ChemistryNotes 14382 143821070556

Foundation Notes
EDU TERIA
CHEMISTRY
FOR BPSC EXAMINATION
English
Medium
Index
1. Structure of atom and nucleus --------------------------------- 01-07
2. Elements, Compounds and Mixtures -------------------------- 08-10
3. Periodic table ------------------------------------------------------ 11-13
4. Some basic concepts of chemistry ----------------------------- 14-17
5. Chemical bond ---------------------------------------------------- 18-20
6. Radioactivity ------------------------------------------------------- 21-25
7. Acid, Bash, Salt ---------------------------------------------------- 26-31
8. Minerals and ores ------------------------------------------------- 32-36
9. Organic Chemistry ------------------------------------------------ 37-44
10. Oxidation and Reduction ---------------------------------------- 45-47
11. Chemistry and its important parts ---------------------------- 48-54
12. Scientific Branches ----------------------------------------------- 55-59
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FOUNDATION COURSE MATERIAL (Chemistry) [1]
1 Structure of atom and nucleus
“Chemistry is that branch of science which studies the properties, composition, structure and changes in substances”.
The word Chemistry has originated from the ancient name of Egypt, ‘Kimiya’, which means ‘black colour’. Most of the
things around us are either related to the chemical industry or its products. For example, paper and ink are used in
making books, wood, iron, lead and colours are used in building houses, clothes, apart from this, various chemical
products are required in making jewellery, shoes, soaps, detergents, cosmetics, creams, vitamins, medicines, fertilizers,
pesticides etc.
Branches Of Chemistry
To simplify the study of chemistry, it has been divided into several branches, the main ones being the
following:
1. Inorganic Chemistry - Under this, all the inorganic elements and their compounds are studied.
2. Organic Chemistry - Under this, carbon compounds are studied.
3. Physical Chemistry – Under this, chemical reactions, methods etc. are studied.
4. Industrial Chemistry – In this, rules, reactions, methods etc. related to production of substances in large
quantities are studied.
5. Bio-Chemistry – Under this, chemical reactions occurring in living beings and the substances obtained from
animals and plants are studied.
6. Agriculture Chemistry – Under this, agriculture related chemicals such as anti-bacterial, soil composition etc.
are studied.
Matter and its nature
 Any object in the world that occupies space, has mass and resists change in its structure is called 'matter'.
Examples - air and water, sugar and sand, hydrogen and oxygen, copper, iron, wood, minerals etc.
 Matter is conserved, that is, it can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be changed from one form to
another.
Physical classification of matter
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Plasma
5. Bose Einstein Condensate
1. Solid :- The substance which has a definite shape and volume is called a solid such as – Stone, iron, wood etc.
Main characteristics-
 Solids are incompressible and have high density.
 Intermolecular forces between molecules in solids are strong.
 Solids have high elasticity.
 Solids have a crystalline form and a regular geometry.
 The kinetic energy of solids is low.
2. Liquid :- The substance whose shape is indefinite and volume is definite is called liquid such as - Alcohol,
water, milk etc.
 Intermolecular force between molecules in liquids is less than that in solids.
 Elasticity of liquid is less than that of solid but more than that of gas.
 Liquid is less compressible than solid.
 Density of liquid is more than that of gas but less than that of solid.
 Kinetic energy of liquid is more than that of solid.
3. Gas :- That whose shape and volume are both uncertain is called gas such as - Wind, smoke, etc.
 In gases the intermolecular force between molecules is very low.
 Gas is a highly compressible fluid.
 Gas has lower elasticity than solids and liquids.
 Gas has lower density than solids and liquids.
 Gas has more kinetic energy than solids and liquids.
4. Plasma :- Plasma has no definite shape or volume.
 It was discovered by William Crookes in 1879.
 This is the fourth state of matter.
 The heat of the Sun and stars is produced due to the plasma state.
5. Bose Einstein Condensate:- It is prepared by cooling the substance at low density and low temperature.
 This is the fifth state of matter.
Chemical classification of matter
1. Element
2. Compound
3. Mixture
1. Element :- Those which are made up of the same type of atoms and cannot be divided into two or more
substances by known scientific means are called elements. For example - iron, gold, aluminum etc.
2. Compound :- The atoms of two or more elements which are in a definite ratio form a compound after a chemical
reaction. It is called a compound. For example- salt, sugar, glucose etc.
3. Mixture :- A substance which is formed by mixing two or more elements or compounds in any proportion is
called a mixture. For example- solution of sugar in water, solution of salt in water etc.
 A homogeneous mixture is formed by mixing substances in definite proportion. For example, a solution of
salt and water.
 A heterogeneous mixture is formed by mixing substances in indefinite proportion. For example, a mixture of
sand and salt.
Major Principles related to atom
Panch tatva theory-

 Indians and Greeks believed that all things in nature are made up of the combination of five elements. These
five elements are – horizon, water, fire, sky, air. In Sankhya Darshak, it is said that ‘nature’ is the mother of
these five elements, but it remained only a mysterious idea. According to the great Indian sage, ‘Kanad’, all
substances are made up of very small particles. He called these particles ‘atoms’.
Dalton's atomic theory
 Regarding the structure of matter, philosophers have been of the opinion since ancient times that every
substance is made up of minute and indivisible particles. There was no experimental evidence available to
confirm this theory. In 1803, Dalton propounded a theory related to the structure of matter which is called
Atomic Theory. According to this theory-
1. The smallest particle of every element is called atom, which forms a complete element.
2. All the atoms of the same element are similar to each other and the atoms of two different elements are
different from each other.
3. When atoms combine together, they form compound atoms which are called molecules. Molecules have
the complete number of atoms.
4. All the molecules of a substance are similar to each other.
5. Atoms are indestructible and cannot be produced.
Shortcoming
 Some of the major flaws in Dalton's atomic theory are as follows, however despite these flaws the usefulness
of this theory is indisputable.
1. This theory is unable to explain the difference between the ultimate particle of an element and the
ultimate particle of a compound. According to Dalton, both these types of particles are called 'atoms'. The
ultimate particles of an element are called simple atoms and the ultimate particles of a compound are
called compound atoms.
2. According to this, the atom is indivisible. But, modern research has proved it wrong.
3. According to this, all the atoms of an element have the same weight. Isotopes and isobars are contrary to
this theory.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
Rutherford made a thin gold foil hit with α particles, which brought to light many important information-
 On the basis of experiments of scattering of alpha-rays, Rutherford stated that positive charges are not
uniformly distributed in the atom of any element but they are concentrated in a microscopic place. This kind
of positively charged microscopic part inside the atom is called nucleus.
 The total mass of the atom (excluding the mass of its electrons) and the total positive charge are concentrated
in the nucleus of the radius of the order of 10-15m at the centre of the atom. The electrons keep revolving in
different circular orbits in a hollow sphere of radius of the order of 10 -10m around the nucleus. The centripetal
force required for the electrons to revolve in circular orbits is obtained by the electrostatic attraction force
acting between the electron and the nucleus.
 Rutherford's atomic model also received support from Mendeleev's periodic table. But the following two
difficulties arose in this model -
1. Stability of Atom :- The electrons revolving in circular orbits around the nucleus are subjected to a
centripetal force due to which they always remain accelerated towards the centre. According to the
classical theory, since an accelerated charged particle emits electromagnetic radiation, the radius of the
orbit of the electrons revolving in circular orbits around the nucleus should also keep on decreasing due
to the radiation being emitted by them and finally they should merge into the nucleus. Clearly, if this
happens, the atom cannot remain stable.
2. Explanation of line Spectra:- In Rutherford's model, the electrons of the atom are considered free to
move in circular orbits of all possible radii. Obviously, electromagnetic waves of all possible frequencies
should be produced from atoms, i.e. the spectrum produced by the atom should be continuous. But the
experimental truth is that only linear spectra of definite frequencies are obtained from the atoms of
elements. Hence, linear spectrum could not be explained by Rutherford model.
 To overcome these difficulties, Niels Bohr made some improvements in Rutherford's atomic model on the
basis of Max Planck's quantum theory.
Bohr’s Atomic Model
 In 1913, Neils Bohr successfully explained the spectrum of the hydrogen atom by applying Planck's quantum
theory to Rutherford's atomic model and gave a new model of the atom. This model is called Bohr's atomic
model, which is based on the following postulates of Bohr-
1. There is a positively charged nucleus at the centre of the atom whose charge is equal to Ze, where Z is the
atomic number and e is the positive charge times the magnitude of the electron's charge.
2. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits. The electrons revolving in these orbits do not
produce radiation. These orbits are called stable orbits.
3. For any stable orbit, the force of attraction between the electron and the nucleus provides the required
centripetal force.
4. Not all orbits of electrons are possible. Electrons can move only in those orbits in which their angular
momentum is an integral multiple of h/2π, where h is Planck’s universal constant. If the mass of the
electron is m and it is moving in a circular orbit of radius r with velocity v, then its angular momentum
will be mvr. According to this assumption of Bohr
mvr = n
Where n is an integer (n = 1, 2, 3,……) which is called the principal quantum number or the serial number of
the orbit. The following is the formula for the total energy E of the electrons revolving in the nth stable orbit
in the hydrogen atom -
E=-
Where R = Rydberg constant, h = Planck's constant and c = velocity of light.
It is clear from the above formula that for higher values of n, the value of energy will be less negative, i.e., the
value of total energy E of electrons in higher orbits will be higher and for electrons in orbits near the nucleus,
the value of E will be more negative, i.e., smaller in magnitude.
5. When an atom receives energy from an external source,

one of its electrons leaves its stable orbit and goes to a
higher stable orbit. It stays there for only 10-8 s and
immediately returns to the lower orbit. This action is
called transition. When the electron transitions from one
orbit to another, the frequency v of the emitted photon of
light is according to the following equation-
E2 – E1 = hv Or v=
But E2 = and E1 =
∴ v = Rc −
 Since the orbits of electrons are fixed, that is, the energies of the electrons of an atom are fixed, hence only
photons of fixed frequencies are emitted from an atom, due to which a line spectrum is obtained. Thus, by
accepting this model of Bohr, the spectrum of hydrogen could be successfully explained.
 The above atomic model of Bohr is the basic foundation of modern physics. For this, he was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1922.
Particles of the nucleus
Proton
Proton is a relatively heavy fundamental particle which is present in the nucleus of all atoms. Its mass (m) is about
1836 times that of the electron (me). This particle is electrically positively charged and its charge is + 1.602 × 10 -19
Coulomb which is in turn equal to the charge of the electron (e = -1.602 × 10 -19 C). The number of protons in the nucleus
of any substance is equal to the number of electrons in its atom so that their positive and negative charges cancel
each other's effect and the atom becomes neutral. The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom of an
element is called the atomic number Z of that element. In fact, the chemical properties of a substance are based on
the number of protons present in its atoms.
Neutron
Like a proton, a neutron is also a fundamental particle of matter which resides with the proton in the nucleus of an
atom. The mass of a neutron (1.675 × 10-27 kg) is actually slightly more than the mass of a proton. It is a chargeless
particle, so it does not deflect in an electric field or a magnetic field. This particle was first discovered by Chadwick in
1932. In its free state outside the nucleus, this particle is relatively unstable and it transforms into a proton. In this
process, a β-particle (electron) and other particles are emitted -
1 1 0 
0 n (Neutron)  1 H ( Proton) + 1  ( electron)  v ( Antineutrino)
 Being an uncharged particle, neutron cannot ionize gases. The penetrating power of this particle is relatively
very high and it can penetrate even a thick lead plate and come out. Hence, this particle is very useful in
disintegration and fission of the nucleus. Nuclear fission of uranium-235 is also possible only through neutron.
Apart from this, other uses of neutron are - (i) in chemistry, biology and research work, (ii) in the treatment
of cancer and in producing artificial radioactivity in various substances.
Atomic Orbit or Shell
 The circular path around the nucleus is called orbit or shell.

 The total number of orbits is 7.
 Orbits are represented by letters K, L, M, N, O, P, Q.
According to the Bohr-Bury model, the maximum number of electrons revolving in any orbit is 2n2, where
n is the number of orbits.
Name of class number Maximum number of electrons (e-)
n=1K 2 × (1)2 = 2
n=2L 2 × (2)2 = 8
n=3M 2 × (3)2 = 18
n=4N 2 × (4)2 = 32
n=5O 2 × (5)2 = 50
n=6P 2 × (6)2 = 72
n=7Q 2 × (7)2 = 98
Subshell or Sub-orbit :- Apart from the orbitals inside the atom, there are many sub-orbitals too, these are
represented by letters s, p, d, f etc.
Class Subclass Subclass Maximum number of e-
K=2 s s 2
L=8 s, p p 6
M = 18 s, p d d 10
N = 32 s, p, d, f f 14
 The total number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number.
 In a neutral atom, the atomic number is equal to the total number of electrons.
 In a neutral atom, the number of electrons = Number of protons = Atomic number
Atomic number and mass number of some important elements

Atom Atomic number Atomic mass Inventor
Hydrogen (H) 1 1 Henry cavendish
Helium (He) 2 4 Lokyar
Lithium (Li) 3 7
Beryllium (Be) 4 8
Boron (B) 5 11
Carbon (C) 6 12
Nitrogen (N) 7 14 Rutherford
Oxygen (O) 8 16 Sheeley & Priestley
Fluorine (F) 9 19
Neon (Ne) 10 20
Sodium (Na) 11 23 Dewey
Magnesium (Mg) 12 24
Aluminum (Al) 13 27
Silicon (Si) 14 28
Phosphorus (P) 15 31
Sulfur (S) 16 32
Chlorine (Cl) 17 35.5 C.W. Scheele
Argon (Ar) 18 40
Potassium (K) 19 40
Calcium (Ca) 20 40
Aufbau Principle
The electron first enters the subshell with lower energy. Then it enters the subshell with higher energy. Thus, the
sequential entry of electrons in the subshell is called the Aufbau principle. This principle is based on the following
rules-
 The electron enters the suborbital for which the value of (n + l) is minimum.
 When the value of (n + l) is same for two suborbitals, then the electron enters the suborbital for which the
value of n is less.
Note:- n  principal quantum number
l  A quantum number with dimensions
According to the Aufbau principle, the order of the energy level of the subshell is-
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f
Quantum numbers- The numbers that represent the state and energy of an electron are called quantum numbers.
Types of quantum numbers-
1. Principle Quantum Number
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number
3. Magnetic Quantum Number
4. Spin Quantum Number
1. Principle Quantum Number-
 Under this, we get information about the average distance and average energy of the electrons present in
atomic orbitals from the nucleus.
 It is denoted by n. For example, n = 1, 2, 3….etc.
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number
 Under this, information about the shape of the orbit and the momentum of the electron present in it is
obtained.
 It is denoted by l.
 For any value of n, the value of l is n – 1.
such as - n = 1 So l = 0  s (subshell)
n = 2 So l = 0, 1  s, p (subshell)
n = 3 So l = 0, 1, 2  s, p, d (subshell)
3. Magnetic Quantum Number
 This quantum number gives information about the orientation of the electron's orbital plane.
 It is denoted by m.
 Its value ranges from -l to +l.
such as -l = 0 So m = 0
l = 1 So m =-1, 0, +1
l = 2 So m =-2, -1, 0, +1, +2 etc.
 The number of total values of m for any value of l = 2l + 1.
 The number of total values of m for any value of n is n2.
such as - n = 1 So m = 12 = 1
n = 2 So m = 22 = 4
n = 3 So m = 32 = 9
4. Spin Quantum Number
 This quantum number represents the spin of the electron. That is, this quantum number tells whether the
electron is spinning in the clockwise direction or anticlockwise direction.
 It is denoted by s.
 s  + (Clockwise direction), s  - (Anticlockwise direction)
2 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Element
 A pure substance made up of similar atoms is called an element. For example, a copper wire is made up of
only copper atoms. Gold, silver, iron etc. are other examples of elements. Similarly, oxygen gas is also an
element. It is made up of oxygen molecules and each oxygen (O2) molecule is made up of two oxygen atoms.
Other examples of gaseous elements are hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2) and chlorine (Cl2).
 Elements are mainly of two types: Metal and Non-Metal.
Metal
 The elements which have the following properties are called metals-
(i) Metallic lustre
(ii) High thermal conductivity
(iii) High electrical conductivity
(iv) Ductility
(v) Malleability
(vi) High tensile strength and plasticity
(vii) Oxides are alkaline in nature. For example- sodium, potassium, zinc, calcium, aluminium, iron, copper,
mercury, silver, gold etc.
Non-metal
 Elements which do not have the properties of metals are called non-metals. They are brittle. They do not
have plasticity. Their oxides are acidic or neutral. For example- sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, chlorine,
bromine, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen etc.
Metalloids
 The elements which show properties between metals and non-metals are called metalloids. For example-
germanium, arsenic, antimony etc.
Essential elements for the human body
 Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur.
 As a compound – Carbon, iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, magnesium, sodium, chlorine, iodine, fluorine.
Note - Five elements—oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, and calcium—are found in 90% of the Earth's crust by mass.
Compound
 A compound is a pure substance that is formed by chemical combination of two or more elements in definite
proportion and which can be divided into components with completely different properties by appropriate
chemical means.
Example – Water is a compound because
(i) It can be obtained by direct combination of hydrogen and oxygen.
(ii) Hydrogen and oxygen are obtained by electrolysis of water.
 A compound is also called a chemical compound because it is formed as a result of chemical combination of
elements. There are two types of compounds-
1. Inorganic compounds - All compounds are inorganic except carbon compounds.
2. Organic compounds – Organic compounds contain one or more of the following elements combined with
carbon: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, halogens, and sometimes phosphorus.
 In most organic compounds, besides carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are also combined. The most
important sources of organic compounds are plants and animals.
Mixture
 A mixture is an impure substance that is formed by mixing two or more pure substances (elements or
compounds or both) in any proportion, whose constituent substances do not change in their composition
and whose constituent substances can be separated by physical or mechanical methods. For this reason, a
mixture is also called a mechanical mixture. For example, air is a mixture of many gases. It contains elements
like nitrogen and oxygen and compounds like carbon dioxide and water vapor. Apart from this, air also
contains other gases and dust particles.
Types of mixtures
 There are two types of mixtures depending on the relative quantities of the components present in the
mixture.
1. Homogenous mixture – A mixture in which the proportion of its components remains the same in all its
parts is called a homogeneous mixture. It is also called a solution. Air, mixture of gases, solutions of salt and
sugar in water are examples of homogeneous mixtures.
2. Heterogeneous mixture – A mixture in which the proportion of its components is not the same in all its
parts is called a heterogeneous mixture. For example, clouds, gunpowder, soil, water and ice mixture, etc.
 Depending upon the methods of preparation mixtures are classified into three classes:
Type of mixture Example of a Mixture
Element and mixture of elements Oxygen and nitrogen, iron powder, sulphur powder.
Carbon and sugar, carbon and saltpeter, iodine and
Element and compound
alcohol etc.
Salt and water, sugar and water, salt and ammonium
Compound and compound
chloride etc.
Based on the three physical states of matter, mixtures are divided into nine classes:
Serial
Type Example
No.
1. Solid in solid Salt and sugar, alloys, spices
2. Liquid in solid Amalgams (zinc-mercury etc.)
3. Gas in solid Gases absorbed on activated charcoal
4. Solid in liquid Sea water, aqueous solution of sugar
5. Liquid in liquid Lemon juice and water, solution of sulphuric acid in water.
6. Gas in liquid Soda water, which contains oxygen and carbon dioxide
7. Solid in gas Smoke, which contains soot particles
8. Liquid in gas Fog (water vapour in the air), bromine
9. Gas in gas Air, gas used in cooking
FOUNDATION COURSE MATERIAL (Chemistry) [ 10
Methods for separating mixtures:-

Sublimation
 In this process, the solid substance is transformed directly into gaseous state by heat. Now when the gases are
cooled again, they return to their old state. For example, separation of substances like naphthalene, iodine,
sulphur, ammonium chloride etc.
Sedimentation
 When one component in a mixture is a liquid and the other is an insoluble solid, this method is used to
separate the mixture. For example, soil and water. When this mixture is kept in a vessel without stirring, then
by sedimentation the soil particles settle down in the vessel and clear water appears on top of it. This water
is slowly poured into another vessel, which is called decantation.
Distillation
 In this, the liquid is heated and converted into vapour and the vapour cools down and turns back into liquid.
Liquids with different boiling points are separated by this method. For example, making distilled water from
ordinary water.
Fractional Distillation
 By this method, which is similar to the distillation process, mixtures of two or more volatile liquids with
different boiling points are separated. For example, separating petrol, diesel, kerosene, etc. from crude
petroleum.
Evaporation
 When a solution of a solid substance in a liquid is heated, the liquid turns into vapour and slowly disappears,
this is called evaporation. Example - Making common salt from sea water by evaporation of water.
Crystallization
 In this, the impure solid or mixture is heated with a solvent (such as alcohol, water, acetone, chloroform) till
its boiling point and then filtered. The clear filtered solution is slowly cooled, which gives a pure solid crystal.
It is separated by filtering and drying. By this method, solid substances are obtained in separate and pure
form.
Strain
 In this method, solid particles dissolved in a liquid (or gas) can be separated quickly and completely with the
help of a filter paper. The filter paper is made of a porous material (such as paper or fine glass wool) which
prevents the solid particles from passing through. Example - Filtering tea from tea leaves in making tea.
Chromatography
 It is derived from the Latin word 'chroma', which means 'colour'. Through this method, objects are separated
and identified. In this, when a mixture is passed through an absorbent material (filter paper, blotting paper,
solid surface of silica, etc.), the different components of the mixture travel different distances and thus they
get separated. For example, the separation of colourd liquids from green vegetables.
Electrophoresis
 Large charged molecules (mainly proteins) present in a solution move at different rates under the influence
of an electric field. Mixtures can also be separated using this principle.
3 Periodic Table
Periodic Table - Classification of Elements
 The most notable contribution to the regular classification of elements was made by Russian scientist
Mendeleev in 1869. For this, he propounded the 'Periodic Law', according to which the physical and chemical
properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights.
 On the basis of his periodic law, Mendeleev arranged the elements known till that time in the form of a table,
which is called the ‘Periodic Table’.
Modern Periodic Table
 Moseley is credited with presenting the modern periodic table (1913).

 According to the modern periodic law, the physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions
of their atomic number.
 The most important of the periodic tables is the long form of the periodic table. It has seven horizontal rows,
which are called periods. And there are 18 vertical columns, which are called groups.
 The first member of each period is alkali metals and the last member is an inert gas. Only the first member
of the first period is H.
 The first period contains only hydrogen and helium (He) elements.
 The second and third periods have 8 elements.
 The fourth and fifth periods have 18 elements.
 The sixth period has 32 elements. Out of these, eight are common elements, ten are transition elements and
fourteen are rare earth elements.
 There are 19 elements in the seventh period.
 All elements of the same group have similar chemical properties.
 In group VIII, there are 3 sub-groups.
Major features
Trends in Chemical Reactivity

 In a period, the chemical reactivity of an element decreases as we move from left to right and then increases.
 In a group of metals, the reactivity of metals increases as we move from top to bottom, whereas in a group of
non-metals, the reactivity decreases as we move from top to bottom.
Electrochemical series
 Elements are classified based on their reactivity or electropositivity, which is called electrochemical series or
reactivity of metals.
Reactivity series of metals
(Electrochemical series)
Potassium k The most active
Sodium Na
Barium Ba
Strontium Sr
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al With decreasing activity
Zinc Zn
Cadmium Cd
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Platinum Pt The least active
 The very short-lived elements discovered in laboratories are: Technetium, Promethium, Astatine, Francium.
 Elements found in uranium ores: Neptunium, Plutonium.
 Radioactive elements that are likely to be found in some celestial bodies and some superstars and each of
these eleven elements has more than one isotope are given in the following table.

Atomic number Names and symbols Atomic mass
93 Neptunium (Np) 237
94 Plutonium (Pu) 242
95 Americium (Am) 243
96 Curium (Cm) 247
97 Berkelium (Bk) 249
98 Californium (Cf) 249
99 Einsteinium (Es) 251

Atomic number Names and symbols Atomic mass
100 Fermium (Fm) 253
101 Mendelevium (Md) 256
102 Nobelium (No) 254
103 Lawrencium (Lr) 257
Some elements whose isotopes are found in large quantities can be used in chemical reactions.
For example - Neptunium, Plutonium, Americium, Curium, Berkelium, Californium, Einsteinium.
Element Isotopes (atomic weight)

Neptunium 236, 237
Plutonium 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 244
Americium 241, 242, 243
Curium 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 250
Berkelium 247, 249
Californium 249, 250, 251, 252
Einsteinium 253, 254
Note : The longest-lived radioactive isotope is plutonium 244 (7.6 × 107 years)
4 Some basic concepts of chemistry

Atomic number
 The atomic number (z) of an element is equal to the number of electrons (e) or protons (p) present in it, that
is, z = p = e. For example, the number of protons and electrons in sodium is 11, hence its atomic number is 11
only.
Mass number
 The sum of the number of protons (p) and the number of neutrons (n) present in the nucleus of the atom of
any element is called the mass number (A) of that element, that is, A=p+n. The protons of the nucleus are
also called nucleons.
Atomic mass unit
 To express the mass of an atom easily, atomic mass unit is used. One 12th part of the mass of an atom of
carbon (atomic mass 12) is called atomic mass unit.
Atomic mass
 The atomic weight of an element is a number that shows how many times the mass of one atom of that
element is heavier than one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Gram atomic weight
 When atomic weight is expressed in grams, it is called gram atomic weight. For example, atomic weight of
oxygen is 16, hence its gram atomic weight will be 16 grams.
Molecule
 Matter is made up of molecules and molecules are made up of atoms. The smallest particles of a substance
that can exist independently and which have all the properties of a substance are called molecules.
Molecular mass
 The molecular mass of a substance is a number that tells how many times a molecule of that substance is
heavier than one-twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon (atomic mass = 12).
Gram molecule or gram molecular mass
 When the molecular mass is expressed in grams, it is called a gram molecule. For example, the molecular
mass of oxygen (O2) is 32, so its gram molecular mass will be 32 grams.
Mole concept
Mole:- The amount of a substance which contains 6.022×1023 particles of that substance is called one mole of the
substance. That is, 1 mole = 6.022×1023 molecules
 Mole is a symbol of both number and mass.
 Molar mass- The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass.
 Molar volume- The volume occupied by one mole of a substance is called molar volume. At normal
temperature and pressure, the volume of one mole of a gas is 22.4 liters.
 At normal temperature and pressure, 22.4 liters of a gas contains 6.022×10 23 molecules.
Avogadro number
 The number of atoms present in one gram-atom (1 mole) of any element is 6.022×1023 or the number of
molecules present in one gram-molecule (1 mole) of any substance (element or compound) is also 6.022×10 23.
This number is called Avogadro number (N). Hence, N = 6.022×1023 i.e. N = 1 mole of hydrogen molecules or 1
mole of hydrogen atoms.
Electronic configuration
 The distribution of electrons in orbitals and sub-orbitals is called the electronic configuration of the atom.
Example:
(a) Electronic configuration of sodium  Na (11)  2, 8, 1 (1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s1)
(b) Electronic configuration of magnesium  Mg (12)  2, 8, 2 (1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2)
(c) Electronic configuration of calcium  Ca (20)  2, 8, 8, 1 (1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6, 4s2)
Class
 Electrons are present in certain energy levels or orbits around the nucleus of the atom according to their
potential energy. These orbits are represented by letters K, L, M, N, O, P, Q.
 The orbit (K) closest to the nucleus has the lowest energy.
Subclass
 Each orbit has many sub-orbitals, which are represented by letters s, p, d, f. The maximum number of
electrons in each sub-orbital is fixed. For example, maximum 2 electrons can be present in s sub-orbital, 6 in
p-sub-orbital, 10 in d and maximum 12 electrons in f-sub-orbital.
Valence and core electrons
 The electrons in the highest orbit of any atom are called core electrons. For example, sodium atom Na(11) has
1 valence electron and 10(2,8) core electrons, because the distribution of electrons in it is 2, 8, 1.
 Valence electrons have maximum energy and hence they participate in chemical reactions. These represent
the valency of the element. The position of elements in the periodic table is known through these.
Isotopes
 Those atoms of the same element, which have the same atomic number but different mass numbers, are
called isotopes. Example- The atomic number of chlorine is 17. That is, all the atoms of chlorine have 17
protons in their nucleus. But some atoms of chlorine have 18 neutrons in their nucleus and some have 20
protons. Hence, the mass number of some atoms of chlorine is 17+18=35 and some have 17+20=37. Thus, chlorine
35 37
has two isotopes- 17 Cl , 17 Cl .
 The atomic nuclei of isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Isobars
 Elements which have different atomic numbers but same mass number are called isobars. Here the number
40
of protons in the nucleus is different. For example, Argon ( 18 Ar ), Potassium ( 19 K ) and Calcium ( Ca ) are
40 40
20
isobars.
Iso - neutronic
 Elements containing atoms which have the same number of neutrons in their nuclei are called iso neutronic.
Wave nature of electron
 French scientist de Broglie (1924) formulated an equation, which is called the 'de Broglie equation'. This
equation is related to the properties of waves displayed by moving microscopic particles. If a microscopic
particle of mass m is moving with velocity v, then its wavelength (λ) and momentum (mv) have the following
relation-
h
 ; where h = Planck's constant
mv
 The electron beam exhibits diffraction and interference, which are the properties of waves.
Ion
 Atoms or atoms having electrical charge are called ions. Ions are of two types-
1. Cation - Positively charged ions. Example: All metallic ions such as sodium ion (Na+), magnesium ion (Mg+),
hydrogen ion (H+) and ammonium ion (NH+4) are made up of non-metallic elements.
2. Anion - Negatively charged ions. Example: Ions of all non-metal elements.
Electropositive element
 The elements whose atoms have a tendency to lose electrons and turn into cations are called electropositive
elements. For example, most metals.
Electronegative element
 The elements whose atoms have a tendency to become anions by gaining electrons are called electronegative
elements. For example - halogens (Cl, Br, I etc.) and most of the non-metals.
Inert gases
 These are the gases whose atoms are very stable and do not participate in any chemical reaction. Their atoms
remain in free state. Their atoms and molecules are identical, i.e. their molecules are monoatomic. There are
six inert gases - helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (xe) and radon (Ne). All inert gases have
8 electrons in the outermost orbit of their atoms. Only helium atom has 2 electrons in its outermost orbit.
Octave
 Looking at inert gases, it is known that the group of 8 electrons in the outermost orbit of the atom is the most
stable. The group of eight electrons is called octet. In this way, when the number of electrons in the outermost
orbit of the atom becomes 8, the atom becomes stable.
Induction
 The process of accelerating or sometimes slowing down a chemical reaction by the use of catalyst is called
catalysis. The factor by which this action takes place is called a catalyst. At the end of the reaction the catalyst
remains unchanged.
Some catalysts and their applications
Process Catalyst
Production of ammonia gas Iron
Production of sulfuric acid Platinum, oxides of nitrogen
Production of ghee from vegetable oil Nickel
Production of fuel from alcohol Hot aluminum
Production of chlorine gas Cupric chloride
pH scale - pH scale is used to express the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The logarithm of the inverse of the
concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution is called the pH of that solution.
1 1
i.e., pH = log 
= -log
H H
 This shows the usefulness of water and soil. Diseases in the body can be detected by changes in the pH value
of blood and urine.
pH value of some common substances
Substance pH
Neutral water 7
Acidic solution Less than 7
Alkaline solution More than 7
Vinegar 2.4-3.4
Wine 2.8-3.8
Milk 6.4-6.6
Sea water 8.4
Saliva (human) 6.5-7.5
Urine (human) 4.8-8.4
Blood (human) 7.4
Lemon 2.2-2.4
Indicator
 A chemical compound that changes its colour to indicate whether the solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
is called an indicator. A very small quantity of it is used in the neutralization reaction.
Colour of solution
Indicator Acidic Alkaline Moody
Methyl orange Pink Yellow Orange
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Colourless
Litmus solution Red Purple Blue

5 Chemical Bond
 Atoms of elements combine to form molecules. The force that binds atoms together in a molecule is called
chemical bond. For example, in the molecule of oxygen (O2), two atoms of oxygen are joined together by chemical
bond. In this, the energy of the atoms decreases. Except for inert gases, the outermost orbit of the atoms of all
other elements is unstable because they have less than eight electrons. They have a tendency to acquire electrons
in their outermost orbit like their nearest inert gas so that they become stable. Due to this, chemical
combination takes place between the elements.
There are mainly three types of chemical bonds
1. Electrovalent or Ionic Bond

2. Covalent Bond
3. Co-ordinate Bond
1. Electrovalent bond - When a bond is formed between two atoms due to the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another, it is called an electrovalent bond.
Example – Formation of sodium chloride (NaCl).
Properties
1. Compounds with electrovalent bonds are made up of positively and negatively charged ions. These ions are
held together by very strong electrostatic attraction forces.
2. They are soluble in water but are insoluble in organic solvents (benzene, carbon tetrachloride, etc.).
3. They are poor conductors of electricity in the solid state but are good conductors of electricity in the liquid
state or in aqueous solution.
4. These compounds dissolve in water and break into ions.
5. Reactions with these compounds are usually rapid.
6. The boiling point and melting point of ionic compounds are high.
Some electrovalent compounds
 Sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl), ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), magnesium oxide (MgO),
sodium sulphide (Na2S), copper sulphate (CuSo4).
2. Covalent bond - When a chemical bond is formed between two atoms as a result of sharing of electrons, it
is called a covalent bond. These bonds are of three types based on the number of electrons participating in
the sharing as single, double and triple covalent bonds.
 Single Covalent Bond - When there is sharing of one pair

of electrons between two elements, it is called a single
covalent bond.
 Double Covalent Bond - When two pairs of electrons are
shared between two elements, it is called a double covalent
bond.
 Triple Covalent Bond - When there is sharing of three
pairs of electrons between the elements, it is called triple
covalent bond.
 Co-ordinate Bond - In this, one atom donates an electron to another atom. This is indicated by the arrow
symbol ().
 Co-Valency – The covalency of an atom in a covalent compound is the number of electrons that the atom
provides to participate in bond sharing. For example, in H2, O, N2, the covalency of H, O and N is 1, 2 and 3
respectively.
Properties
1. Most covalent compounds are gases or liquids or volatile solids in normal state.
2. Their melting and boiling points are low.
3. They are usually insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents (benzene, carbon tetrachloride etc.). Some
dissolve easily in water, such as HCl, NH3 etc.
4. They are electrical bad conductors in liquid state or in solution state.
5. Reactions with these compounds usually occur slowly.
Some Covalent Compounds
 Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Ethylene (C3H4), Acetylene (C2H2), Water (H2O), Ammonia (NH3), Carbon
Tetrachloride (CCl4), Urea [Co(NH2)]2, Glucose (C6H12O6).
 There are some compounds whose molecules have both electrovalent and covalent bonds. For example -
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN), Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4), Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) etc.
 Covalent bonds are directional, hence the molecules of covalent compounds have definite geometric shapes.
Co-valent compound Shape Bond angle
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Unilinear 180

Water (H2O) Angular 105
Ammonia (NH3) Pyramid 109
Methane (CH4) Tetrahedral 109 28'
Ethylene (C2H4) Planar 120
Phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5) Triangular Bipyramid _____
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) Tetrahedron 10928'
Sulfur hexachloride (SF6) Octahedron _______
6 Radioactivity
Radioactivity
 In 1869, French scientist Becquerel observed that when uranium salts are kept in the dark on a photographic
plate wrapped in black paper, the plate is affected in the same way as it is affected by X-rays. The invisible
rays that affect the photographic plate originate from uranium and these rays also have the ability to
penetrate opaque substances. These invisible rays are called Becquerel rays or radioactive rays and the
substances from which these rays are emitted are called radioactive substances. The phenomenon of
spontaneous emission of invisible radiation from uranium and other substances in nature is called
radioactivity. Apart from uranium, naturally occurring elements like thorium, radium, polonium and
actinium also have radioactivity. In 1898, Pierre Curie and his wife Madame Curie discovered a radioactive
element called radium. Radium has much higher radioactivity than uranium and polonium has even higher
radioactivity than radium. The Curie couple was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1903 for the discovery of radium.
Comparison of types of radioactive radiation and their properties
 𝜶 - Rays:
(a) These are tiny and positively charged particles. In motion, they turn towards the negative pole of the electric
field.
(b) 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐻𝑒 + +) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒.
(c) 2He4 Or represented by the symbol α.
(d) Its velocity is 1/10th of the velocity of light i.e. 3 x 109 cm/second.
(e) It can penetrate 0.002 cm thick aluminium sheet.
(f) Due to their mass, their kinetic energy is high. These rays destroy living cells.
(g) This produces phosphorescence properties.
 𝛃 – Rays:
(a) These rays are similar to the flow of electrons i.e. the charge and mass ratio is similar to that of the electrons
present in cathode rays. Their mass is 1/1810th of the mass of H.
(b) Its velocity is nine times the velocity of α-particle and 9/10th of the velocity of light i.e. 3x1010 cm/second.
(c) It is represented by the symbol -1e0 or β.
(d) Due to high velocity and low mass, their penetrating power is 100 times more than that of α-particles.
(e) It can penetrate 0.2 cm thick aluminium sheet.
(f) Its fluorescence property is less than that of α-particles.
(g) These are negatively charged rays.
 𝛄 - Rays:
(a) These rays are electrically neutral.
(b) These rays are electromagnetic waves with very short wavelength ( λ).
(c) Their velocity is almost equal to the velocity of light.
(d) Due to high velocity and lack of mass, their penetrating power is the highest in comparison to α-particles and
β particles.
(e) It can penetrate 1 cm thick aluminium sheet.
(f) Its fluorescence property is less than that of α, β-particles.
Note: - 𝛼, β & γ all three affect the photographic plate and ionize the gases as they pass through it. γ has the
highest ionization power and α has the lowest.
- Ray - Ray - Ray
The searcher Rutherford Rutherford Willard
Charge Positive (two units) Negative (one unit) Chargeless

Nature Cathode rays Anode ray Zero
9/10th of the speed of equal to the speed of
Velocity 1/10th of the speed of light
light light
4 times that of hydrogen 1/18 37th of the mass of
Mass zero mass
or equal to helium hydrogen
Penetrating power >>
Effect on photographic plate >>
Radioactive Disintegration
 In nature, elements with higher atomic numbers are unstable and their nuclei keep disintegrating and giving
birth to new elements until they turn into the nucleus of a stable element. In this process, α-particles or β-
particles and γ-rays keep emitting from the nucleus and the constitution of the nucleus keeps changing
automatically. The phenomenon of spontaneous change in the composition of an atom when its nucleus is
unstable is called radioactivity or radioactive disintegration. When an α-particle comes out from the nucleus
of a radioactive element, as a result of disintegration, the nucleus of the new element loses 2 protons and
neutons. The mass number decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2. For example, when uranium
emits an α-particle, it transforms into an element called thorium.
 Hence the emission of α-particle from the disintegration of the radioactive element uranium nucleus can be
seen by the following equation-
 238
92 U   Th 
234
90 +  4
2 He 
Uranium Thorium 𝛼 - Particle
 Hence, when α-particles are emitted, the atomic number of the element in the periodic table goes backwards
by two places and the mass number by four places.
 Similarly, when β-particle, i.e. electron e- is emitted from the unstable nucleus, the charge of the new nucleus
formed by this transformation becomes one unit more than the original nucleus, as a result the atomic
number increases by one place, but the mass number remains unchanged, because the mass of the electron
(β-) is considered negligible in comparison to the nucleus. The charge of γ-rays is zero and the mass is zero,
hence there is no change in atomic number and mass number due to their emission. This type of
disintegration is expressed by the following equation.
214 214
82 Pb  83 Bi + +
Half life Period

 It takes a certain time for half of the total number of atoms present initially to disintegrate. The time taken
for half the number of atoms to disintegrate is called the half-life period of the radioactive element. It is
expressed as T and its value is different for different radioactive elements.
0.6931
∴T= , where = Disintegration constant

 Hence the value of half-life period is inversely proportional to the disintegration constant or decay constant
().
 The half-lives of natural radioactive elements and their isotopes range from microseconds (10-6s) to several
million years. For example, the half-lives of some radioactive isotopes are given in the following table:

Half life of radioactive isotopes

Isotope Symbol Half-life period
Polonium-212 212
84
Po 3 × 10-7 sec
Bromine-80 80
35
Br 18 min
Bromine-82 82
35
Br 35.9 hr
Sulfur-35 35
16
S 8.67 days
Cobalt-60 35
16
S 5.2 yrs
Hydrogen-3 3
1
H 12.26 yrs
Uranium-235 3
1
H 7.04 × 108 yrs
Note :
 Isotopes of radioactive elements with short half-lives are not found in appreciable quantities in nature, but
elements like uranium with very long half-lives are found in abundance in nature.
 The half-life of a radioactive element is related to the process of the nucleus, hence the half-life cannot be
changed by ordinary physical or chemical effects.
Einstein's mass-energy equivalence relation
 Einstein's mass-energy equivalence relation states the fact that according to the theory of relativity, the mass
and energy of an object are not two different quantities, but are equivalent to each other.
 Before this theory of Einstein, it was believed that mass and energy are two different quantities. Mass is a
fundamental property of an object which is present in every object. Energy is the ability of an object to do
work. Energy in an object is due to its motion and position, not due to its mass. It was also believed that the
total amount of mass in this universe never changes and similarly the total amount of energy also remains
fixed. Therefore, the principle of conservation of energy and the principle of conservation of mass were
considered two different independent laws. Einstein's theory of relativity proved that mass and energy are
related to each other and every object also has energy due to its mass.
E = mc2 (This is called Einstein's mass-energy equivalence relation)
 Clearly, according to this equivalence principle, the mass and energy of an object are not different quantities,
but are equivalent to each other, and the loss of mass gives rise to energy, and the loss of energy gives rise to
mass.
Atomic mass unit

 In nuclear physics, a very small unit is used to express the mass and energy of nuclei and fundamental
particles, such as electrons, protons, neutrons, etc., which is called atomic mass unit (amu). Its value is equal
to 1/12th of the mass of a carbon atom, that is, the mass of one atom of carbon (C12) will be 12 amu.
 Since the mass of one gram-atom of carbon-12 is 12 grams and the total number of its atoms is NA (Avogadra
constant), hence the mass of one atom of it = gram or 1 amu = mass of one atom of (C12)
1 12 1
= × gram = gram
2 NA NA
1
= gram [Because NA = 6.02 × 1023]
6.02  10 23
= 1.66×10-24 gram = 1.66×10-27 kg.
∴ 1 amu = 1.66 × 10-27 kg
Mass loss nuclear binding energy

 We know that the nuclei of all elements other than hydrogen are made up of protons and neutrons. For all
nuclei, it has been observed that the mass of the nucleus is slightly less than the sum of the masses of the
protons and neutrons present in it. This difference in mass is called nuclear mass defect. If the nucleus of an
element is represented by Z, then its atomic number = Z = number of protons in the nucleus and mass number
= A = total number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus; hence the number of neutrons in the nucleus = A –
Z
If we assume that M = mass of nucleus, mp = mass of proton, mn = mass of neutron then according to the
above description (M) < [Z × mp + (A – Z) × mn] Hence mass loss
m = [Z × mp + (A – Z) × mn] – M
Nuclear binding energy
 When protons and neutrons combine to form a nucleus, in this process there is mass loss (m) and an
equivalent amount of energy is released (m) C2. Clearly, the same amount of external energy will be required
to divide the nucleus into its constituent particles i.e. protons and neutrons. This is called the binding energy
of the nucleus. Hence, the amount of external energy required to separate any nucleus into its constituent
particles (protons and neutrons) is called the nuclear binding energy of that nucleus. If the mass loss of a
nucleus is m, then mc2 energy will be required to separate it into protons and neutrons and this is its
binding energy. Hence binding energy of nucleus (BE) = mc2, C = Velocity of light
Nuclear Fission
 When the nucleus of an element is made unstable by bombarding it with neutrons, the resulting nucleus
breaks into two almost equal nuclei and a sufficient amount of energy is available. This type of nuclear
reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into almost equal nuclei and sufficient energy is released is called
nuclear fission.
 This process was discovered in 1939 by two German scientists Otto Hahn and Strassmann.
 When a slow velocity neutron collides with the nucleus U , it splits into two parts and on an average three
235
92
neutrons are released in this process. This reaction is expressed by the following equation:
235 1
92 U  0 n 236 92 141 1
92 U  36 Kr  56 Ba  3 0 n  Q
 Here an unstable isotope of uranium disintegrates into isotopes of krypton and barium and a large amount
of energy Q is produced in addition to three fast neutrons. The value of energy Q is found in the following
way:
Initial mass before operation Final mass after process
235 141
92 U 235.0439 amu 56 Ba 140.9139 amu
1 92
0n 1.0087 amu 36 Kr 91.8973 amu
310 n 3.0261
Total = 236.0526 amu Total = 235.8373 amu
∴ Mass loss as a result of reaction

M = (236.0526 amu – 235.8373 amu)
= 0.215 amu
 According to Einstein's mass-energy equivalence rule, the energy equivalent to 1 amu mass is 931 MeV. Hence
the equivalent energy available due to the above mass loss
Q = 0.215 × 931-MeV = 200 MeV
 Thus, the fission of a nucleus of uranium-235 produces about 200 MeV of energy, most of which is available in
the form of kinetic energy of the fragments obtained from fission. The remaining part is obtained in the form
of kinetic energy of fast neutrons, T rays and heat and light radiation. If nuclear fission is carried out in 1
gram of natural uranium (which has about 1019 atoms), then the energy obtained is of the order of about 200
× 1019 MeV = (108 J). This is a huge amount of energy. It can be seen by calculation that the amount of energy
obtained by burning 31,000 quintals of coal is the same as obtained by controlling the nuclear energy of only
1 kg of uranium in reactors.
Nuclear Fusion
 The process of two lighter nuclei merging to form a heavier nucleus, in which huge energy is released, is called
Nuclear Fusion.
 For example, when two nuclei of deuterium (i.e. heavy hydrogen) fuse to form a helium nucleus, energy
equivalent to about 24 MeV is released. In the form of an equation, it is written as follows.
2 2
1 H 1 H  24 He  Q
 The amount of energy released due to fusion is determined as follows –
Initial mass before operation Final mass after process

2 4
1H 2.01471 amu 2 He 4.00388 amu
2
1H 2.01471 amu
4.02942 amu
 Mass loss due to fusion

M = (4.02942-4.00388) amu = 0.02554 amu
 Hence the energy released Q = 0.02554 × 931 MeV
[Because 1 amu = 931 MeV]
= 24 MeV
 Thus, 24 MeV of energy is released from the fusion of two nuclei, which is relatively much less than the energy
released by the fission of a single nucleus (about 200 MeV). It seems that the energy obtained from fusion is
much less than the energy obtained from fission. But this is not the case. In fact, the number of nuclei in a
mass of heavy hydrogen is much greater than the number of nuclei in uranium of the same mass. Hence, the
energy obtained from the fusion of nuclei of heavy hydrogen of the same mass is much greater than the
energy produced by fission of uranium-235.
 Following are some important examples of nuclear fusion, in which the value of the energy released for each
is obtained by calculating the mass-loss:
2 2
1 H 1 H  13 H  11 H  Q(4.0MeV)
3 2
1 H 1 H  24 H  10 n  Q(17.6MeV)
 Here Deuterium i.e. and Tritium i.e. both are isotopes of hydrogen.
 One difficulty in the fusion of nuclei is that when they are brought very close to each other, they repel each
other due to being positively charged. Therefore, for fusion to take place, they have to be given sufficient
amount of kinetic energy. This energy can be obtained by heating them up to a temperature of 10 7°C. (107°C is
the temperature of the inner core of the Sun.) Therefore, since the process of fusion takes place at such a high
temperature, it is called thermo-nuclear fusion. The source of the Sun's immense energy is also nuclear fusion.
At the Sun's intense temperature, the velocity of its nuclei (basically isotopes of hydrogen) is so high that
when they collide with each other, fusion takes place automatically and immense energy is produced.
Hydrogen bomb is also based on the process of nuclear fusion and it is 1000 times more powerful and
dangerous than the atomic bomb (in which nuclear fission takes place).
7 Acids, Base and Salts

Chemical compounds have been classified into many classes – of which three major classes are acids, base and
salts.
Acid
 A compound in which one or more displaceable hydrogen atoms are present, which get displaced by metal or
non-metal radicals and form salt.
 A compound which donates hydrogen ions in solution and has the tendency to release protons.
 A compound which tastes sour and turns blue litmus paper red is called an acid. For example-
1. Hydro acids (which definitely contain hydrogen) HCL, HBr, HCN
2. Oxy acids (which contain both hydrogen and oxygen) - H2SO4, HNO3, HClO3, acetic acid (C2H4O2), citric acid
etc.
 Acids are usually corrosive.
Base
 A compound which reacts with acid to give salt and water, which has the tendency to accept protons and
gives hydroxyl ions (OH-) on dissolving in water is called base. Base is of two types:
1. Water soluble (Base) - The base which is soluble in water is called alkali. It turns red litmus paper blue. It is
soapy smooth to touch and tastes bitter. Example: Caustic Potash (KOH), Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) etc.
2. Insoluble in water (Base) - They react with acids to form salt and water, but do not show other properties
of alkali. For example, zinc oxide (ZnO), copper hydroxide Cu(OH), ferrous and ferric oxide (Feo, Fe2O3) etc.
 The process of completely reacting an acid with an alkali to form salt and water is called neutralisation.
Salts
 As a result of the reaction between acid and base, water and salt are formed. For example-
HCI + NaOH  NaCI + H2O
Acid Base Salts Water
Uses of Acids
1. In daily life food use, like lactic acid in the form of sour milk, acetic acid in the form of vinegar and pickles,
carbonic acid in the form of soda water or other aerated beverages like Limca, Thums Up, Pepsi, Coca etc.
Tortaric acid in grapes, malic acid in apples, citric acid in lemons and oranges etc.
2. Hydrochloric acid (HCI) in stomach for digesting food.
3. Sulphuric and nitric acid is used to clean iron and steel articles before galvanizing them, in making colours,
explosives, fertilizers, medicines etc.
4. Nitric acid is used to purify gold and silver.
Uses of bases
1. In daily life, calcium hydroxide (slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 is used for whitewashing houses, making mortar and
plaster, removing acidity from soil, making bleaching, removing hair from skin for making leather, softening
water, applying ointment on acid burns etc.
2. Caustic soda (NaOH) is used for making soap, cleaning petroleum, making cloth and paper, making medicines,
cleaning houses and factories.
3. Quicklime (CaO) is used as mortar for building houses, in making bleaching powder, in making caustic soda
and sodium carbonate etc.
4. Milk of Magnesia (Mg, (OH)2 ) solution, Aluminum Hydroxide (AI(OH)3 ) etc. are used as antidote to remove
acidity of stomach It is used as an antacid.
Uses of Salts
1. Common salt i.e. sodium chloride (NaCI) is used in food, for testing pickles and for corroding meat and fish.
2. Baking soda (NaHCO3) is used as baking powder, to reduce stomach acidity, in fire extinguishers.
3. Washing soda (Na2CO3) is used for washing clothes, for making glass, for making caustic soda, for making
detergent powder.
4. Potassium nitrate (KNO3) is used for making gunpowder, as a fertilizer.
5. Copper sulphate is used as fungicide, for electroplating, for dyeing and printing, for purifying copper.
6. Potash alum or alum [K2SO4. A12 (SO4) 3.24H2O] is used for purifying water, for dyeing, for stopping bleeding
from a cut.
7. Use of solution of salt and sugar mixed water in case of dysentery and diarrhoea, which is called oral
rehydration.
Major acids and their sources

Item Acids found
Lemon and Orange Citric
Apple Malic
Grape Tartaric
Soft Drinks Carbonic
Vinegar Acetic
Curd Lactic
Tea Tannic
Bee or Ant Sting Formic
Tamarind Tartaric
Solution
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which the relative quantities of solute or
solvent can vary continuously to a certain limit at a given temperature.
 Example- Solution of sugar or salt in water. Here sugar or salt is the solute, while water is the solvent.
 The particles of solute present in the solution can pass through the filter paper. The solution is stable and
transparent.
 The radius of the particles of solute in the solution is less than 10 -7 cm. Hence it cannot be seen through a
microscope.
Solvent
 A substance that dissolves another substance in its solution is called a solvent.

 In a sugar solution, sugar is the solute and water is the solvent.
 Saturated solution:- A solution prepared at a certain temperature in which the maximum amount of solute
is dissolved is called a saturated solution.
 Unsaturated solution:- A solution prepared at a certain temperature in which more amount of solute can
be dissolved at that temperature is called an unsaturated solution.
 Supersaturated solution:- A solution in which the amount of solute is more than the amount of solute
required to saturate the solution is called an unsaturated solution.
Solubility
 The solubility of a solute at a given temperature and pressure is the weight of the solute sufficient to make a
saturated solution in 100 grams of the solvent.
w  100
Solubility =
W
Here W = The amount of water at temperature tºC
w = Amount of solute
 Generally the solubility of solid substances increases with increase in temperature. But in some it decreases
i.e. they are more soluble in cold solvent, like NaSO4, Ca(OH)2 etc.
 The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with increase in temperature.
Concentration of solution
 The amount of solute present in a unit quantity of a solvent (or solution) is called the concentration of the
solution. A solution in which sufficient quantity of solute is dissolved is called concentrated solution and the
one in which less quantity of solute is dissolved is called dilute solution. All dilute solutions are unsaturated
solutions. The concentration of a solution is expressed in ‘normality’, molarity, molality or mole fraction
according to volume or weight.
 "Usually":- The number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved in a solution is called Normality.
w 1000
N= 
V E
E=
Here E = Gram Equivalent
V = Volume of solution
 Molarity :- The number of gram moles of solute dissolved in a solution is called molarity. It is represented by
M.
w 1000
M= 
V m
Here w = Weight of solute
V = Volume of solution
m = Molecular weight of solute
 Modolity :- The number of gram molecules of a solute dissolved in a solvent is called molality. It is denoted
by MO.
a 1000
M0  
b m
Here a = Weight of solute
b = Weight of solvent
m = Molecular weight of solute
 Mole fraction :- The ratio of the number of moles of any one component (solute or solvent) in a solution to
the total number of moles of the solution is called mole fraction.
Mole fraction =
Some important elements and their compounds
Hydrogen
 The atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Its atom has only one electron in its outer shell. Its valency is one (1).
It is a reducing agent. It forms both cations and anions. The oxide of hydrogen is neutral
Isotopes of hydrogen
 Hydrogen has three isotopes, whose mass numbers are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. These isotopes are called
1 2 3
protium ( 1 H ), deuterium ( 1 H or D) and tritium ( 1 H or T). Tritium is a radioactive isotope.
 Deuterium (heavy hydrogen) – In 1931, Urey, Brickpad and Murphy discovered the heavy isotope of hydrogen
and named it deuterium. Its atomic mass is 2. In 1934, Urey was awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of
deuterium (D2) and heavy water (D2O). It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and water-insoluble gas.
Deuterium molecules are diatomic. Its reactions are slower than hydrogen. The difference in the reaction
rates of isotopes due to the high ratio of atomic weights is called isotope effect.
Uses of Deuterium
 It is used in making deuterium compounds like D2O, ND3, CD, C6D6 etc., in nuclear fusion processes, artificial
disintegration processes and as a neutron moderator.
Heavy Water
 Heavy hydrogen oxide D2O is called heavy water. It was discovered by Urey and Washburn in 1932. Heavy
water is a colourless, odorless and tasteless liquid. Its melting point is 3.8 C and boiling point is 101C. Its
highest density temperature is 11.6C.
Use
 As a neutron moderator : In nuclear reactors, the substance which slows down the speed of fast neutrons
is called a moderator. It is used as a neutron moderator.
 As a tracer:- Heavy water is used as a tracer or indicator in the study of mechanisms of chemical reactions
and biological systems.
Note
 Heavy water is harmful for the body. It inhibits the growth of plants and stops the germination of seeds.
Heavy water production plants in India are located at Bhakra Nangal, Kota and Baroda.
Soft and hard water
 The water which lathers easily with soap is called soft water and the water which lathers with difficulty is
called hard water. Hardness of water is due to the presence of calcium and magnesium bicarbonate, chloride,
sulphate nitrate etc. salts dissolved in it. Hard water does not form lather with soap until the calcium and
magnesium ions present in hard water are completely precipitated. A lot of soap is wasted in this process.
Therefore, hard water is not suitable for washing clothes. Hardness of water is of two types, temporary
hardness and permanent hardness. If the hardness of water is removed by boiling the water, then this type
of hardness is called temporary. This hardness is due to the presence of calcium and magnesium bicarbonate
dissolved in water. Temporary hardness is removed by boiling the water or by adding slaked to the water.
 If the hardness of water does not go away by boiling it, then this type of hardness is called permanent
hardness. Permanent hardness of water is caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium sulphate,
chloride, nitrate etc. salts dissolved in it. Both permanent and temporary hardness are removed by adding
sodium carbonate to water and boiling it.
 Hard water is not suitable for drinking, washing clothes, cooking food etc. Hard water cannot be used in boilers
because on boiling it, a layer of salts like CaSO4, MgSO4 etc. gets deposited in the boiler, due to which more
heat is consumed in boiling the water.
Carbon
 Carbon is an element whose name is derived from the Latin word 'carbo' which means carbon. Coal, graphite
and diamond are the natural forms of carbon.
Graphite
 It is a grey substance. It feels smooth and slippery to touch. In
graphite, each carbon atom forms a hexagonal network by
joining with three carbon atoms in the same plane. Graphite is a
conductor of electricity. Graphite can be easily written on paper.
Therefore, it is used to make pencils. It is used as an electrode in
electric arc and dry cells. In India, graphite is found in Bihar,
Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
and Jammu and Kashmir.
Diamond
 It is transparent and hard. It is the hardest substance. In diamond,
each carbon atom is joined with four other carbon atoms to form
a three-dimensional rigid structure. It is a poor conductor of
electricity but a good conductor of heat. Diamond is used as a gem
in jewellery and for cutting, grinding and drilling. It is found in
Panna (Madhya Pradesh) and Andhra Pradesh. Diamond shines a
lot due to total internal reflection.
Dry ice
 When carbon dioxide is compressed at high pressure and cooled, it condenses into liquid carbon dioxide.
When the pressure is removed, liquid carbon dioxide turns into solid carbon dioxide, which is also called 'dry
ice'. The reason for calling it dry ice is that when it is heated, it turns directly into gas. Carbon dioxide is also
sold as compressed gas in steel cylinders.
Iron
 It is a very useful and important metal. It shows catalytic properties. Iron is the second most abundant metal
on earth. It is found in combined state. Iron ore is smelted in a blast furnace. The impure iron obtained from
the furnace is called pig iron. Pig iron contains about 93% Fe, 3-4% C and the rest are impurities of Si, P, S and
Mn. Raw iron is mainly used in the manufacture of cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
Cast iron
 Cast iron contains 2.4%C, 93-94%Fe and the rest is Si, P, S and impurities. It is very hard and brittle.
Wrought iron
 It contains 98.8 to 99.9% Fe and 0.1 to 0.25% C and the rest is impurities of Si, P, and Mn.
 It is pure iron. The impurities in it are less than 0.5%. This iron is malleable. It can be welded. It is used in
making iron chains, doors, couplings etc.
Steel
 The carbon content in steel is approximately 0.25 to 1.5%. Depending on the percentage of carbon added to
steel, different types of steel are made, tools steel (0.9-1.5%C), structural steel (0.2-0.6%C) and mild steel (0.2%C).
Steel alloys
1. Manganese Steel:- It contains 12 to 14% Mn and 1 to 1.5% C. It is very hard and has high tensile strength and
does not rust. It is used in making safes, girders in railway tracks, crushing and grinding machines etc.
2. Chromium Steel:- It contains 2 to 4% chromium. It is very hard. It is mainly used in cutting tools, machines
and bullets etc.
3. Chrome-Vanadium Steel:- It contains 0.15% vanadium and 2 to 10% chromium. It is used in making springs,
axles, frames, axles etc.
4. Nickel Steel : It contains 3-5% nickel. It is used to make aircraft parts, electrical wires, armor, etc.
5. Tungsten steel : It contains 10-20% tungsten. It is hard at low temperature and soft at high temperature. It
is used in making tools etc.
6. Stainless Steel : It contains 10% chromium, 0.25% carbon and about 0.35% manganese. Air, water etc. have no
effect on stainless steel under normal conditions. It is used in making surgical instruments, utensils, statues
etc.
Aluminium
 Aluminium is not found in free state in nature. It is found in combined state in the form of various ores.
Aluminium is a silvery white metal. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. The main minerals of
aluminium are bauxite, cryolite, feldspar, sapphire, lapis lazuli etc. Aluminium is mainly obtained from
bauxite ore. Bauxite is found in Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. Aluminium forms useful alloys with other
metals, such as magnesium (aluminum, magnesium), nickal alloy (nickel, aluminium, copper), Y alloy bronze
(aluminum bronze is used in making utensils, coins, aluminium powder, shiny foil of cigarettes and toffees
etc.
Copper
 Copper is found in nature in both free and combined states. In combined state, it is found in the form of ores
like copper pyrite, copper gloss, cuprite etc. Its ores are mainly found in areas like Singhbhum, Sikkim, Orissa
etc. Copper is a shiny metal of pink colour. It is the best conductor of electricity. The boiling point of copper
is 2320 degrees centigrade and on boiling, green coloured vapour comes out from it. It is used in making
electrical instruments, calorimeters etc. Apart from this, various types of alloys are made from it, such as
bronze (copper, tin), brass (copper, zinc), aluminium bronze (copper, aluminium, iron) etc.
8 Minerals and Ores

Mineral
 Natural substances containing metals or their compounds that are found beneath the earth's surface are
called minerals.
Ore
 Those minerals from which metals can be obtained easily and at low cost are called ores. Therefore, all ores
are minerals, but not all minerals are ores. Hence, not all minerals can be used to obtain metals.
Metallurgy
 The process of extracting metals from ores and purifying them before using them is called metallurgy.
Generally, the method of obtaining metals from ores depends on two things-
(1) On the nature of the ore
(2) On the properties of the metal being expelled.
 For metallurgy, the ores are concentrated (by hand picking, by gravity separation method, by froth-flotation
and magnetic separation method and by leaching), corrosion, calcination, reduction, refining etc.
 There are different methods of concentration depending on the nature of impurities-
1. Hydraulic washing method – Impurities in the ore are removed based on the difference in gravity.
2. Electromagnetic separation:- In this method, impurities are separated from the ore based on the
difference in magnetic properties. The impurities of ferromagnetic ore are removed by this method.
3. Froth flotation method - This method depends on the tendency of ore and impurities to get wet with
liquid. In this method, finely grind ore is put in a mixture of water and oil and air is blown through it.
The impure ore starts floating on top as a foam with the oil and the pure ore settles down. In this method,
pine oil is used as oil. The impurities of sulphide ore are removed by this method.
4. Leaching :- In this method the ore is converted into a soluble substance and its impurities are removed
with the help of a solvent.
5. Roasting:- In this method, the ore is heated in a controlled amount of air and at a fixed temperature.
Due to this, sulphur, arsenic and other elements present in the ore get oxidised and come out in the form
of volatile oxides. The oxide of the metal remains as a residue.
Ores of some metals
Metal Ore Composition of ore
Sodium chloride NaCl
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3, Na2CO3.10H2O
Na Sodium nitrate NaNO3
Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O
Sodium sulphate Na2SO4.10H2O
Potassium chloride KCl
K Potassium carbonate K2CO3
Potassium Nitrate KNO3
Magnesium MgCO3
Mg
Carbonate MgCO3.CaCO3
Dolomite KCl.MgCl2.6H2O
Carnallite MgSO4.7H2O
Epsom salt
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 (Chalk, Calcite, Iseland, Spar, Limestone, Marble)
Gypsum CaSO4.H2O
Ca
Fluoride CaF2
Phosphate Ca3(PO4)2
Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O
Cryolite Na3AlF6
Al
Corundum Al2O3
Diaspore Al2O3.H2O
Sn Cassiterite SnO2 (Tinstone)
Galena PbS
Pb Cerussite PbCO3
Metallocite PbCl2
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
Chalocite Cu2S
Cu Cuprite Cu2O
Malachite CuCO3.Cu (OH)2
Azurite 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)3
Native Silver Ag
Ag Argentite Ag2S
Kerargyrite AgCl
Zinc Blende ZnS
Franklinite (ZnFe)O.Fe2O3
Zn
Calamin ZnCO3
Zincite ZnO
Hg Cinnabar HgS
Pyrolusite MnO2
Mg
Manganite Mn2O3.H2O
Magnetite Fe2O3
Hematite Fe2O2
Limnonite Fe2O3.3H2O
Fe
Siderite FeCO3
Iron Pyrite FeS2
Chalkopyrite CuFeS2
Alloys of some elements, their composition and uses
Metal Alloys Composition Use
Brass Cu-70%, Zn-30% In the form of wires, machine parts, utensils
Dutch Cu-80%, Zn-20% Mmaking machine parts
Metal
German Cu-50%, Zn-35%, Ni-15% As pots, as sculptures
Silver
Monal Cu-28%, Fe-2%, Ni-70% In making sculptures
Mantle
Constantan Cu-60%, Ni-40% As a wire
Bronze Cu-88%, Sn-12% Making utensils, idols
Gun Metal Cu-88%, Sn-10%, Zn-2% In guns, weapons and as mechanical parts
Bell Metal Cu-80%, Sn-20% ---

Phospar Cu-85%, Sn-13%, P-2% As radio aerials and parts
Bronze
Currency Cu-95%, Sn-4%, P-1% Currencies
Metal
Artificial Cu-90%, Al-10% Making jewellery and statues
Gold
Manganese- Mn-14%, C-1.5%, Fe-80-85% In vaults, girders in railway tracks, crushing and
steel grinding machines
Chromium- Cr-2.4%, Cl-5%, Fe-90-95% In making cutting tools, machines, tablets etc.
steel
Chrome V-0.15%, Cr-2-10% Fe-90-95% In making springs, axles, shafts, frames, axles
vanadium- etc.
steel
Nickel-steel Ni-3-5%, C-1.5%, Fe-90-95% In electrical wires, propeller shafts, armour,
etc.
Tungsten- Cr-10%, C-0.25%, Mn-0.35% In making surgical instruments, utensils,
steel statues, etc.
Magnalium Al-95%, Mg-5% In aircraft and ship building
Duralumin Al-95%, Cu-4%, Mg-0.5% Aircraft and ship manufacturing
Aluminium Al-10%, Cu-90% Utensils, coins, artificial jewellery, paints etc
bronze
Nichrome Ni, Fe, Cr & Mn Electric heating components
Solder Pb, Sn Electrical connections
Alnico Fe, Al, Ni, Co Manufacture of magnets
Cement
 Cement is a very fine powder that hardens when mixed with water. Early Egyptians made a building material
that contained lime, clay or gypsum and was similar to modern cement. The Romans also made cement from
lime and volcanic ash, which was used in Europe to join bricks and stones. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British
engineer, created a new binder from limestone and clay that was stronger and more watertight. He called it
Portland cement because it resembled Portland limestone in colour. Making cement from limestone and clay
requires four basic ingredients: calcium oxide (from limestone), silica oxide, alumina oxide, and iron oxide. To
make Portland cement, limestone and clay are ground into powder. After this, they are mixed in the desired
proportion and heated at high temperature in a rotary furnace. The product obtained, called clinker, is cooled
to normal temperature. A small amount of gypsum is added to the clinker and then ground. This makes the
cement set late.
Main components of cement
CaO 60 – 70%
SiO2 20 – 25%
Al2O3 5 – 10%
Fe2O3 2 – 3%
Glass
 Ordinary glass is a solid solution (mixture) of silica (SiO2), sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) and calcium silicate. Other
types of glass are also solid solutions of various silicates. Glass is a supercooled liquid in the form of an
amorphous solid. Therefore, glass has no crystalline structure and no definite melting point. Glass has no
definite chemical composition or formula because glass is a mixture, not a compound. The average
composition of ordinary glass is Na2SiO2.CaSiO3.4SiO2.
Creation of Conch – The following materials are required for the manufacture of glass:
a) Acidic oxides
 Various types of acidic oxides are used in the manufacture of glass. Some of the main acidic oxides are as
follows:
1. Silica (SiO2): It is used in the form of treated sand.
2. Boron trioxide: Available in the form of borica acid or borax, it is used to make glasses with low
expansion coefficients (such as Pyrex glass).
b) Alkaline Oxides
1. Sodium oxide (Na2O): It is added in the form of soda ash (Na2CO3) or a mixture of sodium sulphate and
carbon.
2. Potassium oxide (K2O): It is added in the form of potassium carbonate.
3. Calcium oxide (CaO): It is added in the form of limestone (CaCO3).
4. Barium oxide (BaO): It is added in the form of barium carbonate.
5. Lithium oxide (Li2O): It is added in the form of lithium carbonate.
6. Red lead (Pb3O4)
7. Zinc oxide (ZnO)
c) Colouring matter
 To give colour to glass, small quantities of metal compounds (colourants) are added. The choice of metal
compound depends on the desired colour.
Serial
Colouring matter Glass colour
No.
1. Cobalt oxide Dark blue
2. Sodium chromate or ferrous oxide Green
3. Selenium oxide Orange red
4. Ferric salts or sodium uranate Yellow color
5. Gold chloride Yellow color
6. Cadmium sulphide bright red
7. Cupric salts blue
Annealing of Glass
 After making glass objects, they are slowly cooled in special furnaces. This process is called annealing of glass.
If glass objects are cooled quickly while making them, they become brittle because the outer part cools down
and starts shrinking, while the inner part cannot shrink.
Types of Glass
 There are many types of glass. Some of the main types of glass are as follows-
1. Soft Glass- It is soda-lime glass (Na2SiO3.CaSiO3.4SiO2). It softens easily at low temperature when heated. It is
used in making window glass, bottles, test tubes and others.
2. Hard Glass- It is potash-lime glass (K2SiO3.CaSiO3.4SiO3). Its softening temperature is higher than soft glass.
3. Flint Glass- It is made from sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, lead carbonate, boric acid and silica. It
is used in making prisms and lenses of optical systems.
4. Crooks Glass- This glass contains oxides of metals that do not react. It is used in making lenses of spectacles.
5. Pyrex Glass- It is mainly a mixture of borosilicate of sodium and aluminium. Its coefficient of expansion is
very low. Hence, it does not break due to sudden change in temperature. This glass is used in making high-
quality laboratory equipment.
6. Plate Glass- It is much thicker than ordinary glass and is used in making shop windows and doors. Its surface
is very smooth.
7. Layered glass or bulletproof glass- It is stronger than safe glass. It is made by joining several layers of safe
glass with each other using a transparent adhesive. The more layers are used in making this glass, the stronger
the glass is. The crack on the surface of this type of glass ends at the adhesive layer. And its expansion stops.
Layered glass is used in the manufacture of water-resistant glasses and bulletproof curtains of airplanes and
cars.
8. Optical glass- It is made by special methods so that there is no deformation or defect in it. This type of glass
is used in the manufacture of lenses of spectacles, microscopes, telescope cameras, prisms and other optical
instruments.
9. Thermally resistant glass- It has a high melting point and has the ability to withstand heat. It expands very
little (about one-third) when heated as compared to silica glass. As a result, it does not break when water is
boiled or food is cooked. This type of glass is used in laboratories, factories, kitchens and furnaces.
10. Photochromatic glass- Photochromatic glass is a special type of glass which becomes temporarily dark in
the presence of light. Hence it is very useful to avoid sunlight. When the intensity of light reduces, its colour
immediately becomes as light as before. This happens due to the silver iodide salts present in the glass.
11. Lead Crystal Glass - This is a special type of glass, in the manufacture of which lead oxide (PbO) is used. Lead
glass has a high refractive index, due to which it shines. It is used in the manufacture of fine artistic objects
and expensive glass equipment.
Glass fibre
 If a glass rod is heated from the middle and its two ends are pulled, it becomes like thin fibres. These glass
fibres look like cotton fibres. Also, these fibres have the special properties of that glass.
Glass cotton
 It also appears like a loose bundle of glass fibres like a cotton ball. It is an excellent insulator. It has the
property of keeping a lot of air inside it. Therefore, it is used in refrigerators, furnaces, cookers and water
warming bottles.
 Glass fibres can also be woven into clothes. These clothes have additional properties like being light, strong,
weatherproof, waterproof and fireproof, among others. When layers of these clothes made of glass fibres are
joined by adhesive, an even more versatile material is obtained. This fibre glass material can be moulded into
various shapes along with the above mentioned other properties. Thus they can be used in place of metals in
the construction of motor cars, boats, aeroplanes and water tanks.
9 Organic Chemistry
Introduction
Carbon is a non-metallic element with symbol ‘C’. The atomic number of carbon is six (6) and its mass is 12. It is
represented as 6C12. Its electronic configuration is 2,4 and it is a group IV element of the periodic table. Due to the
valence electrons of the carbon atom, it is necessary that it either loses four electrons or gains four electrons to obtain
a stable structure. It is difficult to gain or lose four electrons from the energy point of view. Hence, carbon shares
electrons with other elements to form covalent compounds.
Modern definition
All those compounds in which carbon and hydrogen or oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen etc. are found are called organic
compounds. Carbonates, bicarbonates, oxides, cyanides etc. are exceptions.
Organic Compounds
A large number of carbon atoms are connected to each other by covalent bonds. This is the reason that there are a
large number of carbon compounds. Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), pentane (C5H12),
ethylene (C2H4), acetic acid (CH3COOH), etc. are carbon compounds and they are used in many chemical industries.
Apart from this, medicines, fiber, synthetic cotton, plastic, rubber, etc. are also made from organic compounds. In the
combined state, carbon is found in various forms-
(a) In the form of carbonates (marble and dolomite)
(b) Petroleum and natural gas.
(c) In the form of carbon compounds like proteins and fats.
(d) In the form of carbon dioxide in the air.
Characteristics of organic compounds
The main element of an organic compound is carbon, apart from this the other main elements are hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, sulphur and halogen. Covalent bond is definitely present in organic compounds. These are usually soluble in
organic solvents. All the four valencies of carbon are equal, which are distributed equally in the space. The carbon
atom shows rhombohedral nature and there is an angle of 10928' between each valency of carbon.
Bioenergy Theory
In the early days of the development of chemistry, it was believed that organic compounds cannot be made in the
laboratory because for their formation, it is necessary to have bioenergy which is found only in living beings. Wohler
synthesized urea in the laboratory from ammonia cyanate in 1828 AD. Although urea (NH 2CONH2) is the first
synthesized organic compound, it was first obtained from urine in 1773 AD. Thus the theory of bioenergy came to an
end.
Classification of Organic Compounds
Allotropes of Carbon
It is found in two pure forms in nature - diamond and graphite. When diamond and graphite are heated
excessively in air, it burns completely and forms carbon dioxide. Although diamond and graphite are
chemically similar, their physical properties are very different. Elements exhibiting such properties are
called allotropes.
 Diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon.
1. Diamond : Diamond is a transparent substance. Its refraction is very high. Due to the high
refractive index of diamond, it is used in making shiny and precious ornaments and jewellery.
 Diamond is the hardest substance.
 Diamond is also used to pierce the rocky layers of the earth.
1. Graphite : Graphite is a good conductor of electricity and is used as electrodes in dry cells and electric arcs.
It is also used in making pencils and black paint. Due to its high melting point, crucibles made of graphite
are also used to melt some metals.
 The age of carbon-12 isotope is 5770 years, which is used in radioactive dating, which is used to know the age
of archaeological objects.
 Carbon-12 isotope is also used in atomic weights. Its mass is 12,00,000 units.
Uses of Carbon
1. Diamond : In jewellery, cutting, grinding, polishing, industry, drilling etc.
2. Graphite : As an electrolyte used in steel industry, pencils, high temperature crucibles, electrolysis of
elements.
3. Coke : In steel industry, fuel etc.
4. Carbon Black : In rubber industry, ink, paint and plastic making etc.
 Solid CO2 converts directly into gaseous state without changing into liquid state, hence it is also called 'dry
ice'. It is used in food preservation.
 Carbon dioxide is used in making perfume from flowers, extracting copal from coffee beans etc.
 The most important use of CO2 is in making urea.
 CO2 is also used as a fire extinguisher.
Isomerism
Two or more organic compounds having the same molecular formula but different properties are called isomers
and this phenomenon is called isomerism. Butane (C4H10) has two isomers-
(a) Normal-butane (b) Iso-butane

Hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen. As a result of the extraordinary property of
carbon atoms to form long chains, a very large number of hydrocarbons can be formed. One natural source of
hydrocarbons is petroleum, which is preserved by nature in deposits within certain types of porous rocks in the Earth.
The simplest hydrocarbon is methane.
There are mainly three types of hydrocarbons-
1. Saturated Hydrocarbon : The hydrocarbon in which all the four valencies of each carbon atom are satisfied
by a covalent bond is called saturated hydrocarbon. These are also called alkanes. All these hydrocarbons have
the '-ane' level at the end of their name. The alkane series is represented by the general formula C nH2n+2.
(Where n represents the number of carbon atoms present in a molecule. For example - methane, ethane,
propane, butane etc.
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbon : Those hydrocarbons in which at least two adjacent carbon atoms satisfy their
valency by forming double bonds or triple bonds, i.e. hydrocarbons having double bonds or triple bonds are
unsaturated hydrocarbons. The name of an alkene has the suffix 'ene'. The general chemical formula is C nH2n.
 Alkynes are also unsaturated hydrocarbons, in which there is a triple bond between two carbon atoms. Like
alkanes, the general chemical formula of alkynes is C nH2n-2 and they form a homologous series. The name of
an alkyne is obtained by adding the suffix 'ine' (-yne) to the name of its equivalent alkane. The simplest alkyne
is ethyne (C2H2).
3. Aromatic Hydrocarbon : Benzene (C6H6) is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. Two other aromatic
hydrocarbons that have a ring structure are toluene (C 7H8) and naphthalene (C10H8).
 The wax used to make candles is chemically a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons.
 All oils are naturally occurring mixtures of hydrocarbon organic compounds.
Important organic compounds and their uses
Methane (CH4) : Ethane (C2H6) :

1. Natural gas as fuel 1. As gaseous fuel
2. To make black carbon which is used in 2. In refrigerators
printing presses 3. In the manufacture of ethyl
3. To make methyl alcohol chloride
Ethylene (C2H4) : Acetylene (C2H2) :
1. In ripening and preserving raw fruits 1. In making oxyacetylene flame with
2. In making poisonous mustard gas oxygen for joining and cutting
3. In making artificial rubber and metals
polyethylene plastic 2. In making neoprene
Chloroform (CHCL3) : 3. In making poly-vinyl-chloride
1. As an anesthetic in surgery (PVC)
2. As a perfume and preservation agent Carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) :
for substances obtained from animals 1. Under the name of pyrene it is used
and plants as a fire extinguisher
3. As a solvent for rubber and lac 2. As an industrial solvent
Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) : 3. As a disinfectant
1. 20% methyl alcohol mixed in gasoline Ethyl alcohol (C₂H₂OH) :
is used as fuel 1. In the preservation of biological
2. In making artificial colors microorganisms
3. As a solvent in varnish and oil industry 2. In making tinctures used in

Ether (C2H5)2O alcohol and medicines
1. Mixing it with ethyl alcohol and using 3. As fuel in motors and airplanes
it as fuel 4. Making transparent soap
2. As a solvent and refrigerant Glycerine (C₂H₂O₃):
Formic acid (HCOOH) : 1. It is used in making transparent
1. In preserving fruits and juices soaps
2. In the leather industry and rubber 2. In making cosmetics
industry for rubber compaction 3. In making vitality enhancing
3. As a medicine for arthritis medicines
Glucose (C6H12O6) : Acetic acid (CH3COOH) :
1. In preserving jams and fruit juices 1. In making vinegar
2. As a strength booster for patients 2. In making medicine and colours
Phenol (C6H5OH) : 3. As a solvent
1. In the manufacture of Bakelite Benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) :
2. Bactericidal 1. In preservation of food items
3. It is also used in making explosives. 2. In making many types of
Bleaching powder (CaOCL2) : medicines
1. As a disinfectant to purify water Chlorobenzene (C6H5CI):
2. As a bleach for paper and clothes 1. In making DDT (insecticide)
Benzene (C6H6) : 2. In the industrial production of
1. As a solvent for oil and fats phenol
2. In dry washing Urea [CO(NH2)2] :
1. As a fertilizer
2. In making explosives like
nitrocellulose
Functional Group: The part of an organic compound on which the chemical properties of the organic
compound depend is called functional group.
The main reactive groups are as follows-
(a) Alcohol or Hydroxyl (-OH)
(b) Aldehyde (-CHO)
(c) Ketone (-C = O)
(d) Nitro (-NO2)
(e) Halogen (-F, -CL, -Br, -I)
Rubber: A substance called latex (milk-like) comes out from the rubber tree (Heava Brasileinni). Which is
called raw rubber. It is a linear polymer of isoprene. It is very soft, and to make it hard, it is cross-linked with
(S) by heating it at high pressure. This process is called vulcanization. The rubber obtained from this is flexible
and strong.
Vegetable Ghee: Vegetable Ghee is obtained by hydrogenating peanut, mustard, cotton oils in the presence
of Ni catalyst.
Some important organic compounds
 Methane (CH4): It is the first member of the alkane series. It is an organic gas. It is also known as marsh gas.
In nature, it is produced from vegetables.
 In the laboratory, it is obtained by heating sodium acetate with sodalime.
 Methane is obtained on commercial scale by the reaction of water on aluminium carbide. Natural gas
contains about 90% methane.
 It forms an explosive mixture with air, due to which explosions often occur in coal mines.
 Methane gas is produced from the rumen of cows and other animals and from paddy fields.
 Acetylene (C2H2): It is the first member of the alkyne series. It was discovered by Wilson. In the laboratory, it
is obtained by the action of water on calcium carbide. It can also be synthesized from carbon and hydrogen
at 2500° C. This method is called 'Bathalo method'.
 It is a colourless gas with a faint odour.
 It is used to produce light, in camphor, incense sticks, as an anesthetic, to artificially ripen raw fruits, etc.
 Chloro Fluoro Carbon (CFC): It plays an important role in the erosion of O3 layer. Chloro CFC of methane
and ethane is called Freon.
 These are non-flammable, colourless, non-toxic and low boiling point liquids.
 Chlorofluorocarbons are used to produce odour in refrigerants and refrigerators.
 Concentrated Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4): In its presence it reacts with concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) to form
glyceryl trinitrate (drinitro glycerine & TNG). TNG is a powerful explosive which is used in manufacturing and
making lubricants, cosmetics, antifreeze etc.
 Concentrated sulphuric acid is used in car batteries.
 Chloroform (CHCL3): It is used as anaesthetic agent and in dissection. It causes unconsciousness if inhaled.
 Pyrene (CCL2): Carbon tetrachloride is called pyrene. It is used to extinguish fires caused by electricity.
 Urea (NH2CONH2): It was the first organic compound which was synthesized in the laboratory. It contains
nitrogen (N) = 46%.
 Formic Acid (HCOOH): It is found in red ants and honeybees. It was first made by secreting red ants with
water. Because the name of red ant in Latin language is "Formicus".
 Acetic Acid: It is found in free state in the juices of many fruits. It is mainly found in vinegar. It is used in
making photographic films and rayon. It is 6-10% diluted solution of vinegar. Oxalic acid
 (COOH)2: It is also found in urine in small quantities. Accumulation of calcium oxalate in human kidney
causes stone disease. It is used in photography as ferrous oxalant.
 Citric acid: It is found in sour fruits (lemon, orange etc.).
 Lactic acid: It is present in sour milk. Accumulation of this acid in muscles causes fatigue.
 Tartaric acid: It is present in tamarind and grapes. It is used in making baking powder.
 Nitrobenzene (C6H5NO2): It is also called pepper oil. It is used in the manufacture of an explosive called "TNB".
 Benzoic acid (CH6COOH): It is used in "food preservation". For example, in the form of "sodium benzoate" in
pickles etc. Salicylic acid is used in painkillers.
 Toluene: Trade name is "Toluol". It is used in the manufacture of TNT explosives, medicines called Saccharin
& "Chloramine-T".
 Saccharin: It is used in place of sugar in sherbets and for diabetes patients. It does not give "caloric value".
 Mustard gas: When ethylene (C2H4) and sulfur monochloride are combined to react, mustard gas is produced.
It was used in the 1st World War. It causes blisters on contact with the skin and affects the lungs extremely.
 Tear gas: Alpha chloro acetophenone and acrolein etc. are some examples of tear gas. Chloropicrin (CCI3NO2)
is obtained when chloroform is reacted with nitric acid. Which is also used as tear gas.
 LSD: Lysergic acid dibutylamide, it is a hallucinogenic drug.

 Urotropin: Hexomethlene tetramine which works as a drug for urinary tract disease.
 Gamacaren: Its name is Benzene hexachloride. BHC is a strong germicide.
 DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. It is a germicide.
Natural sources of organic acids
Polymer: The word Poly in English means 'many' and the word Mar means 'repeated unit'. Two or more molecules
of the same compound combine together to form a larger molecule, which is called polymer and this process of
reaction is called polymerization.
 Rubber is a polymer of a monomer called isoprene found in nature, which is obtained in the form of latex
from rubber tree.
 The process of adding sulfur to rubber is called vulcanization, vulcanized rubber maintains its shape i.e. it
comes into a hard state.
 The artificial fiber made from cellulose is called rayon.
Soaps and detergents
Generally, soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty acids. Higher fatty acids are palmitic acid (CH, COOH), stearic acid
(C, HCOOH) and oleic acid (C17H33COOH) etc. Detergents are those substances which are used for washing clothes in
hard water (water containing "Ca, Mg" ions), because detergents do not form any insoluble precipitate with the Ca,
Mg" ions present in hard water. These are better than soaps.
Wax : It is an ester (organic compound containing -0- bond) found in nature similar to oil or fat. Types of wax-
(a) Honey bee wax has as its main component "mirosyl palmitate".
(b) Paraffin wax-HC, which is obtained from petroleum.
There are two types of plastics prepared by chemical process-
1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermosetting plastics
1. Thermoplastic: It becomes soft on heating and hard on blowing. For example- nylon, PVC, Teflon, polyethylene
etc.
 Polyethylene: It is obtained by polymerization of ethylene at high temperature.
 Poly Vinyl Chloride: It is obtained by polymerization of vinyl chloride.
 Polystyrene: It is obtained by polymerization of phenyl ethylene.
2. Thermosetting: It can be cast into the desired shape by heating it for the first time. But it cannot be softened
by heating again like Bakelite. Teflon is made by polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene.
 Neoprene - It is a type of synthetic rubber. It is used in electrical wires etc.
 Thiokol: - It is a synthetic rubber. It is used in making pipes carrying mineral oil.
 Nylon: - Nylon was the first fiber synthesized by man. It is an example of a polyamide fiber.
 Polyester: - This fiber contains many ester groups. Hence it is called polyester.
 Rayon:- Rayon is made from cellulose paper pulp or wood.
 Carbon Fiber:- It is made by heating synthetic fibers in the absence of oxygen.
EXPLOSIVE
1. RDX: Research and Developed Explosive is a plastic explosive. Its chemical name is Cyclotricyclotrimethylene
trinitramine. This explosive is known as Cyclonite in USA, Hexogen in Germany and T-4 in Italy.
 The explosive heat of RDX is = 1510 kilo calories. It contains plastic material - poly butyl acrylic acid.
2. Trinitro glycerine (TNG): It is also called “Noble’s Oil”. Trinitro glycerine is a colourless oily liquid; which is
used to make dynamite.
3. TNT: It is trinitro toluene, which is the most used explosive. Its contents are-
C6H5CH3 + Con.H2SO4 + Con.HNO3 → Trinitro Toluene Explosive
4. Dynamite: It is an explosive, which was discovered by Alfred Nobel. Nitro glycerine was made by absorbing it
in an inert substance (wood sawdust or Kieselguhr).
5. TNP: Trinitro phenol is also called Picric Acid. It is an explosive.
Fuel
Those substances which burn in air and produce heat and light are called fuels. For example, coal, wood, petrol,
kerosene, diesel etc. are the main fuels.
Fuel + oxygen ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Product + heat
Based on the physical state, there are three types of fuels- solid fuel, liquid fuel and gas fuel. These fuels are as follows-
Solid fuels - Wood, coal, coke, charcoal and paraffin wax are called solid fuels.
Liquid fuels - Kerosene, petrol, diesel, alcohol and liquefied hydrogen are called liquid fuels.
Gaseous fuels - Natural gas, liquid petroleum gas, coal gas, water gas, producer gas, bio gas, acetylene and
hydrogen gas are gaseous fuels.
1. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): It is mainly a mixture of propane and butane gases. The proportion of
butane is higher in the LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas) available in India. Its calorific value is about 50 kilojoules.
To detect gas leakage, a substance with a very unpleasant smell, ethyl mercaptan (C2H5SH), is added. It is used
in household work and industries and is stored as fuel. At present, it is being used as fuel in motor vehicles
etc.
2. Producer Gas: It is obtained by passing a stream of steam over red-hot coke. It is mainly a mixture of nitrogen
and carbon monoxide gases. H2 gas and methyl alcohol (CH3OH) are made from it. It is used as fuel and in
glass manufacturing and metal extraction.
3. Water Gas : It is a mixture of CO + H2 gases. It releases a lot of heat. It is used as a reducing agent in the
industrial production of alcohol, hydrogen etc.
4. Natural Gas : The gases coming out of petroleum wells mainly contain methane (CH4) 83% and ethane (C2H6)
16% and a small amount of propane. It burns with a smokeless flame, which does not cause pollution. It also
does not release any toxic gas when it burns. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is used in vehicles.
Fossil fuel
Coal: Coal is an important fossil fuel. It is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen compounds and some free carbon. It
also contains small amounts of sulfur and nitrogen compounds. Coal is also called mineral coal. There are mainly
four types of coal - peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite. 'Peat' is the first stage of coal formation. Anthracite is the
best type of coal. Most of the coal in the world is of 'bituminous' variety. 'Lignite' is called brown coal.
Petroleum: Petroleum gas fuel is a mixture of propane (C5H10) and butane (C4H10). Normal & isobutance easily liquefy
on increasing pressure. Therefore, it is filled in cylinders in liquid form and used for burning under the name of
"liquified petroleum gas".
 The world's first petroleum well was dug by Colonel Drake in 1859 at a place called Titusville in Pennsylvania
(USA).
 Coal gas is a mixture of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, hydrogen and hydrocarbons.
 Petroleum gas is a mixture of ethane, propane and butane. Its main components are normal butane and
isobutane.
 Tetraethyl lead is mainly used to increase the anti-explosive properties of petrol.
 Water and petrol are immiscible with each other and petrol forms the upper layer, hence water is not effective
in extinguishing fire caused by petrol.
 Petroleum oil is called liquid gold.

 Commercial Vaseline is extracted from petroleum.
Rocket fuel
Rocket fuel requires a special type of fuel, called propellant.
There are two types of propellants-
(i) Alcohol, liquid hydrogen, liquid ammonia, kerosene, hydranil are examples of liquid propellants.
(ii) Oxygen, fluorine, H2O2, nitric acid are used as oxidants.
 Solid propellant is a mixture of gas, oxidant and solid reducing material.
The American spacecraft Apollo landed on the moon for the first time.
 In this spacecraft, a mixture of methyl hydrogen is used as propellant and dinitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4) as
oxidant.
 Oxygen gas is the nutrient of combustion. O2 is called Praan Vayu.
 Biogas is a traditional source of energy.
 Biofuel is obtained from Jatropha seeds.
 Hydrogen is called the fuel of the future.
Glass
 Ordinary glass is a mixture of sodium silicate, silica and calcium silicate.

 Fibrous glass is used in making bullet-proof jackets.
 Crookes glass is used in making sunglasses.
 Pyrex glass is used in making laboratory equipment.
 Optical glass is used in making telescopes and prisms.
 Optical flint glass is used in electric bulbs and telescope lenses.
10 Oxidation and Reduction

Introduction to Oxidation and Reduction
Have you ever noticed that cut apples turn brown when exposed to air? Not just cut apples, potatoes also turn brown
or black when we peel and cut them and leave them exposed to air for some time to make our favourite French
fries. Do you know why this happens? Well, the answer is oxidation. Cut apples turn brown due to the oxidation of
phenolic compounds present in apples under the action of an enzyme called polyphenol oxidase and peeled or cut
potatoes turn brown due to the oxidation of starch present in them. Similarly, you can also find many examples of
reduction in your daily life. Like in photosynthesis carbon dioxide is converted into carbohydrates by the process of
reduction. Those reactions in which both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously
In other words
Oxidation is the addition of oxygen, while reduction is the removal of oxygen.
Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen, while reduction is the addition of hydrogen.
Oxidation is the loss of electrons, while reduction is the gain of electrons.
Oxidation is an increase in oxidation state, while reduction is a decrease in oxidation state.
What is oxidation?
Oxidation is a chemical process which can be explained from the following four perspectives
 In terms of oxygen transfer
 In terms of electron transfer
 In terms of hydrogen transfer
 In terms of oxidation number
Oxidation in terms of oxygen transfer - Oxidation is the benefit of oxygen.
Example – 2Mg (s) + O 2(g) → 2MgO (s)
Oxidation in terms of Electron Transfer - Oxidation is the loss of electrons. In the above example magnesium is
losing two electrons and getting oxidized to form magnesium oxide.
Oxidation in terms of Hydrogen Transfer - Oxidation can be defined as the loss of hydrogen.
Oxidation in terms of Oxidation Number - Oxidation is the increase in the oxidation state or oxidation number of
an atom in a reaction. Oxidation number defines the degree of oxidation of an atom in a chemical compound.
In the above example, the oxidation state of sodium is increasing from 0 to +1. Thus, oxidation is taking place and
sodium is getting oxidized.
What is the deduction?
Reduction is a chemical process which can be explained from the following four perspectives
 In terms of oxygen transfer
 In terms of electron transfer
 In terms of hydrogen transfer
 In terms of oxidation number
Reduction in terms of oxygen transfer - Reduction is the loss of oxygen.
Reduction in terms of electron transfer - Reduction is the gain of electrons.
Example - 2Mg (s) + O 2(g) → 2MgO (s)
In the above example, each atom of oxygen gains two electrons and forms two O -2 anions. Thus, reduction takes
place and oxygen gets reduced.
Reduction in terms of hydrogen transfer - Reduction can be defined as the gain of hydrogen.
Reduction in terms of oxidation number - Reduction is the decrease in the oxidation state or oxidation number
of an atom in a reaction.
In the above example the oxidation state of chlorine is decreasing from 0 to -1. Thus, reduction is taking place and
chlorine is getting reduced.
What is a redox reaction?
A chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electrons or a change in the oxidation number of atoms is called a
redox reaction. In redox reactions, oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously. Oxidation and reduction cannot
occur independently of each other.
In other words
Oxidation and reduction complement each other and one cannot occur in the absence of the other. So oxidation
and reduction will occur simultaneously. It is obvious that, if a substance takes electrons, there must be another
substance to donate these electrons. Those reactions, which involve oxidation and reduction, are called redox
reactions. Redox reactions can be divided into two half reactions, namely oxidation half reaction (where oxidation
occurs) and reduction half reaction (where reduction occurs).
Some examples of redox reactions are given below:–
 Cellular Respiration - In the respiratory reaction glucose reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
and releases energy which is stored in the cells. Glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide by losing hydrogen while
oxygen is reduced to water by gaining hydrogen. The reaction is given below -
 Combustion - Combustion is an exothermic redox chemical reaction which takes place at high temperature
and in the presence of oxidants. Methane burns in the presence of atmospheric oxygen to release carbon dioxide
and water along with energy. A well explained combustion reaction of methane is given below -
 Photosynthesis - Photosynthesis is a process by which plants prepare their food. In this reaction carbon
dioxide reacts with water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll to give carbohydrates and oxygen. A well
explained reaction of photosynthesis is given below -
 Corrosion - The process of rusting is an example of corrosion. In this reaction iron reacts with atmospheric
oxygen in the presence of moisture and forms iron oxide which is also known as rust. A well explained reaction
of rusting is given below -
 Formation of Sodium Chloride - In this reaction sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride. In the
reaction the oxidation number of sodium increases from 0 to +1 whereas the oxidation number of chlorine
atom decreases from 0 to -1. This can also be explained in terms of gain and loss of electrons. A well explained
reaction is given below -
What is an oxidizing agent?
A substance that can oxidize another substance is called an oxidizing agent. It is also called an oxidant. It oxidizes
another substance by accepting its electrons. Thus, we can say that an oxidizing agent is an electron acceptor group.
An oxidizing agent always reduces itself and oxidizes another substance. Oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and halogens
are examples of some common oxidizing agents.
Oxidizing agents can be defined as groups that transfer oxygen atoms to the substrate, although this is not true in
every case because in many redox reactions, oxidation-reduction occurs in the absence of oxygen atoms. These
oxidizing agents are also called oxygenation reagents or oxygen-atom transfer (OAT) agents. MnO 4 -, CrO 4 -2 etc. are
examples of this type of oxidizing agents. You can see here that all of these are oxides.
What is a reducing agent?
A substance that can reduce another substance is called a reducing agent. It is also called a reductant or reducer. It
reduces another substance by donating its electrons. Thus, we can say that a reducing agent is an electron donor
group. A reducing agent always oxidizes itself and reduces another substance. Lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4),
hydrogen, sodium amalgam Na(Hg) are examples of some common reducing agents.
Reducing agents can be defined as groups that receive oxygen atoms from the substrate (or oxidizing agent),
although this is not true in every case because in many redox reactions, oxidation-reduction occurs in the absence
of oxygen atoms. Examples of these reducing agents include formic acid, oxalic acid, sulfites, etc.
Guidelines for identification of oxidizing and reducing agents-

If an element is in its highest oxidation state in a compound then it can act as an oxidizing agent, for example
KMnO4 , K2Cr2O7 , HNO3 , H2SO4 , HClO4 etc.
If an element is in its lowest oxidation state in a compound then it can act as a reducing agent, for example H 2S,
FeSO4 , Na2S2O3 , SnCl2 etc.
If an element is in intermediate oxidation state in a compound then it can act as an oxidizing agent as well as a
reducing agent, for example H2O2 , H2SO3 , HNO2 , SO2 etc.
If a highly electronegative element in a compound is in its higher oxidation state then that compound can act as a
powerful oxidizing agent, for example KClO4 , KClO3 , KIO3 etc.
If an electronegative element is in its lowest oxidation state in a compound or in free state, it can act as a powerful
reducing agent, for example I−, Br−, N3− etc.
Oxidizing agent Effective Change Decrease in oxidation number
KMnO4 in acidic solution MnO-4 → Mn2+ 5
KMnO4 in neutral solution MnO-4 → MnO2 3
K2Cr2O7 in acidic solution Cr2O2-7 →Cr3+ 3
Dilute HNO3 NO-3 → No 3
Concentrated HNO3 NO-3 → NO2 1
Concentrated H2SO4 SO2-4 → SO2 2
Manganese (IV) oxide MnO2 → Mn2+ 2
Reference Books Effective Change Increase in oxidation number

Iron (II) salts (acids) Fe →Fe
2-
7
3+
1
Tin (II) salts (acids) Sn 2-+
→ Sn 4+
2
Ethanedioates (acids) C2O2-4 →CO2 1
Sulfites (acids) SO2-3 → SO2-4 2
Hydrogen sulphide S2- → S 2
Iodide (dilute acid) I- → I2 1
Iodide (concentrated acid) I- → I+ 2
Oxidizing agent and reducing agent in redox reaction

Let us understand oxidizing and reducing agents by taking the example of a redox reaction. When aluminium reacts
with iron (III) oxide in the presence of heat, it gives aluminium oxide and molten iron metal. This is a redox
reaction. The reaction is given below-
2Al (s) + Fe 2 O 3(s) → Al 2 O 3(s) + 2Fe (l)
If you calculate the oxidation number for Al you see that it is increasing from 0 to +3, this means oxidation is taking
place. Now if you calculate it for iron you see that it is decreasing from +3 to 0, this means reduction is taking place.
This is shown in the reaction below -
You can see that Al is reducing Fe2O3 by removing its oxygen atoms, so this means that aluminium is a reducing
agent. While Fe2O3 is oxidizing Al by giving oxygen, this means that Fe2O3 is acting as an oxidizing agent. In redox
reactions reducing agents always get converted to their conjugate oxidizing agent in an oxidation-reduction
reaction. Thus, the products of this reaction will include a new oxidizing agent and a new reducing agent. This is
shown in the reaction below -
As we know that the above reaction occurs in the forward direction, that means Al is a stronger reducing agent and
Fe2O3 is a stronger oxidizing agent than iron and Al2O3 respectively.
११ Chemistry and its important parts
organic chemistry
 Allotropy – Two or more forms of an element are called allotropes of that element and the existence of an
element in more than one form is called allotropy.
Elements and their allotropes
Element Disfigured
Carbon Diamond, graphite, coke, bitumen
White phosphorus, red phosphorus, black phosphorus

 Types of black phosphorus
 Black phosphorus (obtained by heating white phosphorus
Phosphorus
at 473 K.)
 Black phosphorus (obtained by heating red phosphorus at
803 K.
Oxygen Oxygen (O2) and Ozone (O3)
Rhombic sulfur ( sulfur), monoclinic ( sulfur), amorphous,
Sulphur
plas c sulfur ( sulfur)
Hydrocarbons
 Compounds made of carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. Petroleum is a major natural source of
hydrocarbons.
 Saturated hydrocarbons- Those in which the carbon-carbon bond is a single covalent bond are called
saturated hydrocarbons, such as alkane.
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons- Those in which the carbon-carbon bond is a double bond or triple bond are
called saturated hydrocarbons. These are usually obtained from petroleum by the process of destruction,
such as alkene (double bond), alkyne (tribond).
 Hydrophobic- Those hydrocarbons which repel water.
Polymer
 They are a long chain made up of millions of molecules which are usually organic compounds. Due to the
long chain made up of millions of molecules, the polymer is hard and strong.
a) Natural polymers - Cellulose which is found in the cell walls of plants is a natural polymer. Jute and
cotton are made of cellulose. Other examples of natural polymers are silk and other wools.
b) Man-made polymers : Polymers are created by artificial methods by joining organic molecules together
to form long chains.
For example
 Polyethylene- Polyethylene or polythene is a long chain of ethene (C2H2) molecules linked one by one.
Polyethylene is hard, but strong and flexible. Thin sheets can be made from it. And it can also be molded
into desired shapes. It is a thermoplastic material. That is, it becomes hot when heated, but regains its
original properties when cooled. Due to this property, it can be molded into any desired shape without
destroying its original quality. Also, being a hydrocarbon like paraffin, polyethylene does not react
chemically and is waterproof. It is an electrical insulator.
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)- This is another plastic polymer. It is used in the manufacture of bottles, floor
coverings, rain coats, shoe soles, sandals and leather-like materials. Polystyrene is a plastic which is lighter
than polyethylene and can be easily moulded. Styrofoam or thermocol are examples of PVC. It is used as a
packaging material to protect soft and fragile objects. It is used as an insulator in hollow walls of
refrigerators and coolers.
 Acrylic or Perspex - It is a clear transparent plastic which is used in place of glass in many situations. But
being soft, it gets scratched easily. It also dissolves in organic solvents. One of the best plastic polymers is
Teflon, whose full name is Poly Tetrafluoro Ethylene. Which is represented by (CF2-CF2)n. It contains long
chains of CF2 molecules.
 It has a very high melting point and is also quite inert. Due to these properties, it is considered the best
material for engineering. Bakelite is a common example of heat hardening materials. It is an excellent
insulating polymer material. Due to which it is used in making electrical plugs, switches, outer frames of
telephone equipment and other things. Pharmaceutical and melamine, which are commonly used in the
manufacture of table tops and cups and crockery. All these are heat hardening plastics. Their surfaces are
hard and smooth.
 Synthetic fibres - Synthetic fibres are examples of polymeric materials. They are used in place of natural
fibres such as wool and silk.
 Rayon - It is a fiber or filament which is made from the substance obtained by dissolving cotton or wood
pulp in a chemical solvent. Rayon has a silk-like shine. It looks like cotton fiber.
 Nylon - Chemically, nylon fibers are similar to silk fibers. Nylon fibers are hard, strong and water resistant.
They are used in making clothes, fishing nets and ropes, brushes, combs, hooks, zip ties and machine parts.
 Polyester fibers - These fibers are made from terylene, dacron and terene petroleum products. It is most
used in the textile industry for making shirts, pants, sarees, curtains and other clothes. Acrylic fibers which
look like wool are used in making sweaters, shawls and blankets. Different types of fibres can be identified by
burning them and observing their behaviour after burning.
 Petroleum - A flammable, odourous thick liquid is found at certain places below the surface of the earth.
This liquid is actually a mixture of alkane hydrocarbons. This liquid is found in the form of crude oil beneath
the sedimentary rocks. Since it is found inside the earth, it is also called metallic oil.
 Availability - Mainly, petroleum is found in the following countries- United States of America, Russia, Iran,
Mexico and Burma. Approximate percentage of petroleum found in different countries is as follows-
America 36 percent
Europe 16 percent
South America 15 percent
Asia (Iraq, Iran, Kuwait
33 percent
and Saudi Arabia)
 The first oil well was dug in 1859 at a place called Titsley in Pennsylvania, which was discovered by Colonel
Drake. Initially, only kerosene oil was extracted from crude oil by distillation and other substances were
destroyed by burning. Petroleum is a mixture of alkane hydrocarbon compounds (C1-C40).
 It also contains small amounts of aromatic hydrocarbons and other closed chain compounds and trace
amounts of sulphur and nitrogen compounds.
 Petroleum Refining- Crude oil is a mixture of dissolved gases, liquids and solids. The process of separating
these components from crude oil by effective distillation is called refining. Effective distillation of crude oil is
done in a standing fractionating column. Then it is taken to the middle of the fractionating column. Its
higher boiling point fractions condense at the bottom and lower boiling point fractions condense at the top.
The uncondensed gases are separated from the top of the column. Coal tar remains in the fractionator, which
is called pitch.
 Refining of Petrol (Gasoline) – Petrol is refined to separate color, bad smell, sulfur compounds and
unsaturated hydrocarbons. Sulfur compounds reduce the effect of anti-knock compounds and unsaturated
hydrocarbons deposit carbon in the engine. Thioalcohol is separated by washing the impure petrol with
concentrated H2SO4 or NaOH solution.
 Refining of kerosene oil - It is purified by washing it with concentrated H2SO4 or NaOH and water
respectively.
 Refining of gas oil and lubricating oil - It is purified by extracting SO2.
 Breakdown - The process of converting narrow hydrocarbon compounds with high boiling point into simple
hydrocarbon compounds with low boiling point by heat is called breakdown. This process is also called
thermal decomposition. The process of breakdown is uncertain. The molecule can break from many places
and give different products. In this process, a mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, hydrogen
and carbon is obtained.
 Preparation of oil gas by breakdown- Oil gas is also prepared by breakdown, which is used to light burners
in laboratories. Oil gas is generally prepared from kerosene oil or fuel oil. A thin stream is dropped in a red
hot iron retort in the absence of air. Due to the effect of heat, the oil breaks down and a mixture of simple
hydrocarbons like methane, ethane etc. is obtained. It is sent to the hydraulic box, where the tar mixed with
the gas liquefies.
 Paraffin wax - Wax obtained from petroleum is only 2 percent of it. It is a colored and smooth (C10H58)
saturated hydrocarbon. It is used to make candles. It is also used in the match industry, making waxy cloth,
smoothing leather, folding boxes, etc.
Gaseous fuel
1. Steam-carbon gas - Steam-carbon gas is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide gases. When steam is
passed over red hot coke, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide is obtained, which is called steam-
carbon gas. Steam-carbon gas contains 50 percent carbon monoxide and 50 percent nitrogen.
 The calorific value of steam-carbon gas is higher than that of producer gas.
2. Producer Gas - Producer gas is a mixture of nitrogen and carbon monoxide gases. On passing hot air over
red-hot coke, a mixture of nitrogen and carbon monoxide is obtained, which is called producer gas. Nitrogen
in the mixture comes from air. Pure producer gas contains 2.5 to 5 percent carbon dioxide as an impurity. The
calorific value of producer gas is the lowest as compared to other gaseous fuels.
3. Coal Gas - This gas is mainly a mixture of methane, hydrogen and carbon monoxide gases. It is made by
destructive distillation of coal. Coal gas contains 55 percent hydrogen, 30 percent methane, 8 percent nitrogen,
oxygen and carbon dioxide. Coal gas is used as fuel and illuminant. On burning it, heat is produced from
hydrogen, gaseous hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide and light is produced from gaseous hydrocarbons.
4. Petrol gas - Petrol is a mixture of different types of hydrocarbons. It evaporates easily. The mixture of petrol
vapour and air is called petrol gas. Petrol gas is made from a special type of plant. In this plant, petrol is heated
by an electric heater and a strong stream of air is passed through it. The mixture of air and petrol vapour is
collected in a gas filling tank. Petrol gas is used to light burners in the laboratory.
Oils and Fats
 Oils and fats are substances obtained from plants and animals. These are actually esters of higher fatty
acids and some unsaturated acids mixed in glycerol. These esters are called glycerides. Hence, oils and fats
can be called mixtures of glycerides.
 Soap - Salts of fatty acids are obtained when oils and fats are hydrolysed by alkalis. These salts of fatty acids
are called soaps. This reaction is called saponification. Hence, sodium and potassium salts of fatty acids,
stearic, palmitic, oleic etc. are called soaps. Sodium salts of fatty acids are hard, hence they are called hard
soaps and potassium salts are soft, hence they are called soft soaps.
 Wax - Like oils and fats, waxes are also esters found in nature. But these esters are different from glycerides.
In these, molecules of higher fatty acids combine with higher monohydric alcohols instead of glycerol to form
esters. For example, the following types of waxes are main:
1. Bees' Wax : It mainly contains myristic palmitate (C15H31COOC30H61). It is an ester of myristic alcohol and
palmitic acid.
2. Carnauba wax : It is obtained from sperm whales. It mainly contains cetyl alcohol. It is an ester of cetyl alcohol
and palmitic acid. Wax is used extensively in making shoe polish, wood polish and varnish etc. It is also used
in making lead pencils.
Do you know?
 Most reactive solid element – Lithium (Li)

 Most reactive liquid element – Caesium (cs)
 Most reactive gaseous element – Fluorine (F)
 Highest ionization potential – Helium (He)
 Lowest electron affinity – (Nobles Gases) Inert gas (Zero)
 Liquid element with radioactive nature – Francium (Fr)
 Total number of radioactive elements in the periodic table – 25
 Unstable elements of d-Block – Zinc, Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg)
 The element which does not have neutrons – 1H1
 The most abundant metal found on earth – Aluminium (Al)
 The element which has the highest tendency to Catenation (form chains) – Carbon
 Lightest element – Hydrogen
 Heaviest element found in nature – U238
 Poorest conductor of current – Lead (metal), Sulphur (non-metal)
 Amphoteric (which behaves as both acid and base) non-metal – Silicon (Si)
 Elements showing diagonal relationship – Li-Mg; Be-Al; B-Si
 Non-metals which look like metals – Iodine, graphite
 Substances which sublimate on heating – Iodine, camphor, naphthalene, sulphur. • Noble metal – Platinum
(Pt), Gold (Au)
 Amphoteric metal – Zinc, Aluminium, Tin, Lead
 Non-metal with high melting point and high boiling point – Diamond
 Element with high tensile strength – Tungsten
 Coolant in nuclear power plants – D2O (Heavy water)
 Newest discovered element – [Nihonium (Nh), Atomic Number – 113], [Mascovium (Mc), Atomic Number – 115],
[Tennessine (Ts), Atomic Number – 117], [Oganesson (Og), Atomic Number – 118]
 Element that can be kept in water – White Phosphorus
 Elements kept in kerosene oil – Sodium, Potassium, Iodine, Cesium (Cs)
 Dry ice – Solid carbon dioxide
 Artificial explosive – Dynamite
 First scientist to receive Nobel Prize in Chemistry – Van Hoff

 Tincture Iodine – Iodine in alcohol
 Commonly used oxidants – H2O2, SO2, SO3, Cl2, H2SO4, HNO3
 Commonly used reducing agents – SO2, H2S, Cl2, Bleaching Powder
 Neutral Oxides of non-metals – CO, N2O, NO, H2O
 Dry bleacher – O3
 Natural explosives – NCl3
 Amphoteric oxides – ZnO, PbO, Al2O3, SnO, BeO
 Some polymorphic elements – oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus
 At normal temperature, mercury, gallium and caesium are liquid metals and the rest of the metals are solid.
 Among the non-metals, bromine is liquid at normal temperature and the rest of the non-metals are solid or
gas.
 Among the metals, silver is the best conductor and lead is the worst conductor.
 Except carbon, non-metals are soft.
 Diamond is the hardest of all natural substances.
Important chemical methods Related elements/compounds

Bosch process Hydrogen
Castner process Sodium
Down process Sodium
Nelson cell NaOH
Caster Kellner cell NaOH
Lowing process NaOH
Leblanc process K2CO3
Percht process K2CO3

MacArthur Forest Method Ag
Parke’s process Ag
Pattinson’s process Ag
Cuprllation process Ag (Purification)
Mond process Ni
Baeyer’s process Al
Serpeck’s process Al
Hoop’s process Al (Purification)
Hall-Heroult process Al
Basic Lead Carbonate (White
Carter process Lead)
Haber’s process NH3
Ostwald process NO, HNO3
Deacon’s process Cl2
Lead chamber process H2SO4
Contact process H2SO4
Kaldo and L.D. process steel

Corey-House Alkene
Oxo process Alcohol
Dow’s sea water process Mg
Piageon process Mg
Cyanamide process NH3
Bessemer-Thomas process steel
Siemens process steel
Frasch process sulfur
Name of important alloys Structure
Aluminium bronze Cu + Al
Brass Cu + Zn
Bronze Cu + Sn
Bell Metal Cu + Sn
Coin alloys (Red) Cu + Zn + Sn
Coin alloys (White) Cu + Ag + Zn + Ni
Duralumin Al+ Cu + Mg+ Mn
German silver (nickel silver) Cu + Zn + Ni
Gun metal Cu + Sn + Zn
Magnalium Al + Mg
Pewter Pb + Sn
Solder Pb + Sn
Type metal Pb + Sb + Sn
Wood metal Bi + Pb + Sn + Cd
Y-alloy Cu + Al
Devarda’s alloy Cu + Al + Zn
Ferrosilicon Fe + Si
Ferrovanadium Fe + V
Ni + Cu + (Fe + Mn is
Monel metal
traces)
Nimonic series Ni + Cr + Co + Al + Ti
Hastelloy Nichrome Ni + Cr
Chemical scientist Their discovery

Bohr Atomic model, detailed version of
the periodic table
Burzelius Catalysis
Becquerrel Radioactivity
Bronsted-Lowry acid ash concept
Chadwick discovery of the neutron

Debye-Huckel Theory of Strong Electrolytes
de Broglie wave nature of electron
Faraday Principles of electrolysis

Fajan Polarization of cation
Goldstein Discovery of the proton
Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson (Kelvin) First law of thermodynamics
Hund-Mulliken molecular orbital theory
Heitlor-London Covalent bond theory
Madam Curie and F. Joliot Artificial radioactivity
Libby Radioactive dating

Lawrence Cyclotron
Maxwell kinetic theory of gases
Mendeleev Periodic table
Mulliken electron charge
Mosley Modern Periodic Table
Nernst electrode potential
Ostwald Laws of weak electrolytes
(pauling-Slater Covalent bond theory
Planck Physical theory of light
Rutherford discovery of the neutron
Roentzen discovery of x-rays
Rayleigh-Ramsay Discovery of argon
Ramsay-Travers Discovery of Neon, Krypton and
Xenon
Soddy-Fajan Class transfer rules
Sorenson PH
Schulze-Hardly Deposition by electrolysis
Thomson discovery of the electron
Tyndall scattering of light from solid
particles
Yukawa Discovery of the meson
१२ Scientiﬁc Branches
Acarology Study of lice and bacteria under this branch of zoology.
Acoustics Study of sound is included in this.
Aerodynamics Studies the motion and control of solids and liquids such as aircraft and missiles in
the air.
Aeronautics The study of the art of flying.
Aerostatics The branch of statics dealing with the equilibrium state of gases and their systems.
Aetiology The study of the science of taxonomy.
Agrobiology This includes the study of life and nutrition of plants.
Agrology This includes study of soil science and crop production.
Agronomy In this, crops are studied.
Agrostology In this, grasses are studied.
Alchemy Ancient chemical studies.
Anatomy Study of the internal parts of plants.
Anesthesiology The branch of medicine which studies the unconscious state of a patient and the
functioning of anesthesia.
Anthropology The study of the physical and cultural development of mankind.
Arboriculture Study of trees and vegetables.
Archaeology Study of ruins.
Astrochemistry Study of the composition and reactions of substances found in celestial bodies.
Astrogeology Study of the structure and nature of mountains and minerals present in other
planets.
Astrology Study of astrology.
Astronautics Study of space travel.
Astronomy Study of cosmic bodies.
Astrophysics Study of the physical nature of cosmic bodies.
Bacteriology Study of bacteria.
Biochemistry Study of chemical processes in living organisms.
Biology Study of biology.
Biometry Mathematical study of living organisms.
Bionics Study of actions and properties present in the biological world and their
application in machines.
Bionomics Study of the correlation between living organisms and their environment.
Biophysics Study of biological functions.
Botany Study of botany.
Cardiology Study of heart function.

Carpology Study of fruits and seeds.
Cetology Study of aquatic mammals.
Chemistry Study of chemistry.
Chemotherapy Study of chemical treatments.
Cherology Study of geographical areas and distribution of animals/plants.
Chronobiology Study of life span.
Chronology Study of chronological knowledge of historical events.
Conchology Study of molluscan cells.
Cosmogony Science of the nature of cosmic bodies.
Cosmography Study of cosmic nature.
Cosmology Study of cosmic nature, origin and life story.
Craniology Study of skulls.
Criminology Study of criminology.
Cryptography Study of mysterious documents.
Crystallography Study of structure, nature and properties of crystals.
Cryogenics Science of low temperature production control and applications.
Cytochemistry The study of cellular chemistry.
Cytology Study of cytology.
Cytopathology Study of diseased cells.
Dactylography Study of finger prints for testing.
Dactylogy Study of finger prints.
Dandrology Study of trees and bushes.
Ecology The relationship of animals and plants with their environment.
Econometrics The study of mathematical applications of economic principles.
Economics Study of economics.
Embryology Study of embryology.
Endocrinology Study of endocrinology.
Entomology Study of entomology.
Epidemiology Study of infectious diseases.
Epigraphy Study of scriptology.
Epistemology Study of the nature of knowledge.
Eschatology Study of death and fate.
Etanography The branch of anthropology that deals with the scientific description of
individual cultures.
Ethnology The branch of anthropology that studies the origin and distribution
characteristics of human species.
Ethology Study of animal nature.
Eugenics Study of eugenics.
Exobiology Study of ectobiology.

Genecology Study of genetic composition of plants from habitat point of view.
Gensiology The study of generation science.
Genetics Genetics.
Geobiology Terrestrial biology.
Geobotany Terrestrial botany.
Geochemistry Geochemistry.
Geology Geology.
Geomedicine Geomedical science.
Geomorphology Study of the origin, development and properties of land features.
Geophysics The study of geophysics.
Geriatrics The branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases
that affect adults.
Geriodontics Study of dental diseases in adults.
Gerontology Study of old age and its diseases.
Gynaecology Study of diseases related to maternal reproductive system.
Haemetology Study of hematology.
Hepatology Study of the liver.
Histology Study of histology.
Horticulture Production of flowers, fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants.
Hydrodynamics Study of hydrodynamics.
Hydrology Study of the properties of water present in the hydrosphere and atmosphere.
Hydropathy Treatment of disease by external and internal use of water.
Hydroponics To grow a plant by keeping its roots in a nutrient-rich aqueous solution rather
than in soil.
Hydrostatics Hydrostatics.
Hygiene Health protection science.
Hypnology Study of sleep.
Ichthyology Fisheries science.
Immunology Immunology.
Lalopathology Study of irregularities in speech.
Lithology Study of properties of rocks.
Malacology Study of molluscology.
Metallography Study of crystal structure of metals and alloys.
Meteorology Atmospheric science.
Metrology The scientific study of bacteria, fungi and pathogenic protozoa.
Minerology Study of the distribution and properties of minerals.
Moleculer Biology Microscience.
Morphology External Science.
Mycology Mycology.
Myrmecology Study of ants.
Nephrology Study of kidney related diseases.
Neurology The study of neuroscience.
Neuropathology Study of diseases related to the nervous system.
Neurophysiology Study of nervous system related processes and physical and chemical
changes.
Neumerology Mathematics.
Obstetrics The branch of medicine which studies the processes related to pregnancy
and childbirth.
Oceanography Study of oceanography.
Odontology Study of dentistry.
Olfactology Study of olfactory sense.
Oncology Study of cancer.
Ophthalmology Study of eyes and eye related diseases.
Oology Egg Mainly the study of bird eggs.
Ophilogy Study of serpentology.
Optics Study of the properties of light.
Ornithology Study of birds.
Orthondontics Study of dental irregularities and problems.
Orthopaedics The science of diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases of the
musculoskeletal system.
Osteology Study of osteology.
Otology Study of ear.
Otorhinolaryngology Study of diseases related to nose, ear and throat.
Palaeobotany Fossil botany.
Palaeontology Biological Sciences.
Palaeozoology Biological zoology.
Parasitology Bacteriology.
Pathology Study of diseases.
Pedology Study of the origin, composition and structure of soil.
Phormacology Study of the effect of medicines on the body.
Penology Study of treatment of criminals.
Phryngology Study of pharyngitis and related diseases.
Phenology Study of the sequence of plants.
Philology Study of written documents and their authenticity.
Phonetics Study of the origin, transmission and reception of sound.
Photobiology Study of the effect of light on living organisms.
Phrenology Determination of the structure of the brain (quality, nature etc.) based on the
structure of the skull.
Phthisiology The scientific study of tuberculosis, disease.
Phycology The study of algae.
Physical Science Study of natural laws and processes.
Physics Study of physics.
Physiography Study of physical geology.
Physiology Study of the processes of various organs in living organisms.
Phytogent The study of the science related to the origin and development of plants.
Phytopathology Study of origin, nature and prevention of diseases occurring in plants.
Pomology Study of fruits.
Potamology Study of rivers.
Psychiatry Study of mental and emotional irregularities.
Psychology Study of human and animal behaviour.
Pteridology Study of ferns.
Radio Astronomy Radio astronomy.
Radio Biology Study of the effects of radiation on living organisms.
Radiology Study of x-rays and radioactivity.
Seismology Scientific study of earthquake & sesmic waves.
Selenoigy Scientific study of the moon, its nature, origin and motion.
Sericulture Silk Science.
Sitology Nutritional Science.
Sociology Social Science.
Spectroseophy Study of matter and its energy using a spectroscope.
Syllepsiology The branch of medicine dealing with pregnancy.
Symptomatology The branch of medicine dealing with the symptoms of disease.
Syndesmology The science dealing with connective tissue.
Teleology The study of the validity of nature's purposes.
Telepathy Intercommunication between brains.
Teratology The branch of embryology that deals with abnormal growth and malformation.
Theology Study of religion.
Therapeutics Science related to wound healing
Toxicology Study of poisons & their effects.
Urology Study of the structure and function of the urogenital tract.
Virology Study of viruses.
Zoology Study of zoology.
Zymology Study of fermentation.
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Foundation Notes

2. Elements, Compounds and Mixtures -------------------------- 08-10

3. Periodic table ------------------------------------------------------ 11-13

4. Some basic concepts of chemistry ----------------------------- 14-17

5. Chemical bond ---------------------------------------------------- 18-20

6. Radioactivity ------------------------------------------------------- 21-25

7. Acid, Bash, Salt ---------------------------------------------------- 26-31

8. Minerals and ores ------------------------------------------------- 32-36

9. Organic Chemistry ------------------------------------------------ 37-44

10. Oxidation and Reduction ---------------------------------------- 45-47

11. Chemistry and its important parts ---------------------------- 48-54

12. Scientific Branches ----------------------------------------------- 55-59

1 Structure of atom and nucleus

Physical classification of matter

Chemical classification of matter

Major Principles related to atom

Panch tatva theory-

Rutherford’s Atomic Model

Bohr’s Atomic Model

5. When an atom receives energy from an external source,

Particles of the nucleus

Atomic Orbit or Shell

 The circular path around the nucleus is called orbit or shell.

Atomic number and mass number of some important elements

2 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

Type of mixture Example of a Mixture

Methods for separating mixtures:-

 Moseley is credited with presenting the modern periodic table (1913).

Trends in Chemical Reactivity

Atomic number Names and symbols Atomic mass

93 Neptunium (Np) 237

94 Plutonium (Pu) 242

95 Americium (Am) 243

96 Curium (Cm) 247

97 Berkelium (Bk) 249

98 Californium (Cf) 249

99 Einsteinium (Es) 251

Atomic number Names and symbols Atomic mass

100 Fermium (Fm) 253

101 Mendelevium (Md) 256

102 Nobelium (No) 254

103 Lawrencium (Lr) 257

Element Isotopes (atomic weight)

Plutonium 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 244

Americium 241, 242, 243

Curium 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 250

Berkelium 247, 249

Californium 249, 250, 251, 252

Einsteinium 253, 254

4 Some basic concepts of chemistry

Some catalysts and their applications

Production of ammonia gas Iron

Production of sulfuric acid Platinum, oxides of nitrogen

Production of ghee from vegetable oil Nickel

Production of fuel from alcohol Hot aluminum

Production of chlorine gas Cupric chloride

pH value of some common substances

Indicator Acidic Alkaline Moody

Methyl orange Pink Yellow Orange