ROHINI College of Engineering and Technology, Kanyakumari

BM3301 Sensors and Measurement

DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

III Semester- BM3301 SENSORS AND MEASUREMENTS
UNIT -1
1.3 Static Characteristics of Transducers
The characteristics of the transducer are given below that are determined by
examining the output response of a transducer to a variety of input signals.

So, it is very important to know the characteristics of transducers for proper

selection. Performance characteristics of transducers can be further classified into two
types: 1. Static Characteristics
2. Dynamic Characteristics

1.3.1 Static Characteristics:

Some applications involve the measurement of quantities that are either constant
or vary slowly with time. Under these circumstances it is possible to define a set of
criteria that gives a meaningful description of quality of measurement without
interfering with dynamic descriptions that involve the use of differential equations.
These criteria are called Static Characteristics. Normally static characteristics of a
measurement system are, in general, those that must be considered when the system
or instrument is used to measure a condition not varying with time.
The main static characteristics discussed here are,
i. Accuracy and Precision
ii. Sensitivity
iii. Linearity
iv. Hysteresis
v. Repeatability and Reproducibility
vi. Drift
vii. Static error

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BM3301 Sensors and Measurement

viii. Threshold
ix. Dead Time
x. Dead Zone
xi. Loading Effect
xii. Resolution

1.3.2 Accuracy and Precision :

Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
true value of the quantity being measured. Accuracy of a sensor is usually specified
by error. The lower the error, the better is the accuracy.

Accuracy as "Percentage of Full -Scale Range":

For example, a transducer having an accuracy of ± 10% of full range output
of 0 to 500 ℃, then the reading can be expected from plus or minus 50 ℃ of the true
reading i.e., from 450 ℃ to 550℃.
(𝐴𝑚− 𝐴𝑡 )
𝐸𝑓 (%) = 𝑋 100
𝐴𝐹𝑆𝑂
Accuracy as "Percentage of True Value" :
For example, if the temperature of the system has a specified accuracy of ±
5℃, this means that the reading given by the instrument to be lie within plus or minus
5 ℃ of the true value.
𝐴𝑚− 𝐴𝑡 )
𝐸𝑎 (%) = 𝑋 100
𝐴𝑡
Where,
𝐸𝑎 − 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝐴𝑚 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐴𝑡 − 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐴𝐹𝑆𝑂 − 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., given

a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within
a group of measurements. The high precision means the result of the measurements
are consistent or the repeated values of the reading are obtained.

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BM3301 Sensors and Measurement

Let us cite example. Consider the measurement of a known voltage of 100 V

with ammeter. Five readings are taken, and the indicated values are 104, 103, 105,
103 and 105 V. From these values it is seen that the instrument cannot be depended
on for an accuracy better than 5% (5 V in this case), while a precision of ± 1% is
indicated since the maximum deviation from the mean reading of 104 V is only 1.0 V.

2. Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is ratio of magnitude of the output signal or response to the
magnitude of input signal.

Example: For example, a resistance thermometer has sensitivity of 1Ω/℃. This shows
that the thermometer having sensitivity, where there is a deflection of 1Ω for every 1℃.

3. Linearity:
Linearity refers to how well the relationship between the input and output of the
measurement system follows a straight line. A perfectly linear system would produce
output values proportional to the input values.

Linearity error is the deviation of the sensor output curve from a specified
straight line over an input range. This linearity error is also defined as non-linearity.

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BM3301 Sensors and Measurement

(1) best-fit straight line (2) terminal-based straight line (3) independent straight line

Source: https://www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/instrumentation/Transducers.pdf

4. Hysteresis:
Hysteresis occurs when the output of a measurement system varies
depending on whether the input is increasing or decreasing. It's a type of nonlinearity
and can introduce errors, especially in systems that encounter changing conditions
frequently.

Hysteresis effects

Source: A.K.Shawhney, “A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

5. Repeatability and Reproducibility:

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BM3301 Sensors and Measurement

Repeatability /reproducibility in transducer is defined as the ability to give the

same output for the applications of the same input value.

Repeatability is the closeness of measured values between repeated measurements

of the same thing, carried out at the same conditions as follows,

i. At the same place

ii. By the same person
iii. By the same Method
iv. On the same equipment
v. Over short period of time.

Example:

If a person measures repeated readings of an object by micrometer as 15.01 mm,

15.02 mm, and 15.01 mm. means the person can repeat the readings, and the level
of competence is high.

Reproducibility is the closeness of measured values between measurements of the

same thing carried out in different conditions as follows,
i. At the different place
ii. By the different person
iii. By the different method
iv. On the different equipment
v. At the different time
If three different person measures reading of the same object by micrometer as
15.54 mm,15.64 mm,15.49 mm, then the reproducibility of this measurement is 0.15
mm.

6. Drift:

Drift refers to the change in the output of a measurement system over time, even
when the input remains constant. This can be caused by factors such as temperature
variations, component aging, and environmental changes.

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BM3301 Sensors and Measurement

Drift may be classified into three categories;

(i) Zero drift. If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set,
or due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in. This can be
prevented by zero setting. The input-output characteristics with zero drift are shown
in figure.
(ii) Span drift or Sensitivity drift: If there is proportional change in the indication all
along the upward scale, the drift is called span drift or sensitivity drift.
(iii) Zonal drift: In case the drift occurs only over a portion of span of an instrument,
it is called zonal drift.

7. Static Error:
Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and true
value of the quantity.

𝛿𝐴 = (𝐴𝑚− 𝐴𝑡 )
Where δA = error
𝐴𝑚 = measured value of quantity
𝐴𝑡 = true value of quantity

δA is also called the absolute static error of quantity A

𝐸𝑜 = 𝛿𝐴
Where E0 = absolute static error of quantity A under measurement
The ratio of absolute static error 𝛿𝐴 to the true value 𝐴𝑡 of the quantity under
measurement. Therefore, the relative static error 𝐸𝑟 , is given by

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BM3301 Sensors and Measurement

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝐴 𝐸𝑟
𝐸𝑟 = = =
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑡

8. Threshold:
The threshold is the minimum value of the input below which no output is
detected.

Threshold

9. Dead Time:
Dead time is defined as the time required by a measurement system to begin
to respond to a change in the measurand.

10. Dead Zone:

It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output
of the instrument.

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BM3301 Sensors and Measurement

Dead Time and Dead Zone

11. Loading Effect :

A transducer used for any measurement normally extracts some energy from
the measuring medium and thereby disturbs the value of the measured quantity. This
property is known as the loading effect of the transducer.

Example: When we connect a load with that power source the load impedance
will affect the source impedance, usually, it reduces the supply voltage.

12. Resolution:

If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-zero) input value, it will
again be found that output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded.
This increment is called resolution or discrimination of the instrument.

Resolution defines the smallest measurable input change while the threshold
defines the smallest measurable input.

13. Range and Span:

The scale range is defined as the largest reading that an instrument can read.
Span is the difference between the highest reading & the lowest reading.

Example: Consider thermometer that is calibrated between 300 to 900 °C.

Range of Instrument: 900 °C (or 300-900 °C range)

Span of Instrument: (900 – 300) °C = 600 °C

14. Static Calibration:

Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular instrument with
either (1) a primary standard, (2) a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than
the instruments be calibrated, or (3) an instrument of known accuracy.

A static calibration is a calibration where the physical input does not vary
significantly as a function of time.

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