International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS)

Vol. 12, No. 3, September 2021, pp. 1439~1449

ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v12.i3.pp1439-1449  1439

An efficient dynamic power management model for a stand-

alone DC Microgrid using CPIHC technique

N. Sharmila1, K. R. Nataraj 2, K. R. Rekha3

1,3Departmentof Electronics and Communication Engineering, SJB institute of Technology, Bengaluru, India
2Department of Research and Development, Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, India

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: The power generation using solar photovoltaic (PV) system in microgrid
requires energy storage system due to their dilute and intermittent nature.
Received Mar 9, 2021 The system requires efficient control techniques to ensure the reliable
Revised Jun 26, 2021 operation of the microgrid. This work presents dynamic power management
Accepted Jul 21, 2021 using a decentralized approach. The control techniques in microgrid
including droop controllers in cascade with proportional-integral (PI)
controllers for voltage stability and power balance have few limitations. PI
Keywords: controllers alone will not ensure microgrid’s stability. Their parameters
cannot be optimized for varying demand and have a slow transient response
Combined PI and droop which increases the settling time. The droop controllers have lower
controller efficiency. The load power variation and steady-state voltage error make the
Hysteresis control droop control ineffective. This paper presents a control scheme for dynamic
Maximum power point power management by incorporating the combined PI and hysteresis
tracking controller (CPIHC) technique. The system becomes robust, performs well
Photovoltaic under varying demand conditions, and shows a faster dynamic response. The
Proportional-integral proposed DC microgrid has solar PV as an energy source, a lead-acid battery
Voltage source converters as the energy storage system, constant and dynamic loads. The simulation
results show the proposed CPIHC technique efficiently manages the dynamic
power, regulates DC link voltage and battery’s state of charge (SoC)
compared to conventional combined PI and droop controller (CPIDC).
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
N. Sharmila
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
SJB Institute of Technology
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
In the recent days, as the demand for energy is increasing at a faster rate, the focus of research is
towards generation of energy using alternate sources of energy as well as generation of green energy [1], [2].
Integration of distributed energy resources (DER) into the conventional grid to reduce the demand and to
improve the reliability of the system has gained popularity across the world [3]-[7]. With an advanced control
system, a microgrid will be capable of operating in a coordinated manner and give optimized performance to
its consumers. A DC microgrid architecture is as shown in Figure 1.
In this work, we have simulated a microgrid working in islanded condition, having lead acid battery
as storage system and supplying the DC and AC loads through a voltage source converter. Incremental
conductance MPPT algorithm has been incorporated for the solar array to extract maximum power. A CPIHC
based DC-DC converter is used to connect the battery to the DC bus. The VSC is decoupled controlled to
regulate the frequency and voltage of the AC side. The entire system is simulated in Simulink and the power

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1440  ISSN: 2088-8694

waveforms of the solar array, load, battery, DC link voltage, voltage and current of the load are carefully
analyzed. This system proves to be an economical alternative for the power supply in the near future with the
growing popularity for renewable energy and rooftop solar PV generation in particular.

Figure 1. Fundamental structure of DC microgrid

Sedhom et al. [8] a protection scheme has been designed for a low voltage microgrid to ensure
stability. SJha et al. [9] the authors have made a study on different control and communication techniques for
an islanded microgrid. Different control techniques to improve voltage and frequency regulation, maintain
power balance and ensure stability of the microgrid have been discussed in [10]-[14].
The PI controller is a classical controller and has been widely used in the control of microgrid. It
finds application in many process control industries due to its robust performance. The DC offset gets
removed by the integral action in the PI algorithm. The PI controller has slower time response which reduces
the maximum overshoot and improves the damping and causes zero offset values. The major limitation of
this controller is the increase in rise time. In the microgrid, the error signal is the difference between the
measured voltage and the desired voltage. The PI controller can regulate the frequency at AC bus of the
microgrid and causes very little oscillations when the load fluctuates [15], [16]. For a PI Controller the
standard equation used to denote the output signal is given in (1).
𝐾 𝑡
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦𝑜 (𝑡) + 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡) + ∫0 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (1)
𝜏

Where y(t) is the desired output and fed into the system or process as the modulated input, 𝑦𝑜 (𝑡) is
the actual output of the system, e(t) is the error signal, 𝐾 is the controller gain and 𝜏 is the integral time
constant of the controller. Figure 2 shows the PI control implemented in PWM Voltage Source Inverters,
where outer power control loop generates reference current values(𝑖𝑑′ and 𝑖𝑞′ ) and inner current control loop
generates reference voltage values (𝑣𝑑′ and 𝑣𝑞′ ). These reference values are compared with actual value to
generate error signals and converted to ‘abc’ frame to generate gating signals.
Hysteresis controller is a simple non-linear controller with no complex control circuitry involved for
the current control and has fast response. It employs feedback current control method. The In the controller
action, a VSI makes the grid current to follow a reference pattern. The error generated by the controller
produces the switching waves, as shown in Figure 3. Here, currents 𝑖𝑑′ and 𝑖𝑞′ are converted into ‘abc’ frame
𝑖𝑎′ , 𝑖𝑏′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑐′ using dq/abc converter. An error signal is generated by comparing these reference currents with
their actual values. The error signal is fed to the hysteresis controller to generate gating pulses. A minimum
width hysteresis band is maintained in order to minimize the error [17]-[19].

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Figure 2. Double loop control scheme using PI controller

Figure 3. Generation of switching pulses using hysteresis controller

2. PROPOSED MODELING OF STAND-ALONE DC MICROGRID

The proposed stand-alone DC microgrid architecture is shown in Figure 4. The design is simulated
in MATLAB/Simulink to observe the working and to analyze the system performance.

Figure 4. Architecture of proposed stand-alone DC microgrid

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2.1. Modeling of solar PV panel

Solar PV finds extensive application in generation of electricity, ranging from residential application
to large power plants. Work on various methods of modelling the PV panel has been done in literature [20],
[21]. Figure 5 shows the equivalent circuit of a practical solar cell used for modelling of PV array. Here, IPV
indicates photo current of solar cell in ampere, R sh is the shunt resistance of the solar cell, R𝑗 is the non-
linear impedance of the p-n junction, R s is series resistance of the solar cell. The total load current is given
by (2).
𝑞𝑉
I = 𝑛𝑝 𝐼𝑃𝑉 - 𝑛𝑝 Irs [exp( ) − 1] (2)
𝑘𝑇𝐴𝑛𝑠

Where I is the PV array output current in amperes, V is the PV array output voltage, ns represents
number of cells connected in series, np represents number of modules connected in parallel; q gives the
charge of electron, k is Boltzmann constant, A is the p-n junction ideality factor (determines the cell
deviation from ideal p-n junction characteristics, ranging from 1 to 5, 1 being the ideal value); T represents
cell temperature in Kelvin; Irs is cell reverse saturation current in ampere.The cell reverse saturation current
𝐼𝑟 varies with changes in temperature according to the (3).

Figure 5. Equivalent circuit of solar cell

T qEg 1 1
Ir = Ir′ ( ′ ) [exp ( ) ( ′ − )] (3)
T r kA T r Tr

Where 𝑇𝑟′ indicates the cell reference temperature (298K), 𝐼𝑟′ represents reverse saturation current at Tr ,
𝐸𝑔 gives the band-gap energy of semiconductor used in cell. As shows (4) gives the value of solar PV current
(IPV )in ampere.
S
IPV = ISCref +ki ( T-T'r ) ( ) (4)
100

Where ISCref indicates cell short circuit current at reference temperature and radiation; k𝑖 is the short circuit
current co-efficient; S represents solar radiation in mW/cm2. The power from the PV array can be calculated
using the (5) and (6).

P = VI (5)

𝑞𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑛𝑝 𝐼𝑃𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑛𝑝 𝐼𝑟 𝑉 [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( − 1)] (6)
𝑘𝑇𝐴𝑛𝑠

2.2. Maximum power point tracking algorithm

Incremental conductance (IC) has been implemented to compute and extract maximum power from
the solar PV. The technique is simple and offers better performance in comparison with the perturb and
observe MPPT algorithm. The oscillation about the maximum point is less and has faster response in
dynamic conditions. The flowchart in Figure 6 shows the implementation of IC MPPT algorithm.

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Figure 6. Flowchart of IC MPPT algorithm

2.3. Modeling of boost converter for solar PV system

A DC-DC boost converter acts as an interface between solar PV to the DC bus. The converter along
with the Incremental Conductance algorithm helps in extracting maximum power from the solar PV, boosts
the output voltage of the solar PV and connects the solar PV system to DC bus. The values of inductance L
and capacitance C is given by (7) and (8) respectively.
Vip (Vop −Vip )
L= (7)
fsw ×∆I×Vop

Iop (Vop −Vip )

C= (8)
fsw ×∆V×Vop

Where 𝑉𝑖𝑝 is the input voltage in volts, 𝑉𝑜𝑝 represents the output voltage in volts, 𝑓𝑠𝑤 is the switching
frequency in hertz, ∆𝑉 represents the voltage ripple and ∆𝐼 represents the current ripple.

2.4. Modelling of battery energy storage

As renewable energy resources are dilute and intermittent in nature, energy storage system plays a
vital role in storing the generated energy. Lead acid batteries are the most popularly used energy storage
system, providing considerable performance in a microgrid system [22]. The circuit representation of a
battery is shown in Figure 7. The battery voltage is non-linear in nature and depends on the electrolyte
temperature T and the battery’s state of charge SoC as given by the (9).

Vm = Vmo – K [273 + T] [1 − SoC] (9)

Where Vm represents open circuit voltage in volts, Vmo gives open circuit voltage at full charge in volts, K is
the constant in volts/C, T is the electrolyte temperature in C, SoC represents state of charge of battery [23]-
[29]. The approximated value of resistance as seen from battery terminals is assumed to be temperature
independent and is a function of State of Charge(defined as ratio of battery’s current capacity to the nominal
capacity) of the battery and given by (10)

Rs = Rsref [1 + A (1 − SoC)] (10)

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Where Rsref is the value of Rs for SoC=1 in ohms, A is a constant and SoC is the battery SoC. The maximum
SoC limit is 80% and minimum SoC is 20%.

Figure 7. Battery equivalent circuit

2.5. Control algorithm for battery converter system

Bidirectional converter is used for the battery and the control algorithm regulates the DC link voltage
if the load or solar irradiance varies. If the demand on the system decreases than the solar PV generated
power, then the DC link voltage increases. If the demand it is more than the solar PV generated power or
there is a decrease in irradiance, then the DC link voltage decreases affecting the performance of the three
phase voltage source converter connected in the grid.
The control algorithm is aimed to improve the performance of the battery, regulate the DC link
voltage and improve the steady state performance of the grid by controlling the gating pulses to the battery.
The proposed control technique is implemented as shown in Figure 8. It makes a comparison between the
actual and reference values of dc link voltage and generates error signal, which is fed to the PI controller. The
total reference current obtained from PI controller is filtered using a moving average filter. A ramp rate
limiter limits the charge/discharge rate and provides reference value of battery current, as shown in Figure 8
(a). This reference value of battery current IbatRef is compared with actual value Ibat in a hysteresis control
block to generating the switching pulses for switches in converter circuit, as shown in Figure 8 (b). The
bidirectional converter interfaces the battery with the DC link and efficiently supplies/absorbs the
deficit/excess power to regulate the dc link voltage. The converter designed is a half bridge buck boost
hysteresis controlled converter.

(a)

(b)

Figure 8. (a) generation of reference battery current and (b) generation of switching pulses for the battery
circuit

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3. SIMULATION RESULTS
The microgrid system is designed with a 10kW solar PV system, connected to DC link through a
boost converter. The DC link is regulated at 760 V. Lead acid battery is used as storage system, connected
through a bidirectional DC-DC converter to the DC link. Constant and dynamic resistive loads are applied to
the system. The load occurring on the system is varied at 0.3, 0.6 and 0.8 seconds. Table 1 shows the details
of the parameter values used for simulation of the grid.

Table 1. Proposed system parameter details

SI.No Particular Rating
1. Maximum power of solar PV array 10 kW
2. Voltage at maximum power VMP 445V
3. Current at maximum power IMP 22.4719 A
4. Rated capacity 200Ah
5. State of Charge 80%
6. DC Link Voltage 760V

The variations in DC link voltage, battery voltage and current, battery SoC is observed. Figure 9
shows the variation in power of solar PV, load and battery with respect to time. Figure 10 shows regulation
of DC link voltage irrespective of the change in load. Figures 11, 12, 13 show the variations in battery
current, voltage and SoC with respect to time. The graphs show quick and smooth transition when load
changes.

Figure 9. Variation of solar power, load and battery power with respect to time

Figure 14 shows the active and reactive power of inverter circuit and constant frequency of inverter.
Figure 15 shows the load voltage regulation and variation of load current due to dynamic load. The load
voltage is maintained constant and current varies according to variation in load. The droop control cannot
perform effectively in minimizing circulating currents where critical communication does not exist. The
voltage and frequency of such system vary due to load variation. In comparison to such systems, the
proposed microgrid has acceptable performance in terms of dynamic power sharing as well as maintaining
voltage and frequency of the microgrid under variation in load. The system can be further improved to
minimize power fluctuations by incorporating economically feasible hybrid storage system. Figure 16 and 17
show the change in battery current and voltage due to dynamic load variation. As the load connected to the
grid changes, variation in battery voltage and current is observed. The proposed technique offers better
dynamic response in comparison to the conventional CPIDC technique. The settling time decrease with
smooth transition with respect to load variation.

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Figure 10 Regulation of DC link voltage Figure 11. Variation in battery current due to
irrespective of load variation variation in dynamic load

Figure 12. Battery voltage variation with respect to Figure 13. Battery State of Charge variation with
time respect to dynamic load variation

Figure 14. Variation of active and reactive power of Figure 15. Regulation of load voltage and variation of
inverter and Inverter frequency with respect to time current due to dynamic load

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840
CPIHC
CPIDC

820

Battery Voltage (V)

800

780

760

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Time (S)

Figure 16. Comparison of variation in battery Figure 17. Comparison of variation in battery
current with systems using CPIHC and CPIDC voltage with systems using CPIHC and CPIDC

4. CONCLUSION
The simulation results show that the proposed control technique has an improved stable operation
compared to conventional CPIDC controller. The higher value of droop parameters lead to increase in DC
link voltage variation which is overcome by the proposed CPIHC technique. The dynamic response of the
grid shows an improvement with the proposed technique. In comparison to conventional method, the system
has better DC link voltage regulation and battery current control. The system has smooth power sharing. The
transient response affects the life of battery since it has low power density. The proposed system considers
resistive load for analysis. The performance of the proposed microgrid can be further improved by
incorporating super capacitor and making the energy storage system hybrid.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank SJB Institute of Technology, Bengaluru,visvesvaraya technological
university (VTU), belagavi and vision group on science and technology (VGST) Karnataka Fund for
Infrastructure strengthening in Science & Technology Level – 2 for all the support and encouragement
provided by them to take up this research work and publish this paper.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Sharmila N has completed her B.E in EEE at SJCE, Mysore and M. Tech in CAID at NIE
Mysore. She has secured second rank in Bachelor of Engineering degree. She has eight
years of experience in teaching and is currently working as an Assistant Professor in RNSIT,
Bengaluru.

Dr. Nataraj K.R. is currently, Dean and Director at Don Bosco Institute of Technology,
Bengaluru. He has around 26 years of teaching experience with industry interactions. He has
served the VTU at various levels as BOE Member, Paper Setter, and DCS for VTU digital
valuation, Journal Reviewer for IEEE & Springer. He has received funds from different
funding agencies. He is currently guiding five research scholars in Visvesvaraya
Technological University Belgaum. He is a recognized research guide, Ph.D. Thesis
evaluator of various universities across the country.

Dr. Rekha K R. is currently working as a professor in Department of Electronics and

Communication Engg at S.J.B Institute of Technology, Bengaluru. She has around 24 years
of teaching experience with industry interactions. She has served the VTU at various levels
as BOE Member, Paper Setter, and Journal Reviewer for IEEE & Springer. She has received
funds from different funding agencies. She is currently guiding five research scholars in
Visvesvaraya Technological University Belgaum. She is a recognized research guide, Ph.D.
Thesis evaluator of various universities across the country and an Advisory Committee
member for national, international conferences. She is subject expert for faculty recruitment
drives at various institutes.

An efficient dynamic power management model for a stand-alone DC … (N. Sharmila)