Define the term robot work space.
The robot workspace (also known as the robot work envelope or robot work volume) refers to the
three-dimensional space or area within which a robot can operate, reach, and perform tasks. This
space is defined by the range of motion of the robot's joints, arms, and end-effectors. The shape and
size of a robot's workspace depend on its design, configuration (e.g., Cartesian, SCARA, articulated,
delta), and the length of its arms and joints.
The robot workspace is crucial in robotic applications to ensure that the robot can reach all
necessary points for performing its tasks while avoiding obstacles and collisions. It also helps in the
planning and optimization of tasks and operations in automated systems.
Define the Isaac Asimov’s three laws of robotics.
Isaac Asimov, a prolific science fiction writer, introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in his stories to
govern the behavior of robots. These laws are designed to ensure that robots act in ways that are
safe and beneficial to humans. The Three Laws of Robotics are as follows:
1. First Law:
"A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to
harm."
This law ensures that a robot cannot cause harm to a human being, either by direct action or
by failing to act when it could prevent harm.
2. Second Law:
"A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law."
This law mandates that robots must follow instructions given by humans unless those
instructions would cause harm to a human, thereby violating the First Law.
3. Third Law:
"A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the
First or Second Law."
This law allows a robot to ensure its own survival, but not at the expense of harming a
human or disobeying a human's order, provided that order does not result in harm.
Zeroth Law (Later Addition):
Asimov later introduced a Zeroth Law to precede the original three:
• "A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm."
This law takes precedence over the original three, emphasizing the protection of humanity as
a whole over individual humans.
These laws are fictional but have influenced real-world discussions about robotics and ethics,
inspiring guidelines and considerations in modern robotics and artificial intelligence.
Distinguish between the forward kinematics and backward kinematics for manipulators.
Explain the singularity in robotic manipulators with the help of figure2. How its effects the robot
kinematics?
In Figure 2, we see a 2-joint robotic manipulator with two configurations: Singular Configuration A
and Singular Configuration B, along with a Non-singular configuration.
1. Non-Singular Configuration:
The manipulator in the non-singular region has its joints positioned such that the end-
effector has a full range of motion. The joint axes J1J_1J1 and J2J_2J2 are oriented in
different directions, allowing the end-effector to move smoothly and precisely within the
workspace.
2. Singular Configuration A:
This singularity occurs when the two joint axes, J1J_1J1 and J2J_2J2, become collinear (or
aligned). In this configuration, the robot loses one degree of freedom because the end-
effector's movement along certain directions (e.g., along the y-axis) requires both joints to
move simultaneously in a perfectly coordinated manner. Small changes in the desired
position may require infinite or undefined changes in joint velocities, making precise control
difficult.
3. Singular Configuration B:
Similarly, in Singular Configuration B, the manipulator is fully extended or folded in such a
way that the two joint axes J1J_1J1 and J2J_2J2 again become collinear. This configuration
results in the loss of control or unpredictable behavior for the same reasons as Configuration
A. The robot arm is stretched out, leading to a similar alignment of the joints.
Effects of Singularity on Robot Kinematics
Singularities affect robotic manipulators in the following ways:
1. Loss of Degrees of Freedom:
At a singularity, one or more degrees of freedom (DOF) are lost. This means the robot cannot
move or control the end-effector in certain directions as required. As shown in Figure 2,
when the joints align, some movements become impossible or uncontrollable.
2. Infinite or Undefined Velocities:
When a robot is near a singularity, small changes in the end-effector's position may require
large or infinite changes in joint velocities. This makes controlling the robot precisely very
challenging and can lead to abrupt or jerky movements.
3. Difficulties in Inverse Kinematics:
Singularities complicate solving the inverse kinematics equations, as there may be infinite
solutions, no solutions, or highly sensitive solutions. The robot may not be able to compute a
feasible path to reach a desired position from a singular configuration.
4. Reduced Manipulability and Control Precision:
In singular configurations, the manipulator's ability to move in arbitrary directions
(manipulability) is reduced. The robot loses precision in its control, making it less effective for
tasks requiring high dexterity.
5. Potential for Mechanical Damage:
Operating near or at singularities can strain the robot's mechanical components, as rapid or
uncontrolled movements may occur. This can lead to wear and tear, potential damage, or
safety issues.
Classify following manipulators based on their distinguishing features. (a) anthropomorphic
configurations, (b) non-anthropomorphic configurations, and (c) spatial mechanisms
Robotic manipulators can be classified based on their configuration, structure, and design features.
The classifications typically depend on the resemblance to human arm structures, their geometry,
and their movement capabilities. Here is how manipulators can be classified into anthropomorphic
configurations, non-anthropomorphic configurations, and spatial mechanisms:
(a) Anthropomorphic Configurations
Anthropomorphic configurations refer to robotic manipulators that mimic the structure and function
of the human arm. These manipulators generally have joints and segments that replicate the
shoulder, elbow, and wrist movements, allowing for a wide range of motion and flexibility.
• Distinguishing Features:
o Resemble the human arm with a shoulder, elbow, and wrist.
o Typically have rotational joints (revolute joints) that replicate human joints.
o Highly flexible and capable of performing complex tasks with a wide range of motion.
o Can be used for tasks that require dexterity, such as assembly, welding, and surgery.
• Examples:
o Articulated Robots: These have multiple revolute joints and resemble a human arm.
Examples include the PUMA (Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly) robot
and many industrial robotic arms.
o Humanoid Robots: Robots that replicate human body parts and movements, such as
ASIMO by Honda or Atlas by Boston Dynamics.
(b) Non-Anthropomorphic Configurations
Non-anthropomorphic configurations refer to robotic manipulators that do not mimic the human
arm or body structure. These manipulators can have a variety of shapes and structures depending on
their application. They are designed to perform specific tasks more efficiently than a human-arm-like
robot.
• Distinguishing Features:
o Do not resemble human anatomy; designed based on the application.
o Typically have prismatic joints (sliding joints) or a combination of prismatic and
revolute joints.
o Used for applications where specific, repetitive, or constrained motions are required.
o Often simpler in design compared to anthropomorphic robots.
• Examples:
o Cartesian Robots (Gantry Robots): Have linear joints and move in straight lines along
the X, Y, and Z axes. Commonly used in CNC machines, 3D printing, and pick-and-
place tasks.
o SCARA Robots (Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm): Have two parallel
rotary joints to provide compliance in a plane, ideal for pick-and-place, assembly, and
packaging tasks.
o Delta Robots: Have parallel arms connected to a common base, often used in high-
speed pick-and-place applications in the food and packaging industries.
o Cylindrical Robots: Feature a prismatic joint for linear motion and a revolute joint for
rotation, often used for assembly operations, handling at machine tools, and spot
welding.
(c) Spatial Mechanisms
Spatial mechanisms refer to robotic manipulators or mechanisms that operate in three-dimensional
space with multiple degrees of freedom. These mechanisms can include combinations of joints and
links that enable complex movements in 3D environments.
• Distinguishing Features:
o Operate in three-dimensional (3D) space.
o Typically have multiple degrees of freedom, often more than 3.
o Can combine both anthropomorphic and non-anthropomorphic characteristics.
o Used in applications that require movement in all spatial dimensions, such as robotic
arms for space exploration, medical surgery, and complex assembly tasks.
• Examples:
o 6-DOF Robotic Arms: Robotic arms with six degrees of freedom are spatial
mechanisms because they can position the end-effector in any 3D position and
orientation.
o Stewart Platform: A type of parallel manipulator with six prismatic actuators that
control a platform's position and orientation in 3D space. It is commonly used in
flight simulators and precision machining.
o Gough-Stewart Mechanism: A parallel robot mechanism with spatial control, used in
applications requiring high precision and stiffness.
Describe the open and close kinematic chain mechanism.
1. Open Kinematic Chain Mechanism
An open kinematic chain is a mechanism in which each link is connected in series to the next,
forming a chain with a fixed base at one end and a free-moving end at the other. It has a linear or
tree-like structure where all joints are arranged sequentially without forming any loops.
• Structure:
o The chain starts with a base (usually fixed) and ends with an end-effector or free
end.
o Consists of a series of links connected by joints (revolute, prismatic, etc.).
o Each link is only connected to its immediate predecessor and successor, creating a
one-way path from the base to the end-effector.
• Degrees of Freedom (DOF):
o The total degrees of freedom of an open chain is the sum of the DOFs of all its joints.
o More flexible and versatile in movement, which is why it is often used in
manipulators, robotic arms, and other applications requiring dexterous and precise
motion.
• Examples:
o Robot Arms: Most industrial robotic arms (such as articulated robots) are open
kinematic chains where joints are sequentially connected, allowing the end-effector
to reach various positions and orientations.
o Human Arm: The human arm can be considered an open kinematic chain with a
shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints connected in series.
o Cranes: Mobile and tower cranes often operate as open kinematic chains with
multiple articulated arms.
• Advantages:
o High flexibility and a wide range of motion.
o Easier to control and model mathematically, especially for inverse kinematics.
o Suitable for tasks that require reaching various positions in space.
• Disadvantages:
o Less rigid and stable compared to closed chains; may require more effort to control
accuracy and precision.
o The complexity of control increases with the number of degrees of freedom.
2. Closed Kinematic Chain Mechanism
A closed kinematic chain is a mechanism where the links are connected in such a way that they form
one or more closed loops. In a closed kinematic chain, every link is connected to at least two other
links, forming a continuous path.
• Structure:
o Consists of multiple links and joints connected in loops.
o The chain forms a closed loop where each joint connects at least two links.
o The mechanism is often more constrained compared to open chains because the
motion of one link directly affects the motion of others in the loop.
• Degrees of Freedom (DOF):
o The degrees of freedom are generally fewer than the number of joints due to
constraints imposed by the closed-loop configuration.
o Movements are more restricted and interdependent, which results in higher stiffness
and stability.
• Examples:
o Four-Bar Linkage: A common closed kinematic chain mechanism with four rigid links
and four revolute joints forming a closed loop. It is used in various applications like
engine pistons, window wipers, and other machinery.
o Delta Robots: These robots have a parallel manipulator structure with multiple
closed chains, providing high speed and precision.
o Stewart Platform: A six-degree-of-freedom closed kinematic chain mechanism used
in flight simulators, machining, and robotic surgery.
• Advantages:
o Higher stiffness and rigidity compared to open chains, making them suitable for high-
precision tasks.
o Movements of the mechanism are more stable due to the closed-loop structure.
o Suitable for high-load applications where stability is crucial.
• Disadvantages:
o Limited range of motion due to the constraints of the closed loops.
o More complex to analyze and control due to interdependence among all links and
joints.
o Less flexibility and adaptability to various tasks compared to open chains.
What is degree of freedom(DOF) and define Grabler’s formula for DOF.
The degree of freedom (DOF) of a mechanical system or robotic manipulator refers to the number of
independent parameters (usually coordinates) that define its configuration or state. In simpler terms,
it is the number of independent movements (such as translation or rotation) that a system or a
component can perform.
Degree of Freedom (DOF) in Mechanical Systems
• Translational DOF: Movement along the X, Y, or Z axes. For example, a slider on a straight
track has one translational DOF.
• Rotational DOF: Rotation about the X, Y, or Z axes. For instance, a rotating wheel has one
rotational DOF.
• A rigid body in 3-dimensional space can have a maximum of six DOF: three translational
(along X, Y, Z) and three rotational (about X, Y, Z axes).
In robotics, the DOF indicates the number of independent movements the robot's end-effector can
achieve in space. For example, a typical industrial robotic arm with six joints (three for positioning
and three for orientation) has six DOF.
Grübler’s Formula for DOF
Grübler's formula is used to calculate the degrees of freedom for a mechanism or kinematic chain
based on the number of links and joints and the type of joints used. The formula considers the
constraints imposed by the joints that connect the links.
For a planar mechanism (2D), the formula is:
For a spatial mechanism (3D), the formula is:
. Define the principle of four-bar planner mechanism by Grashof’s law.
The four-bar planar mechanism is one of the most fundamental mechanisms in mechanical
engineering, robotics, and kinematics. It consists of four rigid links connected by four revolute
(rotational) joints, forming a closed loop. The behavior and motion capabilities of a four-bar
mechanism are governed by Grashof's law, which helps predict the type of motion possible in such a
system.
Grashof's Law for Four-Bar Planar Mechanism
Grashof's law provides a criterion to determine whether a four-bar linkage will have continuous
relative rotation (crank-rocker motion) or whether it will only have a limited range of motion (double
rocker motion). It applies to four-bar mechanisms where all the joints are revolute (hinged).
Statement of Grashof's Law
Grashof's law states that:
• "For a four-bar mechanism, the sum of the lengths of the shortest link (s) and the longest
link (l) must be less than or equal to the sum of the lengths of the other two links (p and q)
for at least one link to be capable of making a complete revolution relative to the others."
Mathematically, Grashof's law is expressed as:
s+l≤p+qs + l \leq p + qs+l≤p+q
Where:
• sss = Length of the shortest link
• lll = Length of the longest link
• ppp = Length of the remaining link
• qqq = Length of the other remaining link
If this inequality holds, the mechanism is called a Grashof mechanism and allows for continuous
rotation of at least one link (typically the shortest link). If not, it is a non-Grashof mechanism, where
no link can rotate fully.
Describe various types of joints and its DOFs. Make neat and clean diagrams.
In robotics and mechanical systems, joints are connections between links that allow relative motion
between them. The type of joint determines the degree of freedom (DOF) of the system, which
defines the nature and extent of movement possible between connected links. Different types of
joints are used in mechanical designs to achieve the desired motion characteristics.
Types of Joints and Their Degrees of Freedom (DOF)
1. Revolute Joint (Rotational Joint)
o Description: A revolute joint, also known as a hinge joint, allows relative rotational
motion about a single axis between two links. It restricts translational motion.
o DOF: 1 (One rotational DOF around a single axis)
o Example: Human elbow joint, door hinge.
2. Prismatic Joint (Sliding Joint)
o Description: A prismatic joint allows relative linear motion along a single axis
between two links. It restricts rotational motion.
o DOF: 1 (One translational DOF along a single axis)
o Example: Linear actuators, piston-cylinder mechanism.
3. Cylindrical Joint
o Description: A cylindrical joint allows both rotational motion around and
translational motion along a single axis, combining the features of a revolute and a
prismatic joint.
o DOF: 2 (One rotational DOF and one translational DOF along the same axis)
o Example: Telescoping antenna with rotation capability.
4. Spherical Joint (Ball-and-Socket Joint)
o Description: A spherical joint allows rotational motion about three perpendicular
axes, enabling full 3D rotational motion. It is similar to a ball-and-socket joint in the
human body.
o DOF: 3 (Three rotational DOFs)
o Example: Human shoulder joint, universal joint.
5. Planar Joint
o Description: A planar joint allows two links to move relative to each other within a
plane. It provides two translational and one rotational DOF within the plane.
o DOF: 3 (Two translational DOFs and one rotational DOF)
o Example: Sliding table with rotation on a flat surface.
6. Universal Joint (Cardan Joint)
o Description: A universal joint allows rotational motion about two perpendicular axes.
It is commonly used to connect two shafts that intersect at an angle.
o DOF: 2 (Two rotational DOFs)
o Example: Drive shafts in vehicles, steering column joints.
7. Helical Joint (Screw Joint)
o Description: A helical joint allows a relative screw-like motion between two links. It
combines both translational and rotational motion along a helical path.
o DOF: 1 (One helical motion that combines rotation and translation)
o Example: Screw and nut assembly.
How many configurational variables required to describe human hand kinematic motions?
Describing the kinematic motions of the human hand involves accounting for the complex
movements and interactions of its bones, joints, and muscles. The human hand has 27 bones and 27
joints, which contribute to its dexterity. To describe the kinematic motions of the hand, you generally
need to consider the following:
**1. Degrees of Freedom (DOFs) of the Joints
Each joint in the hand contributes to the overall kinematic motion. The key joints and their typical
DOFs are:
• Wrist: 2 DOFs (flexion/extension and radial/ulnar deviation)
• Thumb: 2 DOFs at the carpometacarpal joint (CMC), 1 DOF at the metacarpophalangeal
(MCP) joint, and 1 DOF at the interphalangeal (IP) joint.
• Fingers (excluding thumb): 3 DOFs per finger (1 at the MCP joint, 2 at the proximal and distal
interphalangeal (PIP and DIP) joints).
**2. Total Configurational Variables
To describe the kinematic motions of the entire hand, you would generally use the following
configurational variables:
1. Wrist Joints: 2 variables for wrist motion (flexion/extension, radial/ulnar deviation).
2. Thumb: 4 variables (2 for CMC joint, 1 for MCP joint, 1 for IP joint).
3. Fingers (4 fingers): Each finger has 3 joints, so for each finger, you need 3 variables. For 4
fingers, this totals to 12 variables.
Adding these up:
• Wrist: 2 variables
• Thumb: 4 variables
• Fingers: 12 variables (3 per finger x 4 fingers)
Total Configurational Variables
2 (wrist) + 4 (thumb) + 12 (fingers) = 18 configurational variables
So, you typically need 18 configurational variables to describe the kinematic motions of the human
hand. This includes all degrees of freedom for wrist, thumb, and fingers.
Describe the following mechanisms through Grashof’s law a. Double Crank Mechanism. b. Double
Rocker Mechanism. c. Crank and Rocker Mechanism.
Grashof’s Law is used to determine the types of four-bar linkages and their mobility by considering
the lengths of the links. The law states:
For a four-bar linkage:
• If s+l≤p+rs + l \leq p + rs+l≤p+r, where sss, lll, ppp, and rrr are the lengths of the shortest,
longest, and remaining two links respectively, then the linkage is a Crank-Rocker or Double
Crank mechanism.
• If s+l>p+rs + l > p + rs+l>p+r, then the linkage is a Double Rocker mechanism.
1. Double Crank Mechanism
Description:
• In a Double Crank Mechanism, both the input and output links (cranks) rotate fully around
their respective axes.
Grashof’s Law Analysis:
• For this mechanism to function, it must meet the condition: s+l≤p+rs + l \leq p + rs+l≤p+r.
• Here, sss is the shortest link, lll is the longest link, and ppp and rrr are the remaining two
links.
• If this condition is met, both cranks will complete a full rotation. The mechanism generally
has the property where the shortest link is the input or output crank.
Example:
• A classic example is a James-Bond’s Spy Gear, where the mechanism allows both cranks to
rotate continuously.
2. Double Rocker Mechanism
Description:
• In a Double Rocker Mechanism, neither of the links can complete a full rotation. Instead,
both linkages (rockers) oscillate back and forth.
Grashof’s Law Analysis:
• This mechanism meets the condition: s+l>p+rs + l > p + rs+l>p+r.
• Here, the shortest and longest links are such that their sum is greater than the sum of the
other two links.
• This ensures that neither rocker can complete a full rotation, but both can oscillate.
Example:
• An example is the Four-Bar Linkage used in some steering mechanisms where the input and
output links oscillate but don’t rotate fully.
3. Crank and Rocker Mechanism
Description:
• In a Crank and Rocker Mechanism, one link (crank) completes a full rotation, while the other
link (rocker) oscillates back and forth.
Grashof’s Law Analysis:
• The mechanism satisfies the condition: s+l≤p+rs + l \leq p + rs+l≤p+r, similar to the Double
Crank mechanism.
• However, the arrangement is such that only one link (the crank) can rotate fully, while the
other link (the rocker) can only oscillate. The crank is typically the shortest link, allowing it to
rotate, while the rocker is the longer link.
Example:
• A crank-slider mechanism where one link (the crank) rotates continuously and the other (the
rocker) oscillates.
In summary:
• Double Crank Mechanism: Both input and output links are cranks with full rotation capability
(Grashof’s condition s+l≤p+rs + l \leq p + rs+l≤p+r).
• Double Rocker Mechanism: Both input and output links are rockers with oscillating
movement (Grashof’s condition s+l>p+rs + l > p + rs+l>p+r).
• Crank and Rocker Mechanism: One link (crank) rotates fully while the other link (rocker)
oscillates (Grashof’s condition s+l≤p+rs + l \leq p + rs+l≤p+r).
