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Math 215 Cheat Sheet

Introduction to Statistics (Athabasca University)

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Chapter 1
Descriptive = organizing, displaying, and describing data with tables+graphs periods
Inferential = methods that use sample results to make predictions about a populat Sample=a portion of the population—why sample? Time,Cost,Impossibility
Element/member= subject which info is collected about of conducting a census
Variable= a characteristic under study that assumes different values for different Census=survey including every member of population
elements (x) Random Sample=each member of the population has a chance of being
Observation/measurement=the value of a variable for an element selected
Data set=collection of observations Simple=everyone has an equal chance of being selected
Quantitative = can be measured Nonrandom Sample=some members may not have the chance of being selected
• Discrete= values are countable Selection error= sampling frame not representative of population
• Continuous= can assume any numerical value over a certain interval Response=not the correct response
Qualitative= cannot assume a # but can be classified into 2+ non-numeric categor
Nonresponse=didn’t answer
Cross-section contains info on diff. elements of a population for the same time pe
Time-series= data collected on the same element for the same variable at differen
Chapter 2
Relative frequency= Frequency of that category/sum of all frequencies Dot Plot can help detect outliers
Percentage=Relative frequency x 100 To make a dot plot make a number line (min value -max value) place dots above
Pareto chart=bar graph with bars in descending order # to see Frequency
Histogram=bar chart with frequency on vertical axis and classes on Stem and Leaf advantage over frequency distribution= we do not lose info on
horizontal axis individual observations
Polygon=Graph formed with frequency on vertical and midpoints on Stem is first part of #, Leaf is second part.. Split with a line down middle.
horizontal; connect the dots Stem and leafs should be in increasing order
Class width= lower limit of next class-lower limit of current class Split stems= each stem can be split into 2 or 5
Class midpoint= (lower limit+upper limit)/2 parts, when stems are in 2 parts leaves with values of 0,1,2,3,4 are placed
Number of classes varies from 5-20 in 1st split term and leaves 5,6,7,8,9 are in 2nd split term , for
Approximate class width when making a chart= (Largest #- Smallest 5- 1st split=0-1 2nd =2-3, 3rd=4-5, 4th=6-7 and 5th=8-
#)/#of classes
Cumulative frequency distribution= cumulative frequency of class/total
observations in data set
Chapter 3
Mean= sum of all values/number of all values Range= largest#-smallest# (influenced by outliers)
Mean(ungrouped) for population data=µ= ∑x/N ∑x=sum of all values,
N=population size Variance= 𝜎 ^2
Mean(ungrouped)for sample data=x =Σx /n n=sample size x=sample mean Coefficient of variation=𝜎/ µ x 100%
µ=pop mean Chebyshev’s Theorem= at least 1-(1/k^2) x 100% of the data will lie inside the
Mean(grouped)= µ= ∑mf/N and x =Σmf /n where m=midpoint frequency given interval. For any # > than 1; at least 1-(1/k^2) lie within the SD of the
of a class mean.
Weighted mean(ungrouped)= ∑xw/w K=(limit-mean)/standard deviation or k=mean+(K)(SD) K>1
Median(ungrouped) =rank data in increasing order, split in 2 equal halves 68-95-99.7 rule= 68% within 1𝜎, 95% within 2𝜎, 99.7% within 3𝜎 of the
(not influenced mean
by outliers)
Mode=The

Box and Whisker Plots= Graphical displays of the 5 # summary. They

describe the minimum, 1st quartile, median, 3rd quartile, and maximum.
(They also show outliers)

value
that occurs with the highest frequency in a data set
Downfall of a mode is that there could be none or
multiple
For a symmetric histogram- mean/mode/median
in middle
For a skewed to the right histogram= mode then
median then mean(majority of x below mean)
For a skewed to the left histogram= mean then
median then mode (majority of x above mean)
Chapter 4
An experiment is a process that, when performed, results in one and only one of many observations. These observations are called the outcomes of the experiment. The collection of all
outcomes for an experiment is called a sample space.
To draw a tree diagram, we draw two branches starting at the same point, one representing the head and the second representing the tail. The two final outcomes are
listed at the ends of the branches
An event is a collection of one or more of the outcomes of an experiment.
Simple Event An event that includes one and only one of the (final) outcomes for an experiment is called a simple
event
A compound event is a collection of more than one outcome for an experiment.
1. The probability of an event always lies in the range 0 to 1.
2. The sum of the probabilities of all simple events (or final outcomes) for an experiment, denoted by ∑P(Ei), is
always 1.
Classical probability rule for a simple event: P(Ei) = 1 / Total number of outcome
Classical probability rule for a compound event: P(A) = Number of outcomes in A / Total number of outcomes
If an experiment is repeated n times and an event A is observed f times where f is the frequency, then, according to
the relative frequency concept of probability:
P(A)=f/n=Frequency of A/ Sample size
Marginal probability is the probability of a single event without consideration of any other event.
Conditional probability is the probability that an event will occur given that another event has already occurred.
If A and B are two events, then the conditional probability

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of A given B is written as P(A|B) and read as “the probability of A given that B has already
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Occurred.”

Ex. in favour…given…first variable divided by total of second variable.

Ex. rolling a dice…x^2/y^2
Condition for independence of events: P(A) = P(A∣B) and⁄or Complementary Events The complement of event A, denoted by A¯ and read as “A bar” or “A
P(B) = P(B∣A) complement,” is the event that includes all the outcomes for an e experiment that are not in A.
Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence of one event Multiplication rule for dependent events: P(A and B) = P(A) P(B∣A)
does not affect the Multiplication rule for independent events: P(A and B) = P(A) P(B)
probability of the occurrence of the other event. Events that cannot occur together are said to be mutually exclusive
To check: P(AlB)=P(A) so formula= P(A+B)/P(B) events.
Two events are either mutually exclusive or independent. Joint probability of two mutually exclusive events: P(A and B) = 0
Mutually exclusive events are always dependent. Addition rule for mutually nonexclusive events: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
Independent events are never mutually exclusive. − P(A and B)
Dependent events may or may not be mutually exclusive. Addition rule for mutually exclusive events: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
Permutation vs combination= order vs. order doesn’t matter eg. lock n factorial: n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . 3 · 2 ·
Chapter 5
A Random variable is a variable whose value is determined by the outcome of a random experiment. Prob distribution
example:
Discrete random variable assumes countable values .
Continuous random variable can assume any value contained in 1 + intervals.
Probability distribution for discrete random variables:
1. Each probability in P(x) column will range from 0-1
2. The sum of all probabilities in the P(x) column is 1
Mean of discrete random variable is µ (can also be called expected
value which = E(x)) formula = μ = ∑x*P(x)
Standard deviation of discrete random variable measures the spread of its
probability distribution and is σ=√ ∑x^2P(x)−μ^2
A large value indicates that x can assume values over a larger range
about the mean, a small value indicates that x values mostly are clustered closely about the mean.
Variance is obtained by σ^2 and it Is never negative.
Binomial probability distribution of discrete random variables satisfies these 4 conditions:
1. There are n identical trials
2. Each trial has 2 and only 2 outcomes, usually called a success or a failure.
3. The probability of success is denoted by p and a failure by q…. P+q =1
4. The trials are independent
For any # of trials n:
1. The binomial prob distribution is symmetric is
p=0.50
2. The binomial prob distribution is skewed to the
right if p is less than 0.50
3. The binomial prob distribution is skewed to the
left if p is more than 0.50
Mean and standard deviation of the binomial
distribution: μ=np and σ= √npq
Where n=total # of trials, p=probability of success, q=probability of failure
Hypergeometric probability distribution replaces binomial when the trials are not independent
Poisson probability distribution applies to experiments with random and independent
Occurrences. p(0) + p(1)...
n=total number of trials p=probability of success q=proabability of failure (1-p)
x=number of successes in n trials n-x= number of failures in trials nCx eg.=3C2 (number of ways to
obtain 2 successes in 3 trials)

Chapter 6
Relative Frequency Densities of a Class = obtained by dividing the relative frequency of that class by the class width calculated to make the sum of the areas of all
rectangles in histogram equal to 1.0 area of rectangles = probability
Characteristics of the Probability Distribution of a Continuous Random Variable:
1. probability that x assumes a value in any intervals lies in the range 0-1
2. total probability of all the (mutually exclusive) intervals within which x can assume a value is 1.0
Probability that continuous random variable (x) assumes a value within certain interval is given by the area under the curve b/w the two limits of the interval.
Probability of continuous random variable (x) is always calculated for interval.
Probability that continuous random variable (x) assumes a single value is 0 The Normal Distribution: 1.
Total area under curve is 1.0 2. Curve is symmetric about the mean 3.
The 2 tails of the curve extend indefinitely area in each tail of standard normal distribution curve beyond 3 SDs of the mean is 0.0013 the value of µ determines the
center of a normal distribution on the x- axis (µ = 0) the value of σ gives the spread of the normal distribution curve (σ = 1) z values/scores - a specific value of z
gives the distance between the mean and the point represented by z in terms of the standard deviation - ex: a point with value of z=2 is 2 SDs to the right of the
mean - standard normal distribution table gives the cumulative probability to the LEFT of any z value if z > 3.49 - assume area is approx. 1.0 if z < -3.49 - assume
area is approx. 0.0 Standardizing a Normal Distribution: converting particular value of x to its corresponding z value units of normal distribution are x units of
standard normal distribution are z
Converting an x Value to a z Value: z=(x−μ)/σ the z value for an x value greater than the mean is +ve the z value for an x value smaller than the mean is -ve the z
value represents the distance between μ and x in terms of the standard deviation Finding an x Value for a Normal Distribution: x = µ +
zσNormal Distribution as an Approximation to Binomial Distribution: When np > 5 and nq > 5 1. compute µ and σ for the binomial distribution µ = np and σ =
√npq
2. convert the discrete random variable into a continuous random variable
Continuity Correction Factor = addition of 0.5 and/or subtraction of 0.5 from the value(s) of x when the normal distribution is used an approximation to the
binomial distribution, where x is the number of successes in n trials SUBTRACT 0.5 from LOWER LIMIT of interval (x – 0.5) ADD 0.5 to the UPPER LIMIT of
the interval (x + 0.5)
3. compute the required probability using the normal distribution

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