mixed location from indoor or outdoor or vice-versa, or
continuing outdoor alone, or from one place to another of the same jurisdiction, or from place crossing
to another area of jurisdiction.
b. As to Time of Commission
1. Daytime Crime Scene
This type of crime scene refers to a crime committed from sunrise to sunset.
CSI shall technically commence upon the arrival of the First Responders (FR’s) and conclude
with the lifting on the security cordon and release of the crime scene by the Investigators on Case.
All the above facts together with the time of arrival at the crime scene will form part of the
investigation report to be submitted by the investigator.
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The observation of the first people who witnessed a crime may not always be accurate, but
they give the team a point to star with. Responding officer should be reminded of the importance of
documenting his/her findings, actions, and observations in the initial police report.
Based on experience, they may recognize minor nuisances that require expanding the
perimeter. Also, the investigators should explain changes to the initial responding officer as a
mechanism of developing that officer’s knowledge and experience base.
1. Team Leader (Officer-in-Charge)- The one who directs the processing of the crime
scene.
2. Assistant Team Leader- The one who implements or executes the order/s coming
from his/her superiors.
3. Photographer-The one who takes photographs of all pieces of evidence that are
relevant to the crime committed.
4. Sketcher- The one who makes sketches of the immediate, background and inside the
scene of the crime.
5. Master Note Taker- The one who writes down in short hand all observations at the crime
scene such as whether condition, time of dispatch and time of arrival at the crime scene and other
relevant data that should be noted.
6. Evidence Man- The one in charge in the collection, preservation, tagging of the articles of
evidence found at the crime scene.
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7. Measurer- The one who makes all relevant measurements of the scene such as;
1. The distance of the body of the victim to the firearm used
2. In motor vehicle Collison- the distance of the two vehicles to the points of
references.
8. Security-They are tasked to protect the crime scene before, during and immediately
after release of the crime scene.
9. Driver- this refers to any personnel assigned to operate the mobile car during response.
1. Searching Tools
2. Sketching Instruments
a. Measuring Devices- like compass, steel tape, rulers, etc.
3. Preserving Materials
a. Container- like bottles, envelopes, test tubes, pins, thumb tacks, etc.
b. Label and Seal (evidence tags)- like gummed labels, sealing wax, grease
pencil, etc.
Contamination Control
Once the crime scene team is confident of the scene scope, the team should act to
further isolate the crime scene. Initial perimeters are often a single barrier, leaving little if any buffer
between crime scene and the on-lookers.
Multi-level Containment
It involves two barriers which creates three areas of access. This keeps support police out of
the actual scene and others at a safe distance.
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1. Inner Scene- It is the actual crime scene, where only authorized investigators and
crime scene technicians operate.
2. Working Area- It is an surrounding the inner scene, where other support police
may enter, and equipment is staged and evidence is brought to
3. Outer Area- It is everything on the outside of the second barrier, where on-lookers,
media and others may gather.
Once the perimeter is established, a decision must be made on how the team will manage
access to the scene. This involves identifying actual access point for the team and establishing entry
control points. Determining how to access the scene isn’t always difficult but it isn’t always simpler
either.
2. By Function- specific groups are formed to handle different scene processing aspect.
In normal scenes, customs and size of the organization will often determine the
approach. In the complex scene, issues of size or resources may require the organization to alter its
approach. Lack of equipment resources to handle multiple scenes, may force a functional approach. If
equipment resources are not issues but size is; area teams may be necessary to handle small
zones with a large scene. The need for specialty examinations on scene may force a functional
approach.
2. It is difficult to manage crime scene activity if the te4ams are under staff.
7. Search team is a matter of circumstance, but always require a minimum of tow individuals.
Not two people perceive in the same way, so two sets of eyes prevent items from being overlooked.
2. If an injured person is in the scene, arrange for medical attention, identification and removal.
The scene should not be disturbed only to the extent necessary to have medical aid rendered to the
injured or to have a doctor examined a deceased victim. Each alteration should be accurately
recorded.
4. If the scene is not fully protected, ensure its protection by using other policemen or other
responsible person to keep witness, suspects, and victims who are present from disturbing the scene.
b. Early action is taken to protect items of possible evidentiary value that may be
destroyed by rain, fire or other cause before collection can be effected. For example, a raincoat or
piece of canvass may be used to cover compression on the ground that is exposed to rain. Items that
will melt should be shielded from the sun or other heat source. Object such as food and blood should
be covered to protect them from contamination.
5. Determine and record the names of those person at the scene who may be witness, and
separate them. These persons shall be removed from the immediate area of the scene as soon as
practicable.
Note: Those present within the immediate area of the scene should only be the minimum number
needed to assist the investigator. It may be necessary to request other policemen or official present to
refrain from examining or disturbing objects of the scene.
A critical aspect in crime scene processing is to understand the crime scene integrity threats.
There are three basic threats the crime scene technician must recognized and they are as follows:
1. Addition of Material- Investigators and others end up creating evidence that didn’t
exist. Addition includes:
a. Shoe prints
b. Fingerprints
c. Fibers and hairs
d. Cigarette butts
e. Pop Cans
f. Coffee Cups
2. Destruction of Materials- Investigators and others end up destroying evidence or
damaging its value. Destruction includes.
a. Trampled dust prints in avenues of approach
b. Bloodstains on the victim’s clothing
c. Trampled dew trails in outdoor scenes.
d. loss of evidence on the perimeter of the scene
e. loss of hairs and fibers on the body
3. Movement of Material- Investigators and others end up moving material in the scan
changing its context. Movement includes the following:
a. Weapons moved away from suicide victims
b. light turned on or doors and windows opened
c. staging actions by relatives. E.g. suicides or auto-erotic death.
Upon notification that crime transpired, first responder must perform the following:
Assess the situation. Is this my jurisdiction> how complex is the scene? What are
needed? Who are needed here?
Conduct an initial scan of the scene, specifically look for the central theme items,
victims; fragile evidence; avenues of entry or exit; secondary scene. Act on fragile evidence
immediately, take action before it is lost.
Check apparent deceased victims for signs of life. Identify anyone who may have
already examine victims. Coordinate the ME investigators examination. Make not of any actions taken
during these examination (ME or EMS that altered the body.
Once life-saving or death varying is complete, the scene is table, with no further reason
to violate or alter it. Photograph the scan as it is with both still and video. Concentrate on photographs
that let the viewed see the overall context and conditions.
Unlike the initial scan, this is an in-depth observation and description of the scene.
Requires a wall-through, but without altering anything, since sketching and mapping have not been
completed. Use an eight-step descriptive set: quantity, item, color, type of construction, approximate
size, identifying features, conditions and location.
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Create a rough sketch of the scene that includes room and openings with dimensions;
furniture with dimensions; evidence items, with fixing measurements and support the actual sketch
with written notes of measurements.
Up to this point all obvious evidence and scene features have been noted,
photographed and sketched. Visually re-check the scene to ensure that no items or critical
observations were overlooked.
Release the body from the scene to appropriate authorities. As it is moved examine the
body, being sure to: document all surfaces before post incident bleeding occurs check the body with
an ALS for easily dislodged hairs, fibers of other trace evidence, preserve fragile evidence by bagging
expose hands or feet.
Collect all evidence that were already located and documented. Examine each item for
additional photographs to documents close-up detail. Ensure each item is fully documented on an
evidence custody form.
All known evidence has been safely containerized and removed from the scene.
Second recheck involves far more intrusive actions including:
The crime scene investigator is constantly encountering new evidence. This requires
stepping back in the process to play catch up.
Going back is an integral part of the second rechecking as new evidence may be
discovered. This going back is a constant behavior. In both the search and collection phases it is a
routine to encounter new evidence. A failure to stop and go back, results in partial documentation
where critical information is lost and not documented.
Verify all areas of scene which were perhaps overlooked. Conduct rechecks until these
are negative. This is a good time to review checklist. Conduct extremely intrusive actions like
chemical enhancements of floors, bullet trajectory analysis or bloodstain pattern analysis.
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Check the scene perimeter an outlying area to ensure that no secondary scenes were
overlooked. Good time to follow blood trails. If present, using both visual and chemical techniques.
Before releasing the scene, spend a few moments with the entire team reviewing and
discussing the actions taken. Make sure that no assignments were forgotten or overlooked by the
team. Check individual documentation to ensure everyone is clear on directions and other scene
aspects. This prevents later contradictions.
Release the scene to an appropriate individual. This can only be done after you are
confident that all activities are complete. The only way back is with an additional search warrant.
Remember, if you are unsure, it only takes manpower to hold a scene.
On-scene collection may require temporary evidence containers. Package all evidence
for the long term as soon as practical, which may include drying of bloody objects. Check evidence
vouchers against scene documentation. If errors are noted, correct if possible and note any
contradictions.
The debriefing should involve all available parties including the ME investigator, initial
responding officer, investigator and crime scene technicians. Revisit basic information and actions
taken. This briefing helps eliminate investigative red herrings and focus investigative efforts.
If the Scene of the Crime Operation (SOCO) is responsible in investigating the crime scene,
the procedure would be as follows:
1. Mandatory Briefing
2. Initiation of preliminary survey
3. Conduct of Interview
4. Preparation of narrative report
5. SOCO team detained search
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6. Final Survey
7. Release of crime scene
1. The first police officers to arrive at the crime scene are the FRs who are dispatched by the
local police station/unit concerned after receipt of incident/flash/alarm report.
2. Immediately, the FR shall conduct preliminary evaluation of the crime scene. This
evaluation should include the scope of the incident, emergency service required, scene safely
concerns, administration of live saving measures, and establishment of security and control of the
scene.
3. The FR is mandated to save and preserve life by giving the necessary firs aid measure to
the injured and medical evacuation as necessary. The FR shall likewise secure and preserve the
crime scene by cordoning the area to prevent unauthorized entry of persons.
4. The FR shall take dying declaration of severely injured person, if any. The FR shall make
the initial assessment on whether a crime has actually been committed and shall conduct the
preliminary interview of witness to determine what and how the crime was committed.
5. If and when is a suspect present in the area, the first responder shall arrest, detain, and
remove the suspect from the area.
6. The FR, upon the arrival of Investigator-on-Case (IOC), shall turn-over the crime scene to
the duty investigator/OIC after the former has brief the investigator of the situation.
2. Investigator-on-Case/Duty Investigator
1. Upon arrival at the crime scene, the IOC shall request for a briefing from the FR and make a
quick assessment of crime;
2. At this stage, the IOC shall assume full responsibility over the crime scene and shall
conduct a thorough assessment of the scene and inquiry into incident. If necessary the IOC may
conduct crime scene search outside the area where the incident happened employing any of the
various search methods.
3. Based on the assessment, if the OIC determines that a SOCO team is required, he shall
report the matter to his/her COP and requires for SOCO, otherwise, the OIC shall proceed with the
CSI without the SOCO team.
4. The IOC may by himself/herself if the situation so demand, conduct CSI. If there is no
Provincial Crime Laboratory Office/Regional Crimea Laboratory Office in the province. The IOC must,
however, ensure that the correct procedures in the collection of evidence are observed to ensure the
admissibility of the evidence.
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5. The Police Station Operation Center, upon directive of the COP, shall make the request for
the SOCO team through the Provincial/City Operations Center.
6. It shall be the responsibility of the Provincial/City Operations Center to facilitate the request
for the SOCO Team.
7. Upon the arrival of the SOCO Team, the IOC shall accomplish the CSI form, request for the
Conduct of SOCO and submit the same to the SOCO Team Leader. The SOCO Team shall not enter
the crime scene unless the IOC makes the official written request wherein he assures the SOCO
team of his presence and support.
8. The IOC shall brief the SOCO team upon their arrival at the crime scene and shall jointly
conduct the preliminary crime scene survey.
2. SOCO Team
1. The SOCO Team shall not join any operation conducted by the local police or accompany
the FRs or the IOC in going to the crime scene. They will only respond upon request through the
Operations Center and after the IOC has already made proper assessment of the crime scene.
2. Upon receipt of the request of SOCO, the SOCO Team shall then conduct the scene of the
crime operations which include among other the narrative description of the crime scene,
photography, videography, crime scene search, crime scene sketch, crime scene location sketch,
physical evidence recording and collection and other procedures necessary.
3. In case the SOCO Team needs to temporarily suspend the processing, the Chief of Police
shall be primarily responsible and accountable for securing the crime scene and ensuring its integrity
until the return of SOCO Team and the conclusion of the CSI.
4. after the termination of the SOCO, the SOCO Team leader shall brief the IOC on the initial
result and thereafter conduct the final crime scene survey together with the IOC.
5. The SOCO Team shall accomplish the CSI Form, SOCO Report Forms and furnish the IOC
of copies of the same before leaving the crime scene.
1. the IOC shall decide on the lifting of the security cordon and the release of the crime scene
upon consultation with the SOCO Team Leader and he/she shall be responsible in ensuring that all
pieces of potential evidence were collected by the SOCO Team as any re-entry into the crime scene
after it release to the owner will require a search warrant issued by the court.
2. the IOC shall ensure that appropriate inventory has been provided by the SOCO team
and shall only lift the security cordon and release the crime scene only after completion of the
documentation process.
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3. The IOC or the COP shall turn-over the crime scene to the owner of the property or where
the crime scene is a public place, to any local person in authority.
3. In case where the evidence encountered need special processing due to significant or
sensational cases, the Scene of the Crime Operation (SOCO) specialist of the Crime Laboratory shall
be requested.
4. The investigator-on-cased turn-over Crime Scene to SOCO and assist in security the crime
scene perimeter area.
SIGNIFICANT CASES:
1. Bombing Incident
2. CT initiated terrorist activities
3. Raids, ambuscade, liquidation
4. KFR (Kidnap for Ransom) cases
5. Armed Robbery of Banks and others
6. Financial Institution
7. Calamity/Disaster
8. Massacre
9. Heinous Crimes
10. Murder, Homicide, Arson, Rape with Homicide
SENSATIONAL CASES:
1. Administrative Worksheet
This is used in documenting major events, times and movements relating to the search
efforts. It is also appropriate in recording initial and continuing management and administrative steps
which are taken to ensure that an organized search is accomplished.
2. Narrative Description
This involves record of the crime scene general appearance as first observed. However,
extreme detail regarding evidence or actual collection of evidence is beyond the scope of the narrative
description.
It consists of the record of how physical evidence was recognized, collected., marked and
package for administrative and chain-of-custody purposes.
It refers to the record of how fingerprints and other prints at the CS were discovered,
collected, marked and packaged.
5. Photographic Log
It refers to the record on how the CS was systematically documented using still and video
cameras. The log shows the overall, medium, and close-up views of the scene. It contains a series
of photographs of the CS taken in a systematic manner based on SOP.
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a. Take Long-Range- photos of the locality, points of ingress and egress, normal entry
to the property, exterior of the building/premises, and street signs or other identifiable that will
establish location which is taken to portray the areas as if a person viewing the scene is seeing it from
the standing position. The photographer takes the photograph with the camera at eye level.
1. Note Taking
1. It serves as a persona record of the search for evidence
2. It should be detailed so as to be understood as well
3. It should begin with the crime scene specialist name and assignment to the
case
4. It should be supplanted by sketches and photographs of the scene
5. It should be recorded in a sequential order
6. It should be complete
Note: Notes are valuable not only as aid to as an accurate recall of events to be testified to in court,
but also to furnish the raw material needed in the written formal report of the case. A different
notebook should be used for each separate case and the notebooks should be kept permanently in a
safe place.
2. Sketching
It refers to the process of recording of information with respect to its location, position,
measurement, orientation and details of findings in a sketch pad through symbols, arts and figures.
2. The first step in the investigation of any crime is to photograph all aspects of the
crime scene completely and accurately before any of the objects of evidence is removed or disturbed.
It is better to take to many photographs than too few.
Field Inquiry
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It refers to the general questioning of all persons at, near or around the crime scene for
purposes of gathering information about the crime.
The moment that the investigator sets his/her foot at the crime scene, he/she must
immediately conduct the general questioning of all people present threat or he/she may assign his/her
assistant or any member of the investigating team. Most often, the members of the Mobile Patrol
Bureau who arrived at the scene earlier had already conducted the field inquiry and have in their
custody the witnesses and or the suspect. The investigator should not stop here but conduct further
field inquiry at the remaining people or who will arrive at the scene.
1. Knowledge- This refers to the basic understanding of the crime scene technicians about
what they are trying to accomplish and why.
2. Skills and Tools- The technician must have the appropriate equipment and be skilled
with it in order to collect the various types of evidence he/she may encounter.
4. Flexibility. Although methodical, the technician must also be flexible in order to deal with
unique situation.
5. Coordinated Effort- The entire team must coordinate their efforts in order for everyone to
pursue the same goal.
1. Assessing- the assessment of the scene assists the investigator in making a cession on
what to do, when to do it, and what resources may be required. Assessment must be accomplished
before taking any action, but assessment as on-going activity as well. The investigator is constantly
assessing the scene throughout processing.
Assessment by the crime scene team always involves a debriefing of the initial
responders.
2. Observing- The most common activity involved in crime scene processing is observing.
Critical observation is the act of mentally registering the condition of the scene and artifacts found it.
Observation is inclusive in assessing the scene but always precedes the other activities. Observing by
itself is a non-intrusive action, but it often leads to ah-hoc search behavior.
Documenting the scene involves both non-intrusive and intrusive actions, hence, in the
documentation, step there is an order as well. This order goes from least intrusive to most intrusive,
typically following this sequence.
This order allows the investigator to capture the complete scene context, altering the context.
1. The investigator makes written notes of a revolver on the floor. (e.g. brand,
caliber, location)
2. The unaltered revolver is captured in the photographs in the exact position.
3. The unaltered revolver is included in the sketch and measurements are taken
documenting its exact position.
4. It is then handled and photographed to show cylinder conditions and other
details.
4. Searching- The nature of crime scene searches is always intrusive; searchers may alter the
original condition of the scene. To properly search, the investigator must move through the scene,
move the items and examine all surface. Because of this, searches are accomplished in stages. The
initial observation is a form of visual search.
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True initial searches are done with limited alteration of the scene to prevent disturbing any
unobserved evidence. Later searches are extremely intrusive, often requiring dismantling and
movement of objects in the scene.
5. Collection- Collecting evidence is a very intrusive action. Once collected, the context of the
item and the scene are already disturbed. There is no undoing the act of collection. Unless there are
issues of fragile evidence, collection of evidence is accomplished only after all scene context is
documented. Different forms of collecting evidence result in different levels of alteration. Extremely
intrusive collection activities are always conducted last in the collection stage. Thus, collection may be
sequenced as well.
Examples:
a. Recovering a revolver or casing from the floor has no impact on the remaining scene
context. It creates no further them.
b. Recovering a bullet from a wall requires damaging the wall and may introduce wall
board dust into the scene, affecting other areas.
Investigative Ethics
The function of an investigation is to discover the truth. There should be no other agenda.
Personal agenda and personal involvement will wrap the investigators perspective. The investigator
must remain neutral and impartial professional.
If the area to be searched is limited indoors with few contents or any other situation, which will
preclude a systematic search, no standard procedure of search is recommended. Nay method of
choice will do, provided that alertness, knowledge and experience of the participating investigators are
present. If the area to be search is quite extensive, a more systematic scheme of approach is
recommended.
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1. STRIP METHOD
The Searchers (A, B and C) proceed slowly at the same pace along the path parallel to
one-side of the rectangle. At the end of the rectangle, the searcher turn and proceed back along new
lanes – but parallel to the first movement.
- the area is blocked out in the form of a rectangle. The searchers (3 person is good)
proceed slowly at the same pace along paths parallel to one side of the rectangle.
- modification of the strip search method. The rectangle is traversed first parallel to the
base then parallel to a side.
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SKETCH is the graphic representation of the scene of the crime with complete measurements
of the relative distance of relevant objects and conditions obtaining therein.
The word sketch means to draw or to scale, with important dimensions at the scene being
shown to a good degree of accuracy.
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1. Title- refers to the crime committed or the incident happened such as vehicular accident,
homicide case, drowning, rape case and others.
2. Body- refers to the sketch proper to include the position of the victim and other items in the
crime scene. It includes proper measurements of distances of objects in the crime scene.
3. Compass Direction (Orientation)- refers to the standard arrow to indicate the north
direction. To find the north without compass, determine the east where the sun rises. Facing east,
your left side is the north direction.
4. Nature of Case- refers to the status of the case whether currently committed or days had
passed after its discovery.
6. Date/Time of Incident- refers to the exact time and date of the incident. This can be
gathered through interviews from eyewitnesses and other persons in the area.
7. Name of the Victim- is part of the sketch where name of the victim is written.
8. Name of the Suspect- refers to the part of the sketch where the name of the suspect is
written.
Example:
The distance of a loaded pistol to the body of the victim and the nearest wall. Point of
Reference must always be on two points to give the exact location of the object by way of latitude
and longitude. The room area must be measured by width and length, together with the heights of the
walls, the size of the door and the direction of its swing.
10. Essential Items- all items in the scene must be included. Never decide outright that some
items are irrelevant. As your proceed in the investigation, these seemingly irrelevant items will
become relevant or material in the investigation.
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11. Scale of Proportion- is the element of the finished sketch. It is the essential of the
finished sketch. It is the essential of the finished sketch to the actual size or measurements at the
scene. The scale of 1:50 means that one inch in the sketch measurement is 50 inches in the actual
scene measurement.
12. Legend- is usually placed at the bottom of sketch outside the sketch of the scene. Number
represents the objects in the crime or letters in order not to unnecessarily crowd in the graphic
presentation. Their descriptions are found in the legend.
13. Sketcher’s Name and Signature- is where the name of the sketcher and the team leader
or the officer in charge are written and signed.
14. Date and Time- refers to the exact time and sketch was made.
1. Rough Sketch
This is a sketch made by the investigator at the crime scene, which is full of important details
but without the scale of proportion. This is used as the basis for the finish sketch.
2. Finished Sketch
This is a sketch with a scale of proportion. Drawn by a draftsman, it can be used for court
presentation. Rough and finished sketch if requested by the court shall be presented by the draftsman
to clear doubts or the jury.
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TYPES OF SKETCH
2. Elevation Sketch/Drawing
-used to show slopes present at the scene.
- these are sketches to show elevation perspective at the crime scene.
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3. Exploded View
4. Perspective Sketch/Drawings
a.
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b.
1. Sketch of Locality
This deals with the vicinity of the crime scene in relation to the environs, to include
neighboring buildings, structure, or means of access leading to the scene. This kind of sketch is
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applied in conflagrations, suspected to be arson, indicating the origin of the fire and how is spread
naturally or unnaturally against the wind.
2. Sketch of Grounds
This is the kind of sketch which illustrate the scene of the crime with the nearest
physical surroundings, such as the room adjacent or opposite the room of the crime scene, the
number of floors of a building or house, the yard and the other natural structure.
3. Sketch of Details
This includes the positions and exact locations of the physical evidence in the crime
scene. It describes the immediate scene only like the room where the crime was committed and the
details of items in the room.
CHAPTER 8
SURVEILLANCE
It is defined as the discreet observation of persons, places and vehicles for the purpose of
obtaining information concerning the identities or activities of criminals.
SURVIELLANT
It refers to the person who conducts the surveillance or performs the observations.
SUBJECT
1. Covert Surveillance
This is a type of surveillance conducted to a subject who is unaware that he/she is
under surveillance.
2. Overt Surveillance
This occur if the subject is aware that he/she is under surveillance.
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1. Fixed Surveillance
This is usually performed when surveillance is directed to a particular building or premise. The
surveillant is immovable in place while observing his/her subject.
2. Moving Surveillance
It is performed by foot or by the use of any transportation vehicle in order to observe the
subject.
Shadowing or Tailing
It refers to the act of the surveillant of following his/her subject to detect criminal activities, to
establish the association of subject, to find a wanted person and many other purposes.
Roping
It is a kind of undercover work wherein surveillant assumes different roles and identify in order
to obtain information.
Purpose of Surveillance
4. Wiretapping devices
5. Listening devices
6. In case there is difficulty in wiretapping device, an expert in lip reading must be
employed.
1. He/she must be of an average height, built and general appearance of a person who could
easily mingle with the crowd without being conspicuous.
3. Grooming and body accessories must blend with the crowd to avoid unnecessary
attraction or attention or to avoid him/her being fixed in the mind of a very observant
person.
5. He/she must be resourceful, alert, quick-witted and versatile to reason out once
accused by others.
7. Be prepared for a “cover story”. The cover story must be believable regarding his/her personal
appearance. If he acts as a vendor, he/she must look as one without the display of manicured
fingernails or attire at odds with fictitious personality.
1. Never meet the eyes of the subject to avoid suspicion. If the subject makes and abrupt turn, avoid
face-to-face confrontation by looking elsewhere away from the face of the subject.
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2. Avoid lurking (waiting), sleuthing (look for clues) and creeping (stealing) manner. Don’t lurk in
doorways, stalking behind the subject, crouch and sneak around the corner. All of these will attract
attention.
3. Don’t wear story-book disguises, false whiskers, artificial noses or scars and faked deformities and
the like rarely if even are convincing for any length of time even when worn by profession make-up
artist. These disguises may be good for theater but not for the street.
4. Never carry noticeable notebooks, brief case or other objects. Don’t greet fellow officers or allow
them to greet you by way of signals like blocking the lips with a finger.
1. If the subject is unknown to the surveillant, have somebody point him/her or obtain a full
and complete description of the subject.
2. Have a complete background of the subject such as habits, haunts, social life and places
frequented.
3. Surveillant should adapt his/her attire to conform to the place where he/she expects to
find the subject
4. He/she should be casual and should not be apparently centered on the subject. Avoid
nervousness and haste. Patience will count much.
5. Study the place and surroundings of the target as illustrated in his/her mental map to
include transportation, entrances and exits and communication facilities. If he/she loses the subject,
he/she knows how to establish the trail again.
6. It must that the identity of the subject be known at the start before embarking surveillance.
This is important in order that the surveillant will be prepared if there will be a violent confrontation.
It is conducted by one man in shadowing a subject. The surveillant should establish the
contacts of the subject, place visited, girlfriends and confidants.
Example: In case the subject will used the telephone booth, the shadowed must feign a call at
the available booth.
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This is easier for the surveillants to fully cover the subject. The methods allow the exchange of
the positions of the shadowers in order to avoid discovery. One shadower will follow behind the
subject and the other may either be abreast or on the opposite side of the street or following the
first shadower.
The three shadowers are represented as A, B, C. this is how they work. A is close to the
subject and follows him/her at a distance depending on the pedestrian traffic. B follows A at the same
distance of A to the subject. If vehicular traffic is moderate, it may be opposite him/her on the other
side of the street. B and C take turns in assuming the position of A to prevent A from becoming
familiar and noticeable figure to the subject. Pre-arranged signals are encouraged.
1. When the subject becomes suspicious of any of the operatives, said operative could quickly
drop out of the shadowing.
2. If subject suddenly turns a corner. A may continue straight ahead, instead of rushing to the
corner and anxiously looking for the subject. C t hen crossers the street and follows the subject, to
take the positions of A, C, is in a position to view any sudden disappearance of subject towards a door
or building.
1. Turning Corners
The surveillant should not rush if the subject turns to a corner. If the subject
disappears, the nature of the surrounding will determine the tactics to locate the subject. It is
preferable to lose the subject rather than alerts him/her in the tail.
2. Entering a Building
If the building has no back exit, the surveillant should wait until the subject comes
out. It is necessary to follow the subject inside the building if there is an exit at the back of the
building. In case the subject boards an elevator, the surveillant should also board the elevator. The
surveillant should tell the elevator boy the same floor as that of the subject or he/she may proceed to
the top floor. If there are more than one shadower, one should alight on the floor of the subject. The
other may proceed to other directions such as the first floor where they could wait for the subject.
3. Riding a Bus
The surveillant should board the same bus sit behind or at the side of the subject. If the
shadower misses the bus, he/she should board a taxi and board the bus at a place ahead.
4. Riding a Taxi
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If subject rides on a taxi, the shadower should take another taxi and note the plate
number and the company name of the subject’s taxi. If he/she fails to tails to tail the taxi, he/she
should get information from the taxi company through the driver of the taxi for the disclosure of the
subject’s destination.
5. Riding a Train
The shadower must fall in line toward the ticket booth, behind the subject so that
he/she could overhear the destination or he/she could merely request for a timetable or a ticket for the
last destination.
7. In a Hotel
The room of the subject could be inquired from the hotel registry. Once pinpointed, the
shadower must take an adjacent or opposite room. If there are no available on this arrangement, the
nearest vacant room should be the choice.
8. In a Theater
The shadower should be seated behind the subject. If the subject gets out, she/she
should follow in a different exit point.
When the subject is conscious that he/she is being tailed while about to board a public
conveyance, he/she usually jumps off the vehicle. If somebody also jumps off, he/she then recognized
the shadower, which will be the basis for future recognition.
2. Use of Convoy
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The subject employs other partners to detect if he/she is being tailed. The convoy which may
employ the ABC method would be very easy to detect shadowers. If the subject uses this, the
shadower must be behind the convoy and follow them instead.
1. At least two or more cars should be used with at least two persons assigned in one
car.
2. The second car should follow the first car at a distance effective for tailing
3. The second and successive cars should follow each other in the same distance of the first
car to the subject.
4. If only one car is used, it should follow the subject’s automobile at a distance, which is
effective to the purpose.
5. The manner of driving should be changed as often as needed by alternating between the
right and the left lanes. Pre-arranged signals should guide the alternating car position behind the
subject. This is done to avoid detection.
6. If the subject employs convoy of vehicles, this must be immediately discovered so that the
shadowing vehicles should be positioned behind the convoys.
7. In parking the surveillance vehicles, it should be in the next block. The building exits and the
subject’s car should be kept under close observation.
8. The occupants of the surveillance car should be at the back seat and should remain
inconspicuous. If considerable time is available, they should leave the car and walk back and forth in
the street.
UNDERCOVER OPERATION
It is a police operation wherein the investigator assumes a fictitious identify in order to infiltrate
the ranks of the criminals for the purposes of obtaining information.
This should be the last resort if no other effective means of obtaining information is available.
It is a last resort because of the risk involved which may cause the loss of life or limb of the
investigator.
UNDERCOVER AGENT
1. Gathering Evidence
The undercover agent can observe criminal activities, hear conversations,
photographs documents and performs other activities for collating and gathering evidence.
2. Counter-Intelligence
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4. Loyalty Check
This applies to private or government employees who are security risk personnel, especially
those involved in intelligence work.
1. Work Assignment
If the agent is to be employed as a janitor, he/she must know his/her work and appear as
such, focusing his/her mentality and habit to work assignment. He must avoid language of refinement
in order that his/her educational background will appear as to that of janitor.
2. Social assignment
These are places of amusements, such as bars, nightclubs and other places of entertainment
where a subject frequently goes. Criminals throw a major part of their loot to these places and the
undercover agent must know the hostesses who are girl friends of the criminals. He/she must know
how to drink socially without getting drunk.
3. Subversive Organization
He/she must know the ideologies of the organizations in order suit his/her philosophies and
actions while inside the said organization.
4. Residential Assignment
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This concerns the neighborhood of the suspect where the undercover agent fits himself/herself
as a new resident, without generating suspicion. The purposes are to be befriend to those who could
give information and possibly get closer to the subject.
The preparation should include the fictitious background of the undercover agent. He/she must
discard all papers and identification cards, etc. A new set of background information should be issued
to him. The agent must memorize all the details of his/her fictitious background.
1. Telephone
Utmost secrecy must be the guideline in calling headquarters. Modern telephone having their
caller’s ID that my trace who is calling. It is better to use a dial public booth not connected with the
local switchboard operator. Different telephones must be used. If using a cell phone immediately
erase the number called, a technique must be used in the cell phone so that the number of the person
called will not appear in the record. Text messages should be erased immediately
2. Secret Meetings
They are pre-arranged to pass important and vital messages which should be immediately
acted upon. But some messages decided in the meeting need to be put secretly to preserve its
purpose; therefore, several techniques are used. An invisible ink can be used.
3. Coded Messages
The coded messages should be written in inconspicuous writing materials such as napkins,
wrappers these should be discarded later. Serial number and business names. Which are difficult to
memorize, should be noted. These messages should be placed secretly in the drop boxes such as
trashcans for the collection of the supporting agent.
1. By Informers
The informers must be given the picture of the criminal together with his/her last known
address and acquittances or his/her possible hang outs. If no picture is available, the full descriptions
of the criminal must be given to the informer. If the criminal has no acquaintances in the Metropolitan
area, the likelihood is that he/she will flee to his/her hometown or province where he/she has the
relatives to guide him/her.
2. By Informants
Informants must be contacted to secure possible information as to the whereabouts of the criminal.
3. Grapevine Sources
These grapevine informants or informers have easier access to the underworld where vital
information could be gathered as to the whereabout of the particular criminal. The prisoners or
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inmates are most often knowledgeable on crimes and criminals more than the police, especially on
major crimes.
4. By Tailing
The surveillant may tail the wife, relative and friends of the criminal who will deliver provisions
to the hiding place.
These persons must be interrogated with the false information that the one responsible for
their arrest is the information coming from the criminal being sought. The underworld character should
be intrigued about this technique so that they would betray each other. There is always a power
struggle among the criminal syndicates for their continued existence.
9. In fresh cases, the bloodhound dogs or K-9 are used to track down the suspect in
squatters’ areas, open field or wooden terrain. This is most effective if a piece of article belonging to
the criminal, left at the crime scene is sniffed by the dog as a sample of the odor of the criminal.
10. In every recent case, find out the ethnic origin of the criminal. If he/she is from Baguio
City, there is a great possibility that they will go home to his/her place. In the past, there were
successes in arresting the criminal at the pier or at the domestic airport within 3-day stick out.
11. Disguises
Beware of disguises employed by the criminal. Many suspects had eluded police cordon or
dragnet by pretending to be abnormal persons greases with the dark oil and acting the mannerisms of
the abnormal. Some suspects also attired themselves with wigs and feminine dresses. In company
with some women, they had easily passed the police cordon.
12. Corrupting the known associates of the criminal through the money
In the underworld, money talks louden than other things.
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INFORMANT
It refers to any person who gives information to the police authorities relative to a crime.
It refers to any person who furnishes the police information relevant to a criminal case about
the activities of criminals or syndicates. This is done without any monetary consideration. The
informant may openly give information or may serve as a witness voluntarily.
Types of Informant
1. Anonymous Informants
He/she maybe an anonymous phone caller, letter writer or a text s ender. The duty of
the investigator is to receive the information, not to reveal any other information to the caller about
facts already known
2. Confidential Informant
This is a person who provides the police with confidential information concerning a
previous crime or a projected and planned crime. He/she does not want to be identified as the source
of information. Under the law, these informants are protected and their identity could not be revealed
by the police even under the order of the court unless on exceptional case where there is a claim of
the defense that the informant framed up the accused.
3. Rival-Elimination Informant
This kind of informant mostly maintains to be anonymous. His/her purpose is to eliminate the
rival person of gang due to competition or other motives such as revenge, etc.
4. False Informant
This informant usually reveals information of no consequences, value or stuff connected with
thin air. His/her purpose is to appear to be on the side of the law and for throwing out the suspicion
from himself/herself or from gang or associates.
5. Frightened Informant
He/she is prodded by fear or self-interest in giving information to the police. He/she maybe one
of the lesser gang mates are about to be involved in dangerous situation or when the gang he/she
belongs is hot on the police trail. Motivated by anxiety and self-preservation of his/her well-being
he/she furnishes the information to protect himself as a means of sustaining self-importance. This
type is the weakest link in the composition of the criminal chain.
6. Self-Aggrandizing Informant
This kind of informant moves around the centers of criminals, group or syndicate and delights
in surprising the police about bits of information. His/her information may be of value by the way of
authentication in intelligence information.
7. Mercenary Informant
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The informant has information for sale. He/she may have been victimized in a double-cross or
little share in the loot or given a dirty deal and seeks revenge as he/she will profit in the disclosure.
8. Double-Crosser Informants
He/she uses his/her seeming desire to divulge information as an excuse to talk to the police in
order to get more information from them more than what is given. To counter this kind of informant,
the police applies the deception method by giving false information that will lead to his/her capture.
9. Women Informant
She maybe the female associate of the criminals, who was roughed up, marginalized in
the deal or being eased out from the group. Care must be given to this kind of informant because
women, given the skills and expertise, are more dangerous than men. They often given free romance
that will result in blackmailing the investigator or will result to an extended family for support. Women
are said to be most effective among informers because they could easily penetrate the ranks of
criminals with less suspicion.
Besides, they could mingle with the crowd easily and could obtain information more
than their male counterparts, especially if their beauty attracts attention. They have easier access to
women associates of make criminals. However, care should be employed as they could easily
double-cross the police once they fall in love with criminals.
Motives of Informants
1. Vanity
The motive is for self-aggrandizement by gaining favorable attention and importance
by police.
2. Civic Mindedness
Informants provide information because they are imbued with the sense of duty and
obligation to assist the police in their task.
3. Fear
It is the engendered illusion of oppression from enemies or from impending
dangers.
4. Repentance
Those lesser criminals such as accomplices or accessories will have a change in
heart to unburden their conscience.
INFORMER
It refers to any person who provides information to the police on a regular basis.
They are either paid regularly or in a case-to-case basis or none at all. They are
cultivated and established by the police on more or less permanent character as long as they are
loyal and useful to the police organization.
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Selection of Informers
There are no hard and fixed rules in the selection of informers. This is addressed to the sound
discretion of the investigator. These informers must be indoctrinated that they are not immune from
arrest and prosecution of they commit crimes. They should not bring shame and dishonor to the police
service. When they will commit crimes, they should not be punished like the rest.
All the sectors of the society must be covered, and their combination included but not limited to
taxi drivers, jeepney and bus drivers, vendors, conductors, waiters, dancers, ex-convict, shady or
underworld characters, hostesses, bankers, security guards, businessman, prostitutes, the elite in the
society and others. They should be planted as moles or stole pigeons practically in all the corners of
the social order.
1. English System
This system involves gathering information that has a little consideration on paid
informants. This system relies more on the information provided voluntarily or willingly by patriots or
civic-minded informants
2. French System
This involves the practice of obtaining information that relies heavily on buying
information; this advocates the extensive use of informers.
REFERENCES
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