PRACTICAL B1: AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT AND

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

1. Expected Outcomes
This experiment will provide exposure to the various electronic test equipment used in physics and
electronics. The primary purpose of this practical is for you to master the use of electronic test
equipment. The devices we will be using in this laboratory include DC power supplies, breadboards,
digital multimeters (DMM), oscilloscopes and function generators as well as some electronic
components, like resistors, capacitors and inductors, so we can have something to measure on. By the
end of this experiment you should be able to:
a) use the DMM to measure voltage, current, resistance and capacitance;
b) get familiar with basic electronic components such as resistors, capacitors,
diodes and transistors;
c) test and understand the function of various electronic components using the DMM.

2. Materials Required
AC/DC Power supply
Digital Multimeter
Various electronic components

3. Introduction
The digital multimeter and oscilloscope are probably the most used pieces of test equipment in the
electronics industry. The bulk of measurements needed to test and/or repair electronic systems can be
performed with just these two devices. At the same time there would be very few electronics laboratories
that do not also have a DC power supply and function (or signal) generator. Any time you develop a new
circuit, repair an electronic instrument, or measure the performance of an electronic component or
system, you will need to use one or more items of test equipment. The digital multimeter measures
voltages, currents, resistance, and it can test silicon diodes and transistors. The oscilloscope is the basic
instrument for visualizing the time dependence of electronic signals. A signal or function generator is
used to produce periodic signals of the frequency, amplitude, and waveform needed for input to the
device under test. Everything you do in an electronics laboratory depends upon your familiarity with
these instruments.

3.1 Electronic components

3.1.1 Resistors
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's
terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law. A device used in electrical circuits to maintain
a constant relation between current flow and voltage. Resistors are used to step up or lower the voltage
at different points in a circuit and to transform a current signal into a voltage signal or vice versa,
among other uses. The electrical behaviour of a resistor obeys Ohm's law for a constant resistance;
however, some resistors are sensitive to heat, light, or other variables.
Resistors are one of the most used components in a circuit. Most are color coded, but some have their
value in Ohms and their tolerance printed on them. A multimeter that can check resistance can also be
helpful, providing the resistor is already removed from the board (measuring it while still soldered in can
give inaccurate results, due to connections with the rest of the circuit). They are typically marked with an
“R” on a circuit board.

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 Figure 1: Examples of some resistors

Colour coding of resistors

Colour Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4

(Tolerance)
Black 0 0 ×1 –
Brown 1 1 ×10 1%
Red 2 2 ×100 2%
Orange 3 3 ×1000 –
Yellow 4 4 ×10000 –
Green 5 5 ×100000 0.5%
Blue 6 6 ×1000000 0.25%
Violet 7 7 ×10000000 0.1%
Grey 8 8 – –
White 9 9 – –
Gold – – ×0.1 5%
Silver – – ×0.01 10%

3.1.2 Potentiometers
Potentiometers are variable resistors. They normally have their value marked with the maximum value in
Ω or kΩ. Smaller trimpots may use a 3-digit code where the first 2 digits are significant, and the 3rd is
the multiplier (basically the number of 0′s after the first 2 digits). For example, code 104 = 10 followed
by four 0′s = 100000 Ω = 100 kΩ. They may also have a letter code on them indicating the taper (which
is how resistance changes in relation to how far the potentiometer is turned). They are typically marked
with a “VR” on a circuit board.

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 Figure 2: Examples of some potentiometers

3.1.3 Capacitors
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to
store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store energy via chemical
reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors
separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils
separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in
many common electrical devices. Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values
printed on them, some are marked with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources
listed above for resistors can also help you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked with a
“C” on a circuit board.

Figure 3: Examples of some capacitors

Number coding for capacitors

There is a three-digit number code for labeling capacitors. The label 224 means 22 with 4 zeros,
interpreted as a capacitance value in picofarads. (224 = 220,000 pF = 220 nF.) You also will see labels
like 22 μF, 22 uF, 22 MF, and 22 MFD, all of which mean 22 microfarads. Another notation is 220 uuF,
which means 220 picofarads (uu = micro micro).

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 Code Tolerance
C ±0.25 pF
J ±5%
K ±10%
M ±20%
D ±0.5 pF
Z 80% / -20%

3.1.4 Inductors
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component which resists
changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound
into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is stored in a magnetic field in the coil. When the
current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the
change in current that created it. Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values.
If they are color coded, the resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can
measure inductance will be needed. They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board.

Figure 4: Examples of inductors

3.1.5 Semiconductors

3.1.5.1 Diodes
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance,
which has low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally
infinite) resistance in the other. Diodes are typically marked with a “D” on a circuit board. The
diodes that you are likely to encounter in this laboratory are small signal diodes and low current
low voltage rectifiers. The cathode end of the diode is normally identified by a colour band
round the body of the diode.

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 Figure 5: Examples of diodes

3.1.5.2 Transistors
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)
power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today,
some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated
circuits. Transistors (typically marked with a “Q” or “T” on a circuit board)

Figure 6: Examples of transistors

3.2 The Digital Multimeter (DMM)

A Digital multimeter (such as the ones shown in Figure 7) is an electronic device that is used to make
various electrical measurements, such as resistance, DC (non-time-varying) voltages and currents and
AC (time-varying) voltages and currents. It is called a multimeter because it combines the functions of a
voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter (by operating a multi-position knob on the meter).

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 Figure 7: Digital Multimeters

The multimeter may also have other functions, such as diode test, continuity test, transistor test, TTL
logic test and frequency test.

3.2.1 General Operation

A Multimeter has three parts:
Display
Selection knob
Ports

The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few multimeters have
illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations. The selection knob allows the user to set
the multimeter to read different things such as milliamps of current ( A, mA or A), voltage (V) and
resistance (Ω). Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for
common and is almost always connected to Ground or ‘-’ of a circuit. The COM probe is conventionally
black but there is no difference between the red probe and black probe other than colour. 10A is the
special port used when measuring large currents (greater than 200 mA). mA/V/Ω is the port that the red
probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of current (up to 200 mA),
voltage (V), and resistance (Ω). The probes have a banana type connector on the end that plugs into the
multimeter. Any probe with a banana plug will work with this meter.

The DMM uses an A/D (analog-to-digital) converter, which converts DC voltages to a digital code.
Therefore, internally the meter can read only DC voltages. Thus, to measure current or resistance, the
signal must be converted into a voltage value. For current, this is easily done by placing a (very small)
precision resistor in the circuit and measuring the voltage across the resistor, which will be linearly
proportional to the current (remember Ohm’s Law: V = IR). Resistance measurements require more
circuitry because a resistor is a passive element, thus a source must be provided in the DMM. In the
DMM there is a current source to force a current through the resistor and the voltage is then measured.
From this information the resistance value may be determined by Ohm’s Law. Since a voltmeter
measures the voltage across itself, it should be connected in parallel (see Figure 8a) with the device to
guarantee that the voltage across the device under test (DUT) is the same as the voltage across the
voltmeter. An ammeter measures the current through itself, so it should be connected in series (see
Figure 8b) with the DUT in order to ensure that the current through the ammeter is the same as the

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current through the DUT. An ohmmeter sends out a current and measures the voltage produced across
the DUT. Because the ohmmeter is ultimately measuring a voltage, it should be connected in parallel
(see Figure 8c) with the DUT. Note that the DUT must be taken out of the circuit first before measuring
its resistance with an ohmmeter.

Figure 8: Connection of the DMM for voltage, current and resistance measurement

3.2.2 Setting of Range:

You can change the sensitivity of the meter by selecting a different range for measurement. Set the range
to the first range that is higher than the maximum value you expect to measure. This will give a more
accurate reading. If you do not know what to expect, use the highest range first. After a reading is
obtained, set the range to the appropriate one to get a better reading. When the value measured exceeds
the existing range, the display will flash. When this happens, set the multimeter to a higher range until
some values are displayed.

3.2.3 Precautions:
1. For current measurement, the maximum input current is 2 A (if the RED A/mA and BLACK
COM terminals are used) or 10 A (if the RED 10 A and BLACK COM terminals are used).
Excessive current will blow the fuse on the 2 A range, which must be replaced. The 10 A range,
however, is not protected by a fuse.
2. For voltage measurement (use the RED ‘V’ and BLACK ‘COM’ terminals), the maximum input
voltage on:
all DC ranges is 1000 V DC or peak AC
the 20 V, 200 V and 750 V AC ranges is 750 V rms continuous
the 2 V AC range is 750 V rms for not more than 15 seconds.
3. To avoid electrical shock and/or instrument damage, do not connect the COM input terminals to
any source of more than 500 volts DC or peak AC above earth ground.

3.2.4 Voltage measurement

1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with ‘V’
2. Set function to voltage measurement

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 3. Set the AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
4. Set to the appropriate range
5. Touch the two points where you want to make measurement
6. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
7. Take the more accurate reading.
Note that for AC voltages the DMM measures the root mean square voltage, Vrms

3.2.5 Current measurement

1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with ‘A’
2. Set function to current measurement
3. Set AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
4. Set to the appropriate range
5. Switch off the power to the circuit
6. Break the path which we want to make measurement
7. Connect the path with the two probes so that current now flow through the multimeter
8. Switch on the power
9. Note the reading, change range if necessary
10. Take the more accurate reading.
Note: Use the 10 A range if you are not sure of the current to be measured.

3.2.6 Resistance measurement

1. (a) Ensure that the power in the circuit under measure is OFF and all capacitors are
discharged. The Ohmmeter applies external current. It can interact with the power in the
circuit and damage it
or
(b) Remove the component from the circuit
2. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with ‘Ω’
3. Set function to resistance measurement
4. Set to the appropriate range
5. Connect the two probes’ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via jumper wires)
to make measurement
6. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
7. Take the more accurate reading.

3.2.7 Continuity test

This mode is used to check if two points are electrically connected. It is often used to
verify connectors. If continuity exists (resistance less than 210 ohms), the beeper
sounds continuously.
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative (black) lead to
the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the continuity test position:
3. Connect the test leads to two points of the circuit to be tested. If the resistance is less than 210
ohms the buzzer will sound.
4. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement.
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 (a) (b)
Figure 9: (a) Resistance measurement using the DMM (b) Continuity test using the DMM

3.2.8 Diode test

1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative
(black) lead to the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.
3. Connect DMM across the diode in one polarity and measure the resistance.
2. Reverse the polarity and again measure the resistance.
3. The diode must have at least 100 times more resistance in the reverse biased condition
compared with its resistance in the forward direction. If the resistance measured in both
directions is high, the diode is “OPEN” while if these resistances are low then the diode
is “SHORT”. In both the cases the diode is unsuitable for use and should be replaced.
For a good diode its resistance in one direction should be “LOW” and in the other
direction it should be “HIGH” (see Figure 10).

Figure 10: Voltage values for a good diode and a bad diode using the diode test facility

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3.3 The Power Supply Unit (PSU)
As well as generating AC or DC test voltages, the AC or DC power supply can be used to power the
equipment under test. A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The
term is most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical energy to
another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical,
solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to
a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or
the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is
hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power supplies that are part
of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices. Commonly specified power supply attributes
include:
The type and amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.
How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.

3.3.1 Types of power supplies

Battery
DC power supply
AC power supply
Linear regulated power supply
Switched mode power supply
Programmable power supply
Uninterruptible power supply
High voltage power supply
Voltage multipliers

4. Procedure
Task 1: Measurement of voltage using DMM
You can generally trust measurement equipment (like the digital multimeter and oscilloscope) to be
more accurate than the output readings on generators (like the DC power supply and function generator).
This task involves measuring the output error on the power supply using the digital multimeter (DMM).

1. Set the power supply dial to read +1 V DC on the display. Then, measure the output with the digital
multimeter (DMM). Calculate the percent error between the displayed output value and the actual
output value. Now, calculate the errors for other settings and record your readings in Table 1.

Table 1: Percent error of the PSU for DC voltages

Voltage Setting /V DMM Measurement /V % Error

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2. Set the power supply dial to read +1 V AC on the display. Then, measure the output with the digital
multimeter (DMM). Calculate the percent error between the displayed output value and the actual
output value. Now, calculate the errors for other settings and record your readings in Table 2.

Table 2: Percent error of the PSU for AC voltages

Voltage Setting /V DMM Measurement /V % Error

Questions

1. Calculate the mean percentage error for the PSU for DC and AC voltages. Decide whether you will
use the dial on the PSU to set voltages or whether you will need to measure your voltages from the
DMM. Justify your choice.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Besides measurement error and error in the voltage source, what can also contribute to the total error?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Why are you not supposed to connect the DMM to the terminals of a voltage source while the DMM
is in current mode?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Task 2: Measurement of current using DMM
(a) Build the circuit on Figure 11. Set the power supply to 5 V DC and make measurements required
to fill Table 3.

(b) Calculate the current and compare this value to your measured value. In each case measure the
value of the resistor and voltage.

Figure 11

Table 3: Current measurements with the DMM

R Measured resistance /Ω Measured current / mA Calculated current/ mA
56 Ω
82 Ω
330 Ω
470 Ω
820 Ω
1 kΩ

What is the effect of resistance on the current flowing in the circuit?

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Task 3: Study of electronic components

In this exercise we are going to get acquainted to some of the basic components used in electronics such
as the resistors, capacitors, diodes and transistors. We will learn how to read the values using the codes
as well as how to measure them using the multimeter.

Resistors
You will be given some resistors, use the color code as well as the DMM to find their values and fill out
Table 4.

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 Table 4

No. Colour code Actual Value Measured Value (DMM)

1 Red, red, black

2 Orange, white, orange

3 Blue, grey, yellow

4 10 M

5 33 K

Capacitors

You will be given some capacitors, use the numeric code as well as the DMM to find their values and fill
out Table 5.

Table 5

No. Code Number Actual Value Measured Value (DMM)

1 104

2 220

3 152

4 0.47 F

5 3.3 nF

Diode Testing
Draw the schematic symbol of a 1N4001 diode and identify the leads (Anode and Cathode) in
the box below.

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(a) Set the DMM to Diode Testing mode.
(b) Measure the forward and reverse bias voltages of the given diodes and record them
(i) Forward bias voltage:
Place the RED probe on the Anode. Touch the BLACK probe to the Cathode and record
the reading
(ii) Reverse bias voltage:
Place the RED probe on the Cathode. Touch the BLACK probe to the Anode and record
the reading

No. Diode Type and Number Forward Bias Voltage Reverse Bias Voltage
Silicon (1N4001)

Germanium (1N914)
2

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