EXPERIMENT 6

AIM
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection
method and to find its figure of merit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A moving coil galvanometer, a battery or a battery eliminator (0 - 6 V),
one resistance box (RBOX 1) of range 0 - 10 kΩ, one resistance box
(RBOX 2) of range 0 - 200 Ω, two one way keys, voltmeter, connecting
wires and a piece of sand paper.

P RINCIPLE
Galvanometer High Resistance Box
E K1
Galvanometer is a sensitive + –
RBOX 1
device used to detect very low R
current. Its working is based on
the principle that a coil placed
in a uniform magnetic field
experiences a torque when an I I
G
electric current is set up in it. The
deflection of the coil is Ig
determined by a pointer attached
to it, moving on the scale. Low Resistance Box
RBOX 2
When a coil carrying current I is I – Ig
S K2
placed in a radial magnetic field,
the coil experiences a deflection Fig. E 6.1 Circuit for finding resistance of galvanometer
θ which is related to I as
(E 6.1)
I=kθ

where k is a constant of proportionality and is termed as figure of

merit of the galvanometer.

The circuit arrangement required for finding the resistance G of the

galvanometer by half deflection method is shown in Fig. E 6.1.
LABORATORY MANUAL

When a resistance R is introduced in the circuit, the current Ig flowing

through it is given by

E
(E 6.2) Ig =
R+G

In this case, the key K 2 is kept open. Here E is the emf of battery,
G is the resistance of the galvanometer whose resistance is to
be determined.

If the current Ig produces a deflection θ in the galvanometer, then

from equation (E 6.1) we get

Ig = k θ
(E 6.3)

Combining equations (E 6.2) and (E 6.3) we get

E
(E 6.4) =kθ
R+G

On keeping both the keys K 1 and K 2 closed and by adjusting

t h e v a l u e o f s h u n t r e s i s t a n c e S, t h e d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e
1
galvanometer needle becomes (half). As G and S are in
2
parallel combination and R in series with it, the total resistance
of the circuit

(E 6.5)

The total current, I due to the emf E in the circuit is given by

E
I=
(E 6.6) GS
R+
G+S

If I ′ g is the current through the galvanometer of resistance

G, then

G I′g = S (I – I′g)

IS
(E 6.7) or, I g′ =
G+S

Substituting the value of I from Equation (E 6.6), in equation (E 6.7)

the current I′g is given by
54
 E XPERIMENT 6

 
 IS E S 
 I ′g = = . 
 G+S R+ GS G +S 
 G +S 

ES
I g′ = (E 6.8)
R (G + S ) + GS

For galvanometer current I′g, if the deflection through the galvanometer

⎛ θ⎞
is reduced to half of its initial value ⎜ = ⎟ then
⎝ 2⎠

θ  ES
I' g = k   =
 
2 R (G + S )+ GS

On dividing Eq. (E 6.2) by Eq. (E 6.8),

Ig E R (G + S ) + GS
= × =2
I' g R +G ES

or, R (G + S) + GS = 2S (R + G)

⇒ RG = RS + GS

⇒ G (R – S) = RS

RS (E 6.9)
or, G =
R −S

By knowing the values of R and S, the galvanometer resistance G can

be determined. Normally R is chosen very high (~ 10 kΩ) in comparison
to S (~ 100 Ω) for which
G
S
The figure of merit (k) of the galvanometer is defined as the current
required for deflecting the pointer by one division. That is

I (E 6.10)
k=
θ
For determining the figure of merit of the galvanometer the key K2 is
opened in the circuit arrangement.
Using Eqs. (E 6.2) and (E 6.3) the figure of merit of the galvanometer
is given by

1 ⎛ E ⎞ (E 6.11)
k=
θ ⎜⎝R + G⎟⎠ ,

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By knowing the values of E, R, G and θ the figure of merit of the

galvanometer can be calculated.

P ROCEDURE
1. Clean the connecting wires with sand paper and make neat and
tight connections as per the circuit diagram (Fig. E 6.1).
2. From the high resistance box (RBOX 1) (1-10 kΩ), remove 5 kΩ key
and then close the key K1. Adjust the resistance R from this
resistance box to get full scale deflection on the galvanometer dial.
Record the values of resistance, R and deflection θ.
3. Insert the key K2 and keep R fixed. Adjust the value of shunt
resistance S to get the deflection in the galvanometer which is
exactly half of θ. Note down S. Remove plug K2 after noting down
the value of shunt resistance, S.
4. Take five sets of observations by repeating steps 2 and 3 so that
θ is even number of divisions and record the observations for R,

S, θ and θ in tabular form.

2
5. Calculate the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k of
galvanometer using Eqs. (E 6.9) and (E 6.11) respectively.

O BSERVATIONS
Emf of the battery E = ... V
Number of divisions on full scale of galvanometer = ...
Table E 6.1: Resistance of galvanometer

Sl. High Deflection in Shunt Half deflection G= k=

No. Resistance the resistance in the R.S E 1
galvanometer galvanometer .
R −S R +G θ
θ
R (Ω) θ (divisions) S (Ω) (divisions) (Ω) A/divisions
2
1
2
--
5

C ALCULATIONS
Mean value of G (resistance of galvanometer) = ... Ω
Mean value of k (figure of merit of galvanometer) = ... ampere/division.
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R ESULT
1. Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, G = ... Ω
2. Figure of merit of galvanometer, k = ...ampere/division

P RECAUTIONS
1. Key K1 should be inserted only after high value of R has been
taken out from resistance box otherwise galvanometer coil
may burn.
2. Adjust R such that deflection in galvanometer is of even division
so that θ/2 is more conveniently obtained.
3. Emf of the battery should be constant.
4. Use as high values of R as practically possible. This ensures correct
value of G.
5. All the connections and plugs in the resistance box should
be tight.

S
OURCES OF ERRORS
1. Plugs in the resistance boxes may be loose or they may not
be clean.
2. The emf of the battery may not be constant.

D ISCUSSION
1. By closing the key K2 and adjusting the value of resistance in
resistance box R BOX 2 , you get the deflection θ /2 in the
galvanometer. Then the resistance S equals G, the resistance
of galvanometer, because half of the current passing through
R is shared by S and half by galvanometer. It is noteworthy
that R is so large compared to S or G that opening or closing
the key K2 makes insignificant difference in the current passing
through R.
2. We define current sensitivity C of the galvanometer as the deflection
produced per unit current. With K2 open, the current passing
through it is

E
Cθ =
R
E
C=
Rθ

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3. From eq. E 6.9, RS = G (R – S). Galvanometer resistance G can

also be determined from the slope of a graph plotted RS against
(R – S) with RS on y-axis and (R – S) on x-axis.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How will you use a galvanometer for measuring current?
2. (a) Out of galvanometer, ammeter and voltmeter which has the
highest resistance and which has the lowest? Explain.
(b) Which of the two meters has lower resistance – a milliammeter
or a microammeter?
3. What are the factors on which sensitivity of a galvanometer depends?
4. Internal resistance of the cell is taken to be zero. This implies that
we have to use a freshly charged accumulator in the experiment
or use a good battery eliminator. If the internal resistance is finite,
how will it affect the result?
5. Is it possible to find the galvanometer resistance by taking 1/3
deflection ? If so what changes would be required in the formula
for calculation of value of G.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1
1. Plot a graph between R and (R along x- axis). Use the graph to determine
θ
G and k.

⎛ E ⎞ ⎛ E ⎞
2. Plot a graph of θ against ⎜⎝ R + G⎟⎠ with θ on y-axis and ⎜⎝ R + G⎟⎠ on x-axis.

How will you determine k from the graph?

3. Use the values of G and k to calculate the value of shunt resistance

required to convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of
0 - 3 A range.

4. Calculate the value of series resistance required to convert the given

galvanometer into a voltmeter of 0 – 30 V range.

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EXPERIMENT 3
AIM
To verify the laws of combination of resistances (series and parallel)
using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two different resistances
(carbon or wire-wound resistors), a resistance box, a jockey, a rheostat,
a plug key, a cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.

P RINCIPLE
When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series, the resistance
of the combination R S is given by

(E 3.1) RS = R 1 + R 2

When connected in parallel, the resistance R P of the combination is

given by

1 1 1
(E 3.2) = +
R P R1 R2

P ROCEDURE
1. Set up the circuit as shown in Fig. E 3.1.
2. Tighten all plugs in the resistance box (RBOX) by rotating and
pressing each plug to ensure that all plugs make good electrical
contacts. Clean the ends of connecting wires using a sand paper
before making the connections.
3. Remove some plug(s) from the resistance box to get suitable
value of resistance R. Obtain the null point D on the metre bridge
wire by sliding the jockey between ends A and C as was done in
Experiment 2.
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 E XPERIMENT 3

Fig. E 3.1 Resistances R1 and R2 connected in series to one arm of a metre bridge

4. Note resistance R and lengths AD and DC in the observation

table.
5. Calculate the experimental value of the equivalent series
resistance (X) of combination of resistances as shown in
Table E 3.1.
6. Repeat the experiment for four more values of resistances R.
Obtain the mean value of unknown resistance.

Fig. E 3.2 Resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel to one arm of a metre bridge

7. Repeat steps 2 - 6 by connecting resistances R1 and R2 in parallel

as shown in Fig. E 3.2 and calculate the experimental value of
the equivalent parallel resistance (X) of combination of resistance.
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O
BSERVATIONS
Table E 3.1: Series and parallel combination of resistances

Sl Resistance Length Length Unknown ∆RS or ∆RP

No. R AD = l DC, l′ = 100 - l resistance
R ×l
X (R or R ) =
S P l′
(ohm) (cm) (cm) (ohm) (ohm)
R1 and 1
R2 in 2
series, --
RS
5
Mean RS =
R 1 and 1
R 2 in 2
parallel, --
RP 5

Mean R P =

C ALCULATIONS
1. The theoretically expected value of the series combination of
resistances is RS = R 1 + R 2

Note that R1 and R2 are to be obtained from colour code on carbon

resistors or are the given values in case of resistances made of
wires of materials like nichrome, constantan etc.
2. Theoretically expected value of the parallel combination of
R1 R 2
resistances is R P =
R1 + R2

Error
In estimating errors, we have presumed that error in R is zero i.e., R is
expected to be the same as indicated on resistance box.

∆R S ∆l ∆l′
(E 3.3) In such a case, = +
RS l l′

where Rs, l and l′ values are to be taken from the Observation Table
E 3.1, ∆l, ∆l′ indicate the least count of the measuring scale on the
metre bridge.
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 E XPERIMENT 3

∆l ∆l′ 
i.e. ∆RS = RS  + (E 3.4)
l l′ 

 ∆l ∆l′  (E 3.5)
Similarly, ∆RP = RP  +
l l′ 

Maximum of the five values of ∆RS and ∆RP should be reported as the
estimation in errors. It can be seen from equation (E 3.4) and
(E 3.5) that the error will be minimum if balancing lengths l ≈ l′.
Therefore the null points should be obtained in the central region of
the wire AC. For this reason, it is essential to plug out resistances
from resistance box such that resistances in the left and right gaps
are comparable.

R ESULT

Table E 3.2: Theoretical and experimental values of resistance

Theoretically Experimentally
expected resistance(Ω) obtained resistance (Ω)

Series Combination R1 + R 2 R S ± ∆RS

R1 R2
Parallel Combination RP ± ∆R P
R1 + R2

R S and R P are the mean values of equivalent resistance for the

combination of R1 and R2 in series and in parallel respectively.

P RECAUTIONS
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. Plug keys of the resistance box should be made tight by rotating
it in clockwise direction.
4. Null points should be in the central region of the wire
(30 cm to 70 cm).

S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the metre bridge
wire. Otherwise, the wire may become non-uniform during the
course of time.

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2. The length measurement l and l′ may have error if the metre bridge
wire is not taut and along the scale in the metre bridge.
3. If large current is passed for a sufficiently long time, the wire AC
may get heated and its resistance may change considerably during
the time of experiment.
4. Galvanometer pointer is expected to be at zero when no current flows
through it. However, many a time it is observed that it is not so. In
such cases, pointer has to be adjusted to zero by gently moving the
screw below the scale with the help of a screw driver. Otherwise, null
point must be obtained by sliding the jockey on wire AC and
observing the point, where tapping the galvanometer does not
produce any deflection in it.
5. Many a time, it is found that the resistance offered by resistance
box is not the same as is indicated on it. Therefore, the error in R
will cause an additional error in the result.

D ISCUSSION
1. It may be noted that if carbon resistors are used, ∆R1 and ∆R2 are
to be obtained from tolerance limits shown by band of the colour
codes* marked on them and error ∆RS and ∆RP can also be
calculated using these values as shown in Example 2.10 (p.27) in
PHYSICS Textbook for Class XI Part-I (NCERT, 2006). Maximum of
values of ∆RS and ∆RP so obtained together with that from equations
(E 3.4) and (E 3.5) should be reported as estimation in errors.
2. The accuracy with which the null point can be detected also
depends upon the sensitivity of the galvanometer. To investigate
sensitivity, find the distance through which the jockey has to be
moved to cause a just perceptible deflection of the galvanometer.
Make a note of the range of distance over which null point is
obtained at all points. Ideally, this range should not be more than
the least count of the measuring scale.
3. In some cases, it is possible that the bridge wire is not exactly
100 cm long. In such cases its exact length should be used for
the calculation.
4. If resistances R 1 and R2 are made of wires of materials like
constantan, nichrome etc., their values along with the corrected
errors in their measurement should be considered for calculating
equivalent resistance.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Comment on the difference between theoretically expected and
experimentally obtained values of the effective resistances.
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2. Given n resistors of resistance R each, how will you combine

them to get the maximum and the minimum effective
resistance? Extend this experiment using filament of bulbs
as resistors.
3. Identify some method(s) to reduce the effect of ‘end-resistance’ at
connections between the wire and copper strip or because of the
improper soldering of wire.
4. How will the sensitivity of metre bridge change under
following condition?
Rheostat head is moved from minimum resistance to maximum
resistance positions.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Replace the galvanometer with a torch bulb and repeat the experiment.
Explain the variation in the glow of the bulb with position of jockey on
wire AC (Fig. E.3.1).

 l′ 
2. Making use of your observations, plot a graph between   and R taking
l

 l′ 
  on y-axis and R on x-axis. Find the unknown resistance from the
l
slope of the graph.

3. Use a wire of arbitrary length L. Measure its resistance across ends A

and B, say R 1, using the metre bridge. Next, fold the wire so as to reduce
its length to (L/2) and measure the new resistance, say R 2 , across the
ends A′ and B′. Finally, fold it again and repeat the observation for
resistance across ends A″ and B″. Plot a graph of n (number of folds)
and the effective resistance, by folding the wire a number of times and
obtaining resistances as described above. Take care that folded wires
do not make electrical contact with each other at any point except at
their ends (A, B, A′, B′ and A″, B″).

Fig. E 3.3

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 EXPERIMENT 10
AIM
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between
u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench, two sharp-edged needle (pins), convex
lens of less than 20 cm focal length, three uprights (with clamps),
index needle (may be a knitting needle), metre scale and
spirit level.

T ERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Principal axis of a lens is the line joining centre of curvature of the
two surfaces.

2. Optical centre is the point, through which a ray passes undeviated

through the lens.

3. Principal focus is the point where rays parallel to the principal

axis focus after passing through the lens (convex) or appear to
come from after passing through the lens (concave).

4. Focal length is the distance between optical centre of lens

and focus.

5. Intercepts of a graph: If a graph cuts x-axis and y-axis, then

lengths between origin and points of interception are intercepts
of the graph.

G RAPHICAL METHOD FOR FINDING THE POSITION OF AN IMAGE FORMED

BY THIN LENSES
The image formed by a thin lens can be located using graphical method
by considering refraction of rays emanating from each point on the
object. However, it is convenient to choose any two of the following
three rays (Fig. E 10.1).

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1. A ray from the tip of the object parallel to the principal axis of the
lens that passes through the second principal focus F′ (in a convex
lens) or appears to diverge (in a concave lens) from the first principal
focus F after refraction.
2. A ray from the tip of the object incident at the optical centre, passes
through the lens undeviated. This is because near its centre, the
lens behaves like a thin glass slab.
3. A ray of light from the same point on the object that passes through
the first principal focus F (for a convex lens) or appearing to pass
through F′ (for a concave lens) emerges parallel to the principal
axis after refraction.

Fig. E 10.1 Ray tracing for locating the image formed by (a) convex lens and (b) concave lens.

P RINCIPLE
For an object placed at a distance u from the optical centre of a thin
convex lens of focal length f , a real and inverted image is formed on
the other side of the lens at a distance v from the optical centre. The
relation between these distances is:

(E 10.1) 1 1 1
= −
f v u

According to the new cartesian sign convention (see Physics Textbook,

NCERT, 2007, Class XII, Part-II p. 311,) u is negative but v is positive
[Fig. E 10.2 (a) and (b). Therefore the Eq. (E 10.1) takes the following
form for magnitudes of u and v.
(E 10.2) 1 1 1
= +
f v u
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uv
or, f = (E 10.3)
u +v
In this result the positive values of u and v are substituted.

1 1
Eq. (E 10.2) shows that versus graph is a straight line of negative
v u
1 1 1 1
slope. If equals zero or equals zero, then respectively =
v u u f
1 1
or = . The intercepts of
v f
the graph on both axes are
1
. Graph of u versus v is a
f
hyperbola. When u = v, then
each equals 2f. Eq. (E 10.3)
shows that values of u and v
are interchangeable. (a)

When an object (say, a pin) is

placed in front of a thin convex
lens at a distance equal to 2f, a
real and inverted image of same
size as that of the object is
formed at a distance equal to
2f on the other side of the lens
[Fig. E 10.2(a)]. If the object’s (b)
position lies in between distance
Fig. E 10.2 (a), (b) Formation of image by a convex
2f and distance f from the lens (a) u = 2f and (b) 2f > u > f.
optical centre of the lens then a
real, inverted and magnified image is formed at a point beyond 2f from
the optical centre on the other side of the lens [Fig. E 10.2(b)].
Thus, by measuring the distances u and v, the focal length of the
convex lens can be determined using Eq. (E 10.3). The focal length of
the lens may also be determined by plotting graphs between u and v
or between 1/u and 1/v.

P
ROCEDURE
1. Obtain approximate value of the focal length of the thin convex
lens by focusing the image of a distant object. It can be found by
obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a distant tree on a screen,
say a plane wall, or a sheet of paper placed on the other side of the
lens and measuring the distance between the lens and the image
with a scale. This distance is a rough estimate of the focal length,
f of the convex lens.
Note: Do not look at the image of Sun directly as it may hurt your eyes.
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2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform, and using

the spirit level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws
provided at the base of the bench.
3. Clamp the convex lens on an upright and mount it vertically almost
near to the middle of the optical bench such that its principal axis
is parallel to the optical bench. In this position, the lens would lie
in a plane perpendicular to the optical bench.
4. For the determination of the index correction, bring a mounted
pin close to the lens. Adjust the index needle (a sharp-edged
knitting needle would also serve the purpose) horizontally such
that its one end touches one of the curved surfaces of the lens and
the other end touches the tip of the pin. Note the positions of the
two uprights on the scale provided on the optical bench. The
difference of the two would give the observed length of the index
needle. The actual length between the tip of the pin and optical
centre O would be length of the index needle (as measured by a
scale) plus half of the thickness of the lens because optical centre
of a double convex lens with surfaces of equal curvature is at its
geometrical centre. The difference of the two lengths is the index
correction. Find index correction for both the pins.
5. Place the vertically mounted sharp pins P and P′ (Fig. E 10.3)
on left and right hand sides of the lens
respectively. Adjust the pins P and P′ so
that the heights of the tips of these pins
become equal to the height of the optical
centre O of the lens from the base of the
optical bench. Let the pin P (placed on left
hand side of the lens ) be the object pin
and the pin P′ (lying on right hand side) be
the image pin. Put a small piece of paper
Fig. E 10.3 The ray diagram for finding the on one of the pins (say on image pin P′) to
focal length of a convex lens. differentiate it from the object pin P′.

6. Displace the object pin P (on left side of the lens) to a distance
slightly less than 2f from the optical centre O of the lens
(Fig. E 10.3). Locate the position of the real and inverted image on
the other side of the lens above the image pin P′.

7. Using the method of parallax, adjust the position of the image

pin P′ such that the image of the object pin P coincides with the
image pin P′.

Note: As the value of u changes from 2f to f, v changes from 2f to

infinity. Since the values of u and v are interchangeable, i.e., the object
and image are two conjugate points, therefore it is clear that complete
range of values for both u and v between f and infinity are obtained
for a movement of the object pin over the range 2f to f.
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8. Note the upright position of the object pin, convex lens and image
pin on the optical bench and record the readings in an
observation table.
9. Move the object pin P closer to the optical centre O of the lens (say
by 2 cm or 3 cm). Repeat the experiment and record at least six
sets of readings for various distances of object pin between f and
2f from the lens.

O
BSERVATIONS
1. Approximate focal length of the convex lens = ... cm
2. Length of the index needle as measured by the metre scale,
L0 =... cm
3. Thickness of the thin convex lens (given), t = ... cm
4. Actual length between the optical centre O of the lens and tip of
the pin, l0 = L0 + t/2 = ... cm
5. Observed length of the index needle, l0′ = Distance between the
centre of convex lens and tip of the object pin
= Position of lens upright – position of object pin upright on the
scale.
= ... cm – ... cm =...cm

6. Index correction for object distance, eo = l 0 – l0′ = cm; similarly

for image pin, ei = l i – li′ = ...cm

Table E 10.1: Determination of u, v and f

Corrected u = Observed

Sl.
= Observed v + ei (cm)
Object pin upright

Image pin upright

No.
u = a – b (cm)

v = a – c (cm)
Lens upright

Corrected v

1 1 uv
Observed

Observed

f =
u + eo (cm)

∆ f (cm)

u +v
a (cm)

b (cm)

c (cm)

u v
-1 cm-1
cm cm

1
2
--
6
Mean

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C ALCULATIONS
A. Calculate the corrected values of u and v. Compute the value of f.
using Eq. (E 10.3). Tabulate them in the table and find the mean
value of the focal length of the given convex lens.
Error

1 1 1
= +
f u v

∆f ∆u ∆v
or = +
f 2 u 2 v2

 ∆u ∆v 
∆f = f 2  2 + 2 
u v 
Maximum of six values of ∆f is to be reported with the result as
the experimental error.

C ALCULATION OF FOCAL LENGTH BY PLOTTING GRAPHS

(A detailed method of plotting graphs has been illustrated in
Chapter 1 Article 1.7 (p. no. 15).
B. u – v Graph: Take u along X-axis and v along Y-axis. Scales of
x- and y-axis should be same. Draw a hyperbola curve for various
values of u and v (Fig. E 10.4). Note that six sets of readings for u
between f and 2f, give you 12 points on the graph by
interchanging values of u and v.
The point u = 2f; v = 2f is shown as point Z on
u – v graph (Fig. E 10.4). The point Z is the point
of intersection of a line OZ bisecting the angle
∠XOY with hyperbola. Draw two lines AZ and BZ
perpendicular to Y- and X-axis, respectively. The
lengths AZ and BZ are both equal to distance 2f.
Thus by plotting the u – v graph, the focal length
of the lens can be obtained.
Distance OA (= 2f ) on Y-axis = ... cm
Distance OB (= 2f ) on X-axis = ... cm
Mean focal length of the convex lens, f

Fig. E 10.4 u versus v graph for convex lens = = ... cm

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C. 1/u – 1/v graph: Draw a straight

line graph by plotting 1/u along
the X-axis and 1/v along the
Y-axis (Fig. E 10.5). Both the
intercepts OA′ (on Y-axis) and
OB′ (on X-axis) will be equal to
distance 1/f.
Intercept OA′ (= 1/f ) on Y-axis
=...cm–1
Intercept OB′ (= 1/f ) on X-axis
=...cm–1
Mean focal length ( f ) of the convex
2
lens = =...cm. Fig. E 10.5 1/u versus 1/v graph for a convex lens
OA + OB'
'
(not to scale).

R ESULT
The focal length of the given converging thin convex lens:
(i) from calculations as shown in Observation Table E10.1
f ± ∆f = ...cm (here f is mean value of the focal length)
(ii) from u – v graph =...cm, and
(iii) from 1/u – 1/v graph =...cm.

P
RECAUTIONS
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and
mounted vertically.
2. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image
formed will not be distinct.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the
image needle.
4. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical
bench is not horizontal and similarly if the tips of pins and optical
centre of the lens are not at the same horizontal level.
5. The image and object needles should not be interchanged
during the performance of the experiment, as this may
cause change in index corrections for object distance and
image distance.
6. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the

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tip of the image needle and must not overlap. This should be
ensured while removing the parallax.
7. The general instructions to be followed in all optical bench
experiments (as given in the description of optical bench) must be
taken care of.
8. The corrected values of the distances u and v must be put in
the formula for calculating f and then a mean of f should be
taken. Calculations for f must not be made using the mean
values of u and v.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
3. If the knitting needle or index rod for finding index correction is
not sharp like a needle, its length may not be accurately found
on scale.

D ISCUSSION
In plotting 1/v versus 1/u graph, if scales for the two axes are not
same, then the straight line graph may (rather will) not be at 45° to
x-axis. This may result in confusions and error in drawing the graph.
Keeping the scale same and drawing the best fit graph at 45° to x-axis
is the best method. Then, due to inherent errors in measurement 1/f
on both axes may be a bit too large or a bit too small.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Draw the ray diagram for image formation in case of a convex lens
for position of object varying from infinity to optical centre.
2. What are the differences between the image formed by a convex
lens and a concave lens?
3. How does the focal length of a thick convex lens differ from that of
a thin lens?
4. How can you recognise a convex lens, a circular glass slab and a
concave lens, without touching them?
5. Where does the centre of curvature of the plane surface of a
plano-convex lens lie?
6. Define the principal axis of a plano-convex lens?

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7. How does the focal length of a convex lens change if it is dipped in

water?
8. What is the relation between focal length and radius of curvature
of a plano-convex lens?
9. Can a virtual image produced by a lens be inverted?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Draw a graph by plotting u v along y-axis and u + v along x-axis. Determine

focal length f of the convex lens from the slope.

2. EFFECT OF MEDIUM ON FOCAL LENGTH

You have an aquarium, an open window at some distance from it, and a
magnifying glass of 50 mm diameter. With your 30 cm scale find the rough
focal length of the magnifying glass in air. Then dip it in water by left hand
and a white plastic bag (folded with a 5 cm × 5 cm card in it to make a white
screen) by right hand. Focus image of a distant object on the screen by
adjusting the position of the screen. Is the rough focal length in water bigger
or smaller than that in air? Let a friend measure the focal length in water
and find the ratio of the two.

3. MEASURING LENGTH OF THE FILAMENT OF A CLEAR ELECTRIC LAMP

You cannot put the scale behind and in contact with the filament to measure
its length. Of course you can do this measurement by vernier microscope.
But can it be done by a simple convex lens and a scale only? You can also
add things like clamp stand etc, as per needs of the experiment. Can you
also measure the dark (cool) gap between adjacent segments of the filament
of the lamp?

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EXPERIMENT 16
AIM
To draw the I - V characteristic curves of a p-n junction in forward
bias and reverse bias.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A p-n junction diode (OA-79 or 1N4007), a resistor of value
(3Ω, 1/2W), one variable voltage power supply (0-12V), voltmeter
(0-12V), milliammeter (0-200 mA), a plug key, connecting wires, sand
paper and a microammeter (0-200 µA).

T ERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Forward bias: When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction
diode in such a way that the p-side is at a higher potential with
respect to the n-side, it is said to be forward biased.

2. Threshold voltage or “Cut-in” voltage: When the p-side is

connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the voltage is
increased, initially a negligible current flows till the applied voltage
crosses a certain value. After, a characteristic voltage, the diode
current increases significantly (exponentially), even for a very small
increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called the
threshold voltage or cut-in-voltage of the diode.

3. Reverse bias: When the n-region of a p-n junction diode is at a

higher potential with respect to the p-region, it is said to be reverse
biased. In reverse bias, the p-side of the p-n junction diode is
connected to the negative of the battery.

4. Reverse saturation current: As the applied voltage is increased

in the reverse biased condition, starting from zero value, the current
increases, but soon becomes constant. This current is very small
(a few microamperes). It is called the reverse saturation current.
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13

P
ROCEDURE
1. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter (V),
milliammeter (mA) and the microammeter (µA).
2. Remove the insulating layers
from the connecting wires
and leads of diode using a
sand paper.
3. Connect the variable voltage
power supply, p-n junction
diode, voltmeter, milliammeter,
resistor and a plug key in a
circuit as shown in Fig. E 16.1.
4. Initially when the key is open,
you would note at this stage, that
no current is flowing through the
circuit. Now close the key. Fig. E 16.1 Forward biasing for a p-n junction diode
5. Give a small voltage to the circuit
by slight and gentle turning of
the power supply knob. Note the voltmeter reading across the
diode and the corresponding milliammeter reading to find the
current I flowing through the diode.
6. Gradually, increase the applied voltage (in steps) in
the circuit and note the corresponding voltmeter and milliammeter
readings in Table E 16.1.
The value of current flowing through the diode would be negligibly
small till the voltage across the diode exceeds the value of its cut in
or threshold voltage. After the cut-
in voltage, the variation in current
will be rapid.
7. Once the threshold voltage is
reached, vary the diode voltage
very slowly (preferably in steps of
0.1V) noting the corresponding
current I flowing through the
diode. Continue increasing voltage
till the current reaches the limit of
the milliammeter.
8. Now disconnect the circuit
and make the connections as
shown in Fig. E 16.2 for the reverse
bias characteristics. Connect p-side Fig. E 16.2 Reverse biasing for a p-n junction
of p-n junction diode to the diode

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negative terminal of the power supply and replace milliameter with

a microammeter. Gradually, increase the applied voltage (in steps)
in the circuit and note the corresponding voltmeter and
microammeter readings in Table E 16.2. In this part of experiment,
with the given supply voltage you will get only flat portion of the
reverse bias characteristic curve.
CAUTION
Never increase the value of the voltage too much across the diode.
Excessive current flow may damage the diode if it exceeds its limit.
Maximum permissible current that can pass through the diode can
be known from the technical data as specified by the manufacturer.

O BSERVATIONS
1. p-n junction diode used (diode no.) = ...

2. For forward biasing

(i) Range of the voltmeter = ... V to ... V

(ii) Least count of the voltmeter scale = ... V

(iii) Range of the milliammeter = ... mA to ... mA

(iv) Least count of the milliammeter scale = ... mA

3. For reverse biasing

(i) Range of the voltmeter = ... V to ... V

(ii) Least count of the voltmeter scale = ... V

(iii) Range of the microammeter = ... µA to ... µA

(iv) Least count the microammeter = ... µA

Table E 16.1: Variation of forward current with voltage across the
diode (forward bias)

Sl.No. Forward Forward

voltage Vf (V) current If (mA)

1
2
3
-
20
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13

Table E 16.2: Variation of reverse current with voltage across the

diode (reverse bias)

Sl.No. Reverse Reverse current

voltage Vr (V) Ir (µA)

1
2
--
20

P
LOTTING GRAPH
1. P l o t a g r a p h b e t w e e n
forward voltage across the
d i o d e ( Vf) a l o n g t h e
positive x-axis and current
flowing through the diode
( I) a l o n g t h e p o s i t i v e
y-axis. The graph as
shown in Fig. E 16.3
represents a typical I-V
characteristic of a silicon
diode used. Locate the
knee and determine the
cut-in voltage.

2. Now plot the reverse

voltage (V r ) along the
negative x-axis and the
corresponding current (in
µA) along the negative
y-axis as shown in Fig. E 16.3 Typical I-V characteristics of a silicon
diode in forward biasing and reverse
Fig. E 16.3. Determine the
biasing
reverse saturation current.

R ESULT
A. The value of cut-in voltage for the given diode is ... V.

B. The reverse saturation current for the given diode is...µA.

P
RECAUTIONS
1. Find out manufacturer’s specification for maximum permissible

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current through the given diode in forward bias. Take care not to
exceed this limit.
2. Find out manufacturers specification for maximum reverse voltage
to be applied to the diode. Take care not to exceed this limit.
3. It is important to take care that the potential difference across the
diode is increased gradually, in small steps. Keep your eyes on
the ammeter and let the current not exceed the specified limit.

D ISCUSSION
If we use different diodes (Ge or Si), what change do you observe in
the I - V characteristics? Does the threshold voltage / cut- in voltage of
the diode depend on the material of the diode?

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How can you operate diode as a switch or as a rectifier?
2. What is the difference between a diode and a resistor?
3. If a resistor of higher value (greater than the resistor connected in
the circuit) is connected in series with diode, then comment on the
slope of linear region of I - V characteristics.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Perform the same experiment with a different value of R connected in series

with the diode. What changes will be observed in
(a) cut - in voltage?
(b) actual value of current for same voltage for different values of R?
(c) shape of I - V characteristics?
2. Perform the same experiment with a light emitting diode (LED) in place of a
diode and plot the I - V characteristics. What change do you observe in the
threshold voltage when you use different coloured LEDs?

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EXPERIMENT 11
AIM
To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench with uprights for holding lens, mirror and two
needles, two needles (pins), a thin convex lens, a convex mirror, index
needle (may be a knitting needle or a pencil sharply pointed at both
ends), a metre scale and a spirit level.

P RINCIPLE
Fig. E 11.1 illustrates the formation of image of an object AB by a
convex mirror MM′ (having a small aperture) in two different
situations. The image formed by a convex mirror is virtual and erect.
Therefore, its focal length cannot be determined directly. However, it
can be determined by introducing a convex lens in between the object
and the convex mirror (Fig. E 11.2).

Fig. E 11.1(a) Object is at infinity. A highly Fig. E 11.1(b) Object is in front of the mirror. A
diminished and point image is diminished virtual image is
located at the focus behind produced between the pole and
the convex mirror focus behind the mirror

An object AB is placed at point P′ in front of a thin convex lens such

that its real, inverted and magnified image A′B′ is formed at position

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C on the other side of the lens [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Now a convex mirror is
introduced between the convex lens and point C and so adjusted that
the real and inverted image A′B′ coincides with the object AB at point
P′ [Fig. E 11.2 (a)]. This is possible if the light rays starting from the
tip of the object, after passing through the lens, fall normally on the
reflecting surface of the convex mirror and retrace their path. Any
normal ray (perpendicular) to a spherical surface has to be along the
radius of that sphere so that point C must be the centre of curvature
of the convex mirror. Therefore, the distance P C is the radius of
curvature R and half of it would be the focal length of the convex
mirror. That is,

PC R
f = =
2 2

Fig. E 11.2 Image formed by (a) convex mirror and convex lens-image A′ B′
coincides with the object A B at P ′(b) convex lens- image is inverted
and magnified

P
ROCEDURE
1. In case, if the focal length of the given thin convex lens is not
known then approximate value of its focal length should be
estimated first.
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2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform. Using the

spirit level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws
provided at the base of the bench.
3. Place the uprights mounted with pin P1 (object pin), convex
lens LL′, and convex mirror MM′ on the horizontal optical bench
[Fig. E11.2(a)].
4. Check that the lens, mirror, and pin P1 are vertically placed on
the optical bench. Also verify that the tip of the pin, optical centre
O of the convex lens LL′, and pole P′ of the convex miror MM′ lie
on the same horizontal straight line, parallel to the optical bench.
5. Determine the index correction between upright holding of
the convex mirror and image pin respectively, using an
index needle.
6. Place the object pin P1 from the convex lens LL′ at a distance slightly
greater than the focal length of the lens.
7. Adjust the position of the convex mirror MM′ till the light rays
reflected back from the mirror pass through the lens and form
a real and inverted image coinciding with the object pin P1, as
shown in Fig.E 11.2 (a). This occurs when the rays starting from
the tip of pin P1, after passing through the lens strike the mirror
normally and are reflected back along their original paths.
Remove the parallax between the image and object pins.
8. Read the position of uprights holding the object pin P1, convex
lens LL′, and convex mirror MM′ and record the observations in
the observation table.
9. Remove the convex mirror from its upright and fix image pin
P2 on it. Adjust the height of pin such that the tip of it also lies
on the principal axis of the lens. That is, the tips of the pins P1
and P2 and the optical centre O of the convex lens, all lie on a
straight horizontal line parallel to the length of the optical
bench.
10. You may put a small piece of paper on image pin P2 to differentiate
it from the object pin P1.
11. Using the method of parallax and without changing the position
of lens LL′ and object pin P1, adjust the position of image pin P2
on the other side of the lens so that it coincides with the real
and inverted image of the object pin P1 formed by the convex
lens [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Note the position of the image pin.
12. Repeat the experiment by changing the separation between the
pin P1 and lens L L′ and the mirror MM′. In this manner, take five
sets of observations.

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O
BSERVATIONS
1. Focal length of the convex lens, f (estimated/given) = ... cm
2. Actual length of the index needle, l = ... cm
3. Observed length of the index needle l′
= Position of mirror upright – position of pin upright on the scale
= ... cm
4. Index correction, e = Actual length – observed length (l – l′) = ... cm

Table E 11.1: Determination of radius of curvature of convex

mirror, R

Sl. Upright position of Observed Corrected Focal ∆f

No. R′ = c – d R length
Observed f
R′ + e
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
Object Convex Convex Image
pin P1 lens LL′ mirror pin P2
MM′
a (cm) b (cm) c (cm) d (cm)
1
2
--
5
Mean

C
ALCULATIONS
Calculate the mean value of radius of curvature of the convex mirror,
R, and determine its focal length using the following relation

R
f = = ... cm
2

Error

R ′ + l ( c − d ) + (l − l ′)
f = =
2 2

∆f ∆c ∆d ∆l ∆l ′
= + + +
f c d l l′

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when ∆c, ∆d, ∆l and ∆l′ are the least counts of the measuring
instruments. Maximum of the five values of ∆f is to be reported with
the result as the experimental error.

R ESULT
The focal length of the given convex mirror is (f ± ∆f) ... ± ... cm.
Here f is mean value of the focal length.

P RECAUTIONS
1. The uprights supporting the pins, lens and mirror must be rigid
and mounted vertically.
2. The apertures of the given convex lens and convex mirror should
be small, otherwise the image formed will be distorted.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance of about 25 cm or more from
the image pin.
4. Optical bench should be horizontal. The tips of pins, centre of
convex lens and pole of the mirror should be at the same
horizontal level.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. The tip of the inverted image of the object pin should just touch
the tip of the image pin and must not overlap. This should be
ensured while removing the parallax.
2. Personal eye defects may make removal of parallax tedious.
3. The convex mirror should preferably be front-coated. Otherwise
multiple reflections may take place.

D ISCUSSION
It may not be possible to perform this experiment with just any convex
lens. The focal length of the lens used in this experiment should
neither be too small nor too large. Why?

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. If focal length of the concave mirror is determined, by using convex
lenses of different focal lengths, do you expect any change in the
result? If yes, what type of change? If not, why not?

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2. How will the result change if a convex lens of different refractive

indices were used?
3. If the convex lens selected for the experiment has focal length less
than that of the convex mirror, how would this selection limit the
experiment?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Repeat the experiment by using convex lenses of different focal lengths.

Compare and analyse the results.
2. Repeat the experiment by using convex mirrors of different focal lengths
with the help of the same convex lens. Discuss the results.

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EXPERIMENT 13
AIM
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism
by plotting a graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of
deviation.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Drawing board, triangular glass prism, metre scale, alpins,
cellotape/drawing pins, graph paper, protractor, white paper sheets.

P RINCIPLE
A triangular prism has three
rectangular lateral surfaces and
two triangular bases. The line
along which any two faces
(refracting surfaces) of the prism
meet is the refracting edge of the
prism and the angle between
them is the angle of the prism. For
this experiment, it is convenient
to place the prism with its
rectangular surfaces vertical. The
principal section ABC of the prism
is obtained by a horizontal plane
perpendicular to the refracting
Fig. E 13.1 Refraction of light through a glass prism
edge (Fig. E 13.1).

A ray of light PQ (from air to glass) incident on the first face AB at

an angle i is refracted at an angle r along QR and finally, emerges
along RS. The dotted lines in the figure represent the normal to the
surfaces. The angle of incidence (from glass to air) at the second
face AC is r′ and the angle of refraction (or emergence) is e. The
angle between the direction of incident ray PQ (produced forward)
and the direction of emergent ray RS (produced backward) is the
angle of deviation δ.

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From geometrical considerations we have

(E 13.1)
r + r′ = A
(E 13.2) = (i – r) + (e – r′) = i + e – A
At the position of the prism for minimum deviation δm, the light ray
passes through the prism symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the base so
that when

= m
, i = e which implies r = r′.
The advantage of putting the prism in minimum deviation position is
that the image is brightest in this position.

P ROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the help of
cellotape or drawing pins.
2. Draw a straight line XY, using a sharp pencil nearly in the middle
and parallel to the length of the paper.
3. Mark points O1, O2, O3. ., . . . . on the straight line XY at suitable
distances of about 8 to 10 cm and draw normals N1 O1, N2 O2, N3
O3. . . . on these points (Fig. E 13.2).

Fig. E 13.2 Refraction of light through a glass prism for various angles of incidence

4. Draw straight lines, P1 O1, P2 O2, P3 O3, . . . corresponding to the

incident rays making angles of incidence at 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, ... 60°
respectively with the normals, using a protractor. Write the values
of the angles ∠P1 O1 N1, ∠P2 O2 N2, ∠ P3 O3 N3,... on the white
paper sheet ( Fig. E 13.2).
5. Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XY with
point O1 in the middle of AB as shown in the figure. Draw the
boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.
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 EXPERIMENT 13

6. Fix two alpins Pl and Q 1 with sharp tips vertically about

10 cm apart, on the incident ray line Pl Ql such that pin
Q1 is close to point O1. Close one eye (say left) and looking through
the prism, bring your right eye in line with the images of the pins
Pl and Ql. Fix alpins Rl and Sl about 10 cm apart vertically on the
white paper sheet with their tips in line with the tips of the images
of pins Pl and Ql. In this way pins R1 and S1 will become collinear,
with the images of pins P1 and Q1.
7. Remove the pins Rl and Sl and encircle their pin pricks on the
white paper sheet with the help of a sharp pencil. Remove the
pins P1 and Q1 and encircle their pin pricks also.
8. Join the points ( or pin pricks) Rl and Sl with the help of a sharp
pencil and scale, to obtain the emergent ray Rl Sl. Produce it
backwards to meet the incident ray Pl Ql (produced forward) at
T1. Draw arrowheads on Pl Ql and R1 S1 to show the direction of
the rays.
9. Measure the angle of deviation l and the angle BAC (angle A) of
the prism (Fig. E 13.1) with a protractor and write the values of
these angles indicated in the diagram.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 for different values of angle of incidence (40°,
45°, 50°...) and measure the corresponding angles of deviation
2
, 3... with the protractor, and indicate them in the respective
diagrams.
11. Record observations in tabular form with proper units and
significant figures.

O
BSERVATIONS
Least count of the protractor = ...(degree)
Angle of the prism, A = ...(degree)

Table E 13.1: Measuring the angle of incidence, i and angle of

deviation for a prism

Sl. No. Angle of incidence, i (degrees) Angle of deviation, (degrees)

1
2
3
--
10

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Plotting the graph between i and δ for the prism

Take angle of incidence i along x-axis and angle of deviation δ along
y-axis, using the observed values from Table E 13.1. Choose suitable
scales on these axes and plot a graph between i and δ. Take care that
you draw a free hand smooth curve passing practically through all
the plotted points on the graph (Fig. E 13.3).

Fig. E 13.3 Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation

C ALCULATIONS
Draw tangent on the lowest point of the graph parallel to x-axis, read
the angle of minimum deviation m on the y-axis of the graph. Express
the result with proper significant figures.

R ESULT
Angle of minimum deviation, m
= ... ± ... degree

P RECAUTIONS
1. Alpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper.
2. Distance PQ and RS should be about 10 cm in order to locate
incident and emergent rays with greater accuracy.
3. Same angle of prism should be used for all observations.
4. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of
observations.
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S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. If the three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are
not equal, then A + ≠ i + e.
2. There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles.

D ISCUSSION
1. It is suggested that the value of angle of incidence be taken more
than 35°. This is required for angles less than 35° as there is a
possibility of total internal reflection inside the prism.
2. You must check your readings by applying the formula
i+e=A+ .
3. The i – δ curve that is obtained in this experiment is a non-linear
curve. In such situations, more readings should be taken in the
minimum deviation region to be able to obtain the value of angle
of minimum deviation accurately. For example, if δ readings are
taken initially at 35°, 40°, 45° and 50° and if the i – δ data points
are situated as shown in Fig. E 13.3 then a few more readings
need to be taken for values of i in the range 45° to 55° say, at a
difference of 1° or 2°.
Taking more readings in this region will help in drawing a smooth
curve. This will enable you to locate the position of the lowest
point on the graph more accurately.
4. In the condition of minimum deviation, the refracted ray
inside the prism becomes parallel to its base so as to satisfy the
condition r = r′.
5. The graph does not show a sharp minimum. We have same
deviation for a range of angle of incidence near minimum deviation.
Therefore extra care should be taken in drawing tangential line
to the i – δ graph at minimum deviation.

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Interpret the graph between i and .
2. If the experiment is performed with angle of emergence taken as
angle of incidence, will there be any change in the values? If yes,
why? If not, why not?
3. What will happen if you go on decreasing the angle of incidence?
If you think there is a minimum, try to find its expression
theoretically. What happens when i is less than the minimum
angle of incidence?

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SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Use the following equation to calculate refractive index of the material of the
prism from the measured value of the angle A and δm determined from the
graph.
Sin i Sin [( A+δm )/2]
n= =
Sin r Sin (A/2 )

2. Measure the angle of emergence e corresponding to the value of each angle

of incidence i and angle of deviation δ you have observed. Compute the
values of (i + e) and (A + δ) and see how they compare.

3. Draw parallel horizontal lines cutting the i – δ curve, you have drawn, at
various values of i and e. Find out the mid points of these horizontal lines
and join these mid points. What is the shape of the curve so obtained? If
you find that this shape resembles that of a straight line, find its (i) slope (ii)
y-intercept and (iii) x-intercept.

4. Determine the refractive index of different liquids using a hollow prism by

plotting i – δ graph.

5. Measure r and r′ and e from the figures you have drawn. Find the refractive
index of the material of the prism from the values of i and r and e and r′.

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24/04/2018