sensors

Article
An IoT System for Air Pollution Monitoring with Safe
Data Transmission
Janusz Bobulski *,† , Sabina Szymoniak † and Kamila Pasternak †

Department of Computer Science, Czestochowa University of Technology, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland;

[email protected] (S.S.); [email protected] (K.P.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: Air pollution has become a global issue due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. Bad
air quality is Europe’s most significant environmental health risk, causing serious health problems.
External air pollution is not the only issue; internal air pollution is just as severe and can also lead
to adverse health outcomes. IoT is a practical approach for monitoring and publishing real-time air
quality information. Numerous IoT-based air quality monitoring systems have been proposed using
micro-sensors for data collection. These systems are designed for outdoor air quality monitoring.
They use sensors to measure air quality parameters such as CO2 , CO, PM10 , NO2 , temperature, and
humidity. The data are acquired with a set of sensors placed on an electric car. They are then sent
to the server. Users can subscribe to the list and receive information about local pollution. This
system allows real-time localized air quality monitoring and sending data to customers. The work
additionally presents a secure data transmission protocol ensuring system security. This protocol
provides system-wide attack resiliency and interception, which is what existing solutions do not offer.

Keywords: IoT; wireless cloud system; air pollution environment protection

1. Introduction
This paper is an extended version of our conference paper: “Air pollution monitoring
Citation: Bobulski, J.; Szymoniak, S.; and information distribution system”, Proceedings of the CORES and IP&C Conferences
Pasternak, K. An IoT System for Air 2023 [1].
Pollution Monitoring with Safe Data Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation have given rise to a global issue of air pollu-
Transmission. Sensors 2024, 24, 445.
tion. Exceeding recommended national limits is a common issue faced by many countries.
https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020445
Moreover, it should be emphasised that there are studies that suggest no level of exposure
Academic Editors: Rafal Kozik, to single pollutants below which adverse health effects are not seen [2]. Bad air quality’s
Michal Choras and Marek Pawlicki most significant environmental health risk significantly impacts Europe’s population. Bad
air quality is known to cause various health problems, like lower respiratory infections,
Received: 25 October 2023
trachea, bronchus, lung cancers, ischemic heart diseases and strokes. Air pollutants can be
Revised: 1 December 2023
divided into two categories: internal (indoor) and external (outdoor) air pollutants [3]. Air
Accepted: 9 January 2024
Published: 11 January 2024
pollution that affects the entire atmosphere is called outdoor air pollution. This pollution
type is caused by various air pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from sources such as
automobiles, chemical industries and the burning of fossil fuels. Such pollutants mainly
consist of carbon monoxide CO, ozone O3 , nitrogen oxides NOx , sulfur dioxide SO2 , and
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. particulate matter of diverse particle measures [4]. According to the WHO [5], the number
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of ambient air pollution-attributable deaths in 2019 exceeded 4,100,000 worldwide, 500,000
This article is an open access article in Europe and 36,000 in Poland. It should be emphasised that internal air pollution is
distributed under the terms and as severe a problem as outdoor air pollution. Air pollution classified as indoor can be
conditions of the Creative Commons found in buses, metro, offices, hospitals, schools, libraries, etc. [6]. One common source
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of internal air pollution is using polluting fuels and devices in households. Significant
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ indoor air impurities are NOx , SO2 , O3 , CO, PM and microorganisms. Exposure to indoor
4.0/).

Sensors 2024, 24, 445. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020445 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2024, 24, 445 2 of 13

air pollutants can result in harmful health outcomes. Household air pollution deaths 2019
exceeded 3,200,000 worldwide and 150,000 in Europe [7].
Since air pollution is a critical global issue, creating a system for monitoring and
publishing real-time air-grade knowledge seems reasonable. The Internet-of-Things (IoT) is
an approach that can be a suitable and effective solution to this issue. The IoT is a network
that collects vast doses of data from diverse devices connected to more extensive schemes.
The data gathered by this network are converted into useful information. More detailed
knowledge about IoT can be found in [8].
The main contributions of this paper are as follows:
• project of an IoT system for air pollution monitoring,
• use of a data transmission security protocol,
• adaptation of MQTT and Amelia protocols for securing communication,
• automated and informal security analysis of the Amelia protocol adaptation.

2. Related Works
In literature, many IoT-based monitoring systems use micro-sensors for data gath-
ering [9–17]. It should be mentioned that there are studies that propose a system for
both internal and external air pollution, e.g., [9]. This work studies an IoT-based system
implemented in a university area. The platform proposed in [9] offers individual course
monitoring established on Wi-Fi tracking. Environmental monitoring refers to observ-
ing and measuring the environment to gather information about its condition and any
changes that may occur. It involves using various tools and techniques to collect data on
factors such as air quality, water quality, soil conditions, and weather patterns. The data
collected through this process is used to identify potential environmental issues and to
inform decisions regarding the management and protection of the natural environment.
The system allows measuring multiple ecological parameters such as noise level, light,
temperature, humidity, CO and NO2 concentration. The monitoring system proposed
in this paper is built based on the MiCS-4514 MicroElectroMechanicalSensor (MEMS)
and popular hardware—Raspberry Pi and Arduino, which has a shallow level of safety
data transmission.
Most studies focus only on one type of air pollution: indoor [10–12] or outdoor [13–17].
One of the examples of the former can be found in [10]. This research proposes a real-time
monitoring procedure for gauging ambient air quality, which is low-cost, portable and
based on IoT without transmission protection. The detection unit measures air grade
elements such as CO2 , CO, PM10 , NO2 using the sensors GP2Y1010AU, MH-Z14, MICS-
4514 and DHT22. Another low-cost IoT system for real-time indoor air quality monitoring,
without transmission protection, is proposed in [11]. This system uses the ESP8266 module
as an analysing and transmission unit and the MICS-6814 detector as a sensing unit. Such
a sensor allows for collecting data about a few air rate notes, such as CO, NO2 , C3 H8
(propane), C4 H10 (butane), CH4 (methane), H2 (hydrogen). Moreover, the system provides
mobile software for constant announcements. Therefore, the user is alerted when the
concentration of gases is exceeded. An attractive indoor air quality monitoring study
is presented in [12]. The motivation for this research was that during the COVID-19
pandemic, people spent a lot of time in indoor environments. This paper proposes low-cost
IoT sensor networks for indoor air quality assessment with standard unprotected data
transmission. The presented system uses Plantower PMS5003 PM sensors deployed in
four rooms (bedroom, living room, kitchen and office). Based on the data collected in
the experiment, it was concluded that PM levels exceeded WHO 2021 annual ambient
particulate concentration guidelines in all rooms.
An example of a system monitoring outdoor air pollution is proposed in [13]. In
this work, the authors presented the innovation and implementation of an IoT detector
instrument. Sensors adopted in this approach were both fixed and moving IoT sensor
devices. To build the real-time air quality monitoring IoT sensing network, authors used
i.a. Arduino Mega, Raspberry Pi, GPS Sensor, temperature and humidity sensor, microdust
Sensors 2024, 24, 445 3 of 13

sensor and carbon dioxide sensor. It should be mentioned that this study adopted a machine
learning technique to design an air quality prediction model. A prototype of a low-cost
IoT system for Air Quality Index (AQI) monitoring is proposed in [14]. This paper used a
Raspberry Pi module, a low-cost PM sensor, and some environmental detectors to measure
diverse parameters such as temperature, humidity, and pressure.
Moreover, the same three-layered hierarchical distributed architecture for traffic flow
monitoring was used. In the paper, [15], a Markov chain-based IoT approach is created to
monitor, analyse and predict metropolitan air quality. The offered system is merged with
an automobile to collect air quality data. As the microcontroller board, the authors used
an Arduino Mini Pro. The sensing system operates an MQ2 gas sensor for counting CO
concentration and a GP2Y1010AU0F visual detector for PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations.
Another air quality monitoring system employing IoT methods for outdoor air pollution
is proposed in [16]. The authors used a low-power vast space network to transmit the
real-time data collected by portable particle matter, humidity and temperature sensors.
The data gathered in the urban area confirms the correlation of the PM2.5 concentration
with many meteorological variables (e.g., the wind speed). An example of an IoT-based
air pollution monitoring system can also be found in [17]. The system proposed by the
authors employs multiple sensors (MQ135, MQ9 and MQ2) capable of detecting various air
pollutants or gases. Using these sensors in conjunction with ESP Microntoroller, they have
created a system to monitor the collected data through the smartphone Blynk application
with a standard security level.

3. Proposed IoT System

3.1. System Structure
Air pollution can affect people’s life processes, deteriorate their health, and even
cause death. In this case, air quality monitoring is a crucial part of daily life. The pro-
posed system monitors air quality in some areas and alerts concerned locals to potential
dangers. The system consists of four layers: data collection, end devices, central server
and communication.
Only autonomous vehicles (AVs) operate in the data collection layer [18]. These
vehicles are equipped with air pollution sensors and high-performance computing servers.
AVs move around specific urban areas to collect and process air quality data. The air
pollution sensors communicate with servers via GSM modules. The processed data is
automatically made available to customers through messages containing statistical data
and a map of a given area with marked measurement points of air pollutant concentrations.
After finishing AV work, they return to the base and connect with the central server to
transmit all collected data.
All IoT devices, like smartphones or tablets, work in the end devices layer. Users
interested in air quality information can connect their devices and read shared information.
Users should install a client application on their devices. The client application allows
logging into the server and downloading air quality information. Figure 1 shows the
air quality monitoring system’s main part structure that creates data collection and end
device layers.
A central server works in the last system layer. This is also a high-performance
computing server with different tasks than servers installed at AVs and with high memory
resources. The central server manages all the work of autonomous vehicles through the
server application. The first server’s task is defining routes where vehicles will move in
a given area, and the server administrator can determine which streets will visit each car
during the current route. The second server’s task is to collect and process all data about
air quality. After finishing the route, AV must return to the base, connect to the central
server, and send each collected information. Next, the central server will process each AV’s
information, prepare statistics and charts, or determine dependencies. The third server’s
task is to publish these statistics, charts or other summaries for the whole city on its website.
Figure 1 summarises central server layer work.
Sensors 2024, 24, 445 4 of 13

Figure 1. Structure of air quality monitoring system main part.

The communication layer controls and secures two types of communication: between
AV and devices and between the central server and AV. For the first communication type,
we use the Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol [19,20]. This is a simple,
secure and dependable data transmission protocol. Further, it is suitable for devices that
can only communicate at a certain transmission speed. The MQTT supports and secures
users’ (devices’) registration and authentication processes.
Moreover, this protocol resists many attacks [20]. The MQTT base is the publish-
and-subscribe model. The typical publish-and-subscribe model distinguishes three roles:
Publisher, Subscriber and Broker. We assumed publisher, subscriber, main broker, and
semi-broker roles in the proposed system.
The main broker role performs the central server. It shares information about air
quality in the whole surveyed area and Semi-Brokers in the network. In Semi-Brokers’
case, the Main-Broker shares information about the area they are visiting. The autonomous
vehicle is a Publisher and Semi-Broker. The server installed in AV allows the performing of
these two roles. AV collects data about pollution in a specific urban area. Next, the server
processes them and publishes them for the user. Users can connect to the AV’s server to
download information. The server publishes information on a specific topic, such as air
quality on some street, the concentration of the selected substance in the air, or a mix of
such information. Thus, the end device is a subscriber. It subscribes to a specific Publisher’s
topic or topics.
First, the user must connect to the Main-Broker to learn and subscribe to the appropri-
ated Semi-Broker’s parameters. The user can connect to the nearest Semi-Broker or one
of the Semi-Brokers in the network. In the first case, the Main-Broker will send them the
parameters of the nearest Semi-Broker based on his geographical coordinates. In the second
case, the user will choose one of the Semi-Brokers from the list in the application.
We adopted the Amelia protocol mentioned in [21] for the second communication
type. The protocol’s default version protects against false links to Internet events. The
first phase of this protocol provides a user registration process with a trusted Distribution
Centre. The second phase of this protocol provides the validation process of a link to an
event with a trusted Authentication Centre. Further, during this phase, users received
symmetric keys for further communication.
We observed that the Amelia protocol is suitable for securing communication between
AV and the central server, and we modified it. First, we combined a trusted Distribution
Centre and Authentication Centre functionalities. The central server will generate necessary
cryptographic objects, store information for communication and authenticate users (AVs,
in the case of our solution). Hence, the scheme for the Amelia protocol’s registration phase
in Alice–Bob notation will be as follows:
Sensors 2024, 24, 445 5 of 13

α1 AV → CS : {i ( AV ), TAV }K+
CS
α2 CS → AV : {#hash({U ID AV , i ( AV )}K+ ),
AV
AV }
TCS K+AV
α3 AV → CS : AV }
{ TCS K+
CS

In this notation:
• { M}K means the message M encrypted by key K,
• AV means the autonomous vehicle,
• CS means the central server,
• i ( AV ) is a AV’s text identifier,
• TAV is a AV’s timestamp,
+
• Ku+ is the public key of u of the protocol participant, for example, the key KCS is the
public key of the central server,
• U ID AV stands for the numeric user identifier,
• #hash({U ID AV , i ( AV )}K+ ) means the execution of the hash function on the ciphertext
AV
{U ID AV , i ( AV )}K+ ,
AV
• AV means the timestamp generated by the central server for the unique user identi-
TCS
fier AV.
In the first step of this protocol, AV tries to register to CS by sending its text identifier
and freshly generated timestamp. Next, the central server checks its database to see if
there is no such identifier. If everything is correct, it generates a numeric user identi-
fier (U ID AV ) and the timestamp TCS AV and stores them with AV’s text identifier. In the

second step, CS sends to AV hashed identifiers with the timestamp TCS AV . Note that, the

#hash({U ID AV , i ( AV )}K+ ) value will be used to recognize AV by CS. Otherwise, it will

AV
stop communication. In the last step, AV confirms that it received the earlier message by
sending the timestamp TCS AV to CS.

The subsequent modifications we made were in the second phase of the Amelia pro-
tocol. In the protocol’s default version, the communication takes place between the user,
the Authentication Center and the user who is the event organiser. In our system, AV will
communicate only with the central server. We made the rest of the modifications in the
message structures. Hence, the scheme of the authentication and communication phase of
this protocol in Alice-Bob notation will be as follows:

α1 AV → CS : {#hash({U ID AV , i ( AV )}K+ ),
AV
AV , i (CS )}
TCS +
KCS
CS → AV : AV , T , K
{ TCS
α2 CS CS− AV }K +
AV
α3 AV → CS : { TAV , DFAV }KCS− AV
In this notation:
• { M}K means the message M encrypted by key K,
• AV means the autonomous vehicle,
• CS means the central server,
• i (u) is the text identifier of the user u,
• Ku+ is the public key of u of the participant of the protocol; for example, the key K +
AV is
the AV’s public key,
• U ID AV stands for the numeric user identifier,
• #hash({U ID AV , i ( AV )}K+ ) means the execution of the hash function on the ciphertext
AV
{U ID AV , i ( AV )}K+ ,
AV
• AV means the timestamp generated by the central server for the unique user identi-
TCS
fier AV,
• DFAV means a data file with information about air quality,
• KCS− AV is a symmetric session key shared between AV and CS.
Sensors 2024, 24, 445 6 of 13

In the first step, AV tries to authenticate to CS, sending its identifier with timestamp
AV and CS’s identifier. The central server validates this data in the database. If the data
TCS
are correct, it generates a symmetric session key shared between AV and CS. AV and CS
will use this key later in the communication. Otherwise, it will stop communication. In the
last step, the autonomous vehicle sends to the central server a data file with information
about air quality with freshly generated timestamp TAV . AV encrypts this message using
the session key KCS− AV .
The first phase must be executed once for each vehicle, but the second phase must
be completed after every end of the route in the proposed system. Further, the proposed
system uses secure communication channels via WiFi standards [22,23] for communication
between the central server and AV, or LTE/5G standards mention [20,21] for communication
between AV and devices.
Figure 2 shows the communication flow in the proposed system. We included here
descriptions of each external and internal operation executed during the protocol’s steps
and conditions for the subsequent steps executions. As mentioned, the MQTT network has
a publisher, broker, and subscriber. The Publisher (autonomous vehicle in our solution, AV)
must register on the Broker (central server, CS). In this case, it executes the first phase of the
Amelia protocol. If the AV is registered correctly on CS, it can authenticate to CS, establish a
session, and send data about air quality. Hence, it executes the second phase of the Amelia
protocol. The sending of data to CS is equivalent to the publishing step performed by the
publisher in the MQTT protocol. The Subscriber (user and his device) can subscribe to the
published data. The Broker updates and publishes data for Subscribers regularly.

Figure 2. Communication flow in the proposed system.

We verified the adaptation of the Amelia protocol using a tool for automated security
protocol verification mentioned in [24]. This same tool was used to verify the Amelia
protocol’s full version. Thanks to this tool, we can consider different executions of security
Sensors 2024, 24, 445 7 of 13

protocols, including various time parameters such as time of composing the message,
encryption/decryption times, or delay in the network, and also different network condi-
tions (with or without attacker). We performed analysis using a computer unit with the
Linux Ubuntu operating system, Intel Core i7 processor, and 16 GB RAM. Further, we used
various values of time parameters during tests. The tool uses an abstract time unit [tu],
which means some period.
Thanks to the tool mentioned, we could execute two types of research: timed analysis
and simulations of the delays in the network. During one part of the research, we assumed
the following values of time parameters: mechanism and one-way hash functions eliminate
impersonation attacks.
• time of generating confidential information: Tg = 1[tu],
• time of composing the message: Tc = 1[tu],
• asymmetric encryption or decryption time: Te = 3[tu],
• symmetric encryption or decryption time: Te = 2[tu],
• minimal delay in the network: Dmin = 1[tu],
• maximal delay in the network: Dmax = 3[tu],
• execution time of the hash function: H = 2[tu].
For the timed analysis, the tool calculated the values of timed parameters summarised
in Table 1. We observed that for each protocol part, four executions were possible: one
execution with honest users and three executions with an attacker. Only executions with
real users and executions with an attacker (like himself) were likely to be performed. They
were executed while maintaining the imposed time conditions. Further, we analysed the
messaging and learning flow in executions with the attacker who tries to impersonate other
users. These executions did not meet time conditions. If the attacker wants to execute a
subsequent step, he tries to establish the next session with CS and acquire appropriate
knowledge. The attacker cannot obtain it because he cannot gain the necessary cryptograms
or cryptographic objects to prepare messages according to protocol structure.

Table 1. Timed parameters used during research.

Authentiction and
Parameter Registration Phase
Communication Phase
Minimal α1 step time 9 [tu] 11 [tu]
Minimal α2 step time 14 [tu] 16 [tu]
Minimal α3 step time 8 [tu] 10 [tu]
Maximal α1 step time 8 [tu] 10 [tu]
Maximal α2 step time 10 [tu] 12 [tu]
Maximal α3 step time 7 [tu] 9 [tu]
Minimal session time 31 [tu] 25 [tu]
Maximal session time 37 [tu] 31 [tu]
Timeout for α1 step 10 [tu] 9 [tu]
Timeout for α2 step 26 [tu] 21 [tu]
Timeout for α3 step 37 [tu] 31 [tu]

Next, we execute simulations of this protocol. This type of research examines the
influence of delay in the network on execution time. Additionally, it demonstrates the
capabilities of the attacker in a time-constrained setting. It is feasible to generate network
delay values randomly based on four different probability distributions. We examined this
protocol using all probability distributions implemented in the tool. This research confirmed
the results of the timed analysis. Only executions with honest users and executions with an
attacker (like himself) were possible to perform. The rest of the executions did not meet
time conditions because of the attacker’s lack of knowledge.
Subsequently, an informal security analysis was conducted to validate our protocol’s
attainment of the primary security features. We analysed such properties as anonymity
and mutual authentication. Anonymity is achieved through asymmetric cryptography
Sensors 2024, 24, 445 8 of 13

during the registration and authentication processes, which safeguards the user’s identity.
In the context of mutual authentication, both the AV and the CS must possess a shared
symmetric key to establish mutual authentication. The CS generates the key during the
second authentication and communication phase step. AV and CS verify their identity
during this stage by transmitting their shared timestamps and identifiers.
Additionally, we conducted an ad hoc security study to ascertain potential vulnera-
bilities that could compromise the effectiveness of our protocol. We analysed the afore-
mentioned offensive scenarios. Adapting the Amelia protocol effectively mitigates replay
attacks through a timestamp mechanism. The initial step involves the verification of the
timestamp by each recipient. The continuation of contact is contingent upon receiving
the message within the prescribed limit; otherwise, the recipient will terminate the com-
munication. Further, this protocol mitigates the risk of a man-in-the-middle attack by
incorporating a session key, which is shared among the parties involved. The encryption
key employed in this context renders it impossible for the attacker to extract any constituent
elements from the encrypted messages. Suppose an attacker successfully intercepts a mes-
sage and attempts to transmit it during a subsequent session. In that case, the recipient
will decline acceptance of the message after verifying the timestamp. Using symmetric and
asymmetric encryption, timestamp mechanism, and one-way hash functions eliminates
impersonation attacks.

3.2. Vehicle
During research, the critical role is to ensure the correctness of the data. Wrong data
give wrong results. Therefore, any interference should be eliminated during measurements.
For this reason, we used a Nissan Leaf electric car for data collection in our experiment (see
Figure 3). Its most significant advantage in this case is that it does not emit air pollution
during testing.

Figure 3. Vehicle used in experiment.

3.3. Instruments
The measuring device consists of two modules built into one Peli-type case:
• a measuring module with a built-in suspended dust measurement system,
• a measuring module with gas sensors working in a pump system.
Technical specification of the measuring instrument:
• PM10 dust range from 0 to 1999.9 µg/m3 , sensitivity 0.3 µg/m3
• PM2.5 dust range from 0 to 999.9 µg/m3
• VOC Volatile Organic Compounds PID 10.6 eV detection range: 0 ppm to 50 ppm,
photoionization method,
• CO range from 1 to 500 ppm, the electrochemical method
• NO2 range from 0 to 20 ppm, the electrochemical method
 Technical specification of the measuring instrument: 318

• PM10 dust range from 0 to 1999.9 µg/m3 , sensitivity 0.3µg/m3 319

• PM25 dust range from 0 to 999.9 µg/m3 320

Sensors 2024, 24, 445 • VOC Volatile Organic Compounds PID 10.6eV detection range: 0 ppm to 50 ppm, 321
9 of 13
photoionization method, 322
• CO range from 1 to 500 ppm, the electrochemical method 323
•• NO NO 2 range
rangefrom 0 toppm,
0 to 20 20 ppm, the electrochemical
the electrochemical method
method 324
• NO range 0 to 20 ppm, the electrochemical method 325
• SO2 range from 0 to 50 ppm, the electrochemical method
• SO2 range from 0 to◦ 50 ppm,◦the electrochemical ◦ method 326
• temperature −40 C to 85 C, resolution 0.1 C
• temperature −40o C to 85o C, resolution 0.1o C 327
• humidity from 0 to 100
• humidity from 0 to 100 328
• pressure from 300 hPa to 1100 hPa, accuracy 100 Pa
• pressure from 300 hPa to 1100 hPa, accuracy 100 Pa 329
• GPS position (GNSS) accuracy up to 1.5 m
• GPS position (GNSS) accuracy up to 1.5 m 330
• GSM/3G/LTE module
• GSM/3G/LTE module 331
• WiFi 2.4/5.8 GHz 802.11an.
• WiFi 2.4/5.8GHz 802.11an 332
The integrated measuring instruments have been placed in a carrying case. Such a
The integrated measuring instruments have been placed in a carrying case. Such a research 333
research set has been equipped with magnetic holders to place it on the car’s roof. Thanks
set has been equipped with magnetic holders to place it on the car’s roof. Thanks to 334
to such placement, the measurement of air pollution takes place at a height comparable to
such placement, the measurement of air pollution takes place at a height comparable to 335
theheight
the heightofofthethe human
human nose.
nose. This
This solution
solution ensures
ensures thethe reliability
reliability of measurements
of measurements andand336
allows us to draw valid conclusions regarding the level of air pollution and the impact of of337
allows us to draw valid conclusions regarding the level of air pollution and the impact
individualgases
individual gasesand
and dust
dust onon human
human health.
health. TheThe power
power supply
supply forfor
thethe measuring
measuring set set (grey338
(grey
cable in Figure 4) came from the cigarette lighter socket. The set had a GPS module
cable in Fig. 4) came from the cigarette lighter socket. The set had a GPS module (black 339 (black
cableininthe
cable thepicture
Figure4).
4). 340

Figure4.4.Instrument
Figure used
Instrument in in
used experiment
experiment
3.4.
3.4.Results
Results 341

The tables 2 and 3 present data collected by the pollution measurement system
The Tables 2 and 3 present data collected by the pollution measurement system342
discussed in the article. Measurements were taken on two different days. Each row cor- 343
discussed in the article. Measurements were taken on two different days. Each row cor-
responds to information gathered at a specific time (first column) and location (second, 344
responds to information gathered at a specific time (first column) and location (second,
third, and fourth columns). The subsequent columns contain data regarding harmful gases 345
third, and fourth columns). The subsequent columns contain data regarding harmful gases
and particulate matter concentration in each location. The last columns provide informa- 346
and particulate matter concentration in each location. The last columns provide infor-
tion about temperature and humidity, which can influence the intensity of perception of 347
mation about temperature and humidity, which can influence the intensity of perception
pollution. 348
of pollution.
Upon analysing the obtained results, we concluded that atmospheric pressure affects 349
Upon analysing the obtained results, we concluded that atmospheric pressure affects
the concentration of suspended particles PM10 and PM2.5, although its influence is not 350
the concentration of suspended particles PM10 and PM2.5 , although its influence is not
direct. Atmospheric pressure can impact weather conditions, which, in turn, may affect the
concentration of these pollutants. The primary ways atmospheric pressure may influence
PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations include weather cycles or thermal inversions.
Regarding weather cycles, changes in atmospheric pressure are typically associated
with various weather conditions. For instance, high atmospheric pressure often favours
calmer weather with reduced wind, potentially leading to increased accumulation of PM10
and PM2.5 particles in the atmosphere.
On the other hand, concerning thermal inversions, atmospheric pressure may influence
their occurrence. Under conditions of high atmospheric pressure, thermal inversions might
be more likely. Thermal inversions can trap pollutants in the lower atmospheric layers,
leading to increased concentrations of suspended particles.
Sensors 2024, 24, 445 10 of 13

Additionally, atmospheric pressure changes often coincide with humidity changes,

corroborated by the obtained measurement data. High humidity may promote the accu-
mulation of suspended particles, potentially resulting in increased concentrations of PM10
and PM2.5 .
It is worth noting that the influence of atmospheric pressure on the concentration
of suspended particles is often indirect and related to weather conditions resulting from
these pressure changes. However, atmospheric pressure alone does not directly cause the
increase or decrease in PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations.
The data obtained by the system can subsequently be made available to subscribers of
the service offered by the system. There are two possibilities for the graphical presentation
of measurement results. The first option is to present data in a graphic form (Figure 5),
where the circle size shows the degree of pollution, and the red colour informs about
exceeding the standard concentration of gases or dust. This circle is the so-called heat
map that enables data visualisation that shows the size of individual values in a data set
as a colour. Colour differences may be due to shade or intensity. A more intense colour
(red or close to red) indicates increased pollutant concentration in the air. The heat map
considers the values of all pollutants for a specific geographic point. The second way to
show the results is to display numerical values (Figure 6) in a given location, and standards
violations are translated into a change in the font colour. In this way, people sensitive to
dust can avoid moving in the area. Meanwhile, people with poor lung ventilation due to
harmful gases may be informed of the danger. Monitoring air quality in city centres using
professional mobile sensors offers real-time insights into pollution levels. These sensors
provide accurate data, enabling prompt actions to mitigate health risks associated with poor
air quality. Improved monitoring aids in identifying pollution sources, allowing authorities
to take targeted measures for cleaner air. Deploying such sensors strategically across urban
areas creates a comprehensive network for continuous assessment. Accessible data from
these sensors empowers citizens to make informed decisions about outdoor activities and
health precautions. Real-time alerts and data dissemination to users via apps or online
platforms promote awareness and proactive measures. Mobile sensor networks facilitate
community engagement, fostering collaborative efforts to address air quality concerns.
Regular monitoring enhances policy-making by providing evidence-based information for
effective regulations. The portability of these sensors allows for flexibility in relocation,
catering to dynamic changes in pollution hotspots. Employing professional mobile sensors
and distributing their data to users amplifies public awareness and drives collective actions
towards cleaner, healthier urban environments.

Table 2. The data of air quality—day 1.

LAT LON ALT PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 NO PID Temp Press Hum
Time
[◦ ] [◦ ] [m] [µg/m3 ] [µg/m3 ] [ppm] [ppm] [ppm] [ppm] [◦ C] [hPa] [%]
14.11.2022 08:46 51.253555 22.563112 0 9.2 5.4 0.129 0 0.097 0.199 8.88 1007.26 68.89
14.11.2022 08:45 51.253555 22.563112 0 9.2 5.4 0.129 0 0.097 0.199 8.88 1007.26 68.89
14.11.2022 08:44 51.253555 22.563112 179.6 8.1 4.3 0.12 0 0.11 0.195 8.76 1007.06 68.9
14.11.2022 08:43 51.253135 22.560657 183.2 6.9 3.7 0.136 0 0.223 0.198 9.04 1007.17 68.27
14.11.2022 08:41 51.251875 22.551793 191.4 9.9 4.8 0.078 0 0.123 0.187 9.51 1006.38 66.89
14.11.2022 08:40 51.250048 22.552458 198.5 7.6 4.4 0.142 0 0.171 0.182 9.63 1004.89 65.52
14.11.2022 08:39 51.249043 22.554722 192.2 11.2 4.9 0.249 0 0.858 0.207 9.68 1005.28 65.99
14.11.2022 08:38 51.249638 22.55818 199.4 8.6 4.6 0.116 0 0.284 0.183 9.82 1004.94 65.06
14.11.2022 08:37 51.251273 22.558928 182.1 9 4.8 0.097 0 0.353 0.181 9.94 1006.06 64.2
14.11.2022 08:36 51.253255 22.561388 172.2 9.1 4.7 0.071 0 0.106 0.173 10.21 1007.28 62.32
14.11.2022 08:35 51.253255 22.561388 172.2 19.5 10.9 0.076 0 0.259 0.176 10.61 1007.33 61.47
14.11.2022 08:34 51.253093 22.563277 171.9 7.9 4.7 0.157 0 0.12 0.172 11.1 1007.52 58.85
14.11.2022 08:33 51.253477 22.56299 177.8 7.1 3.8 0.073 0 0.101 0.17 11.86 1007.43 55.57
Sensors 2024, 24, 445 11 of 13

Table 3. The results of measurements—day 2.

LAT LON ALT PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 NO PID Temp Press Hum
Time
[◦ ] [◦ ] [m] [µg/m3 ] [µg/m3 ] [ppm] [ppm] [ppm] [ppm] [◦ C] [hPa] [%]
2023-05-08 14:00 50.823513 19.11048 240.1 4.8 1.9 0 0.067 0.25 0.175 19.96 998.15 24.68
2023-05-08 13:59 50.823378 19.110498 243.6 5.9 1.7 0 0.063 0.263 0.177 19.3 998.13 25.94
2023-05-08 13:58 50.820803 19.111305 254.5 5.6 2.2 0 0.043 0.29 0.172 18.86 998.68 24.56
2023-05-08 13:56 50.823888 19.112418 315.1 4.5 1.8 0 0.058 0.319 0.179 20.78 998.37 22.78
2023-05-08 13:55 50.817292 19.114335 258.9 10.2 4.4 0 0.04 0.606 0.186 21.38 999.04 22.15
2023-05-08 13:54 50.817657 19.119252 263 11.1 2.8 0 0.027 0.399 0.185 22.84 999.26 20.24
2023-05-08 13:53 50.817695 19.12604 264.9 5.6 2.2 0 0.077 0.395 0.189 24.51 999.19 19.46
2023-05-08 13:52 50.817007 19.1292 260.0 7.8 2 0 0.076 0.332 0.188 24.52 999.57 18.93
2023-05-08 13:51 50.811723 19.130872 255.1 6.3 2.3 0 0.054 0.98 0.196 25.28 999.51 18.29
2023-05-08 13:50 50.811863 19.129823 254.8 5.4 2.1 0 0.069 0.324 0.191 25.42 999.44 17.82
2023-05-08 13:48 50.811735 19.123877 272.7 5.7 2.1 0 0.086 0.452 0.203 26.69 998.62 17.21
2023-05-08 13:47 50.811838 19.12062 264.3 8.5 2.8 0 0.07 0.409 0.205 26.85 998.57 17.18
2023-05-08 13:37 50.811457 19.113898 263.5 4.9 2.2 0 0.117 0.456 0.24 19.33 998.48 24.41
2023-05-08 13:31 50.806778 19.103398 273.5 5.5 2.3 0 0.233 0.69 0.305 16.54 997.53 29.27
2023-05-08 13:30 50.805333 19.103503 271.7 7.9 3 0 0.253 0.662 0.319 16.56 998.03 28.75
2023-05-08 13:29 50.806027 19.103187 270.9 7.1 2.3 0 0.3 0.882 0.337 17.09 997.9 28.29
2023-05-08 13:28 50.80842 19.103825 270.2 6.1 2.2 0 0.355 0.998 0.368 17.37 997.4 28.09
2023-05-08 13:27 50.810742 19.104067 268.0 6.3 2.1 0 0.404 0.729 0.37 17.69 997.61 26.86
2023-05-08 13:26 50.812808 19.104128 266.6 5.4 1.8 0 0.509 1.033 0.405 18.42 997.45 25.82
2023-05-08 13:25 50.817035 19.105248 267.4 5.3 1.7 0 0.687 0.881 0.44 19.13 998.57 25.4
2023-05-08 13:24 50.81727 19.112653 269.5 4.8 1.4 0 0.992 1.118 0.459 20.35 998.96 23.28
2023-05-08 13:23 50.820793 19.11131 282.5 4.8 1.7 0 2.172 1.68 0.509 22.02 998.56 22.18
2023-05-08 13:22 50.822162 19.110895 275.6 5.9 2.1 0 14.246 3.834 0.63 23.52 998.31 23.01

Figure 5. Results of measurement in the form of maps with heatmaps.

Figure 6. Results of measurement in the form of maps and numbers.

Sensors 2024, 24, 445 12 of 13

4. Conclusions
This article highlights the issue of air pollution, especially outdoors, and its severe im-
pact on human health. IoT-based air quality monitoring systems are proposed as a practical
solution to monitor and publish real-time air quality information. Several examples of IoT-
based air quality monitoring systems using micro-sensors for data collection are presented
for indoor and outdoor environments. The systems use various sensors to measure air
quality parameters such as CO2 , CO, PM10 , NO2 , temperature, and humidity. The article
emphasises the need for effective air quality monitoring and the potential of IoT-based
systems to address this issue. An important issue raised in this work is the security of
data transmission. A data transmission protocol has been proposed to ensure security and
resistance to attacks related to the interception of transmissions in a public area.
The main limitation of the system is its autonomy. Currently, fully safe and reliable
autonomous vehicles have not been developed. Such a solution would allow the entire
process to be automated. This will become possible when effective algorithms for vehicle
autonomy are developed.
Future work will focus on developing a user-friendly interface for multiple software
platforms.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.B.; methodology, J.B.; software, S.S.; validation, S.S.;
formal analysis, S.S.; investigation, J.B.; resources, K.P.; data curation, K.P.; writing—original draft
preparation, J.B., S.S. and K.P.; writing—review and editing, J.B.; visualization, S.S.; supervision, J.B.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received external funding from BS-PB-1-100-3016/2023/P.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

WHO World Health Organization

NOx Z nitrogen oxides
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
SO2 sulfur dioxide
O3 ozone
CO carbon monoxide
PH particulate matter
CO2 carbon dioxide
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
IoT Internet of Things
GPS Global Positioning System
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite Systems
AQI Air Quality of System
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
AV Autonomous Vehicle
MQTT Message Queue Telemetry Transport
GSM Groupe Spécial Mobile
3G Third Generation
LTE Long Term Evolution
LAT Latitude
LON Longitude
ALT Altitude
Sensors 2024, 24, 445 13 of 13

Photoionization Detectors are used for the detection volatiles at the

PID
parts-per-million (ppm)
Temp Temperature
Press Pressure
Hum Humanity

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