COMPUTER NETWORKS

&
COMMUNICATION

Lecture Notes

Course Code – CSC 423

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM RESOURCES
Internet overview
The Internet is a giant network of networks.

 A network may include PCs, and other devices like servers or printers.

 A network is connected through a communication channel.

 Early research was performed by the US Department of Defense in 1962. This research
group established ARPAnet (Advanced Research Project Agency) in order to connect the
US Defense Department network.

What did the Internet come from?

 Original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at
one university to be able to ‘talk to’ research computers at other universities.

 A side benefit of ARPAnet’s design was that, because messages could be routed or
rerouted in more than one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts
of it were destroyed in the event of a military attack or other disaster.

 The users of the Internet took a direction of their own.

History of the Internet

 The first long distance communication took place in 1965 between a computer in MIT
and California. In 1969, four computer clients were connected together via ARPAnet.

How old is the Internet?

 Leonard Kleinrock is accredited with the idea of packet switching, which describes
how data can be sent across a network. The Ethernet was developed by Xerox during
this period. This was inspired by Robert Metcalfe’s PhD on ‘packet networks’.

 An Ethernet is a protocol for describing how computers can be connected in a LAN

(Local Area network).

 Through the use of Ethernet and ARPAnet the US were able to develop a working network.

 In the late 1970s and early 1980s other networks were developed, e.g. CSNET, USNET
and BITNET. In 1973 Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn created the TCP/IP communication
protocols.

 TCP/IP: Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a set of rules that describe how
computers can communicate over a network.

 To send information over the Internet, a computer packs data into Internet Protocol (IP)
packets and labels them with the correct address. They are then sent across a packet
switched interconnected network.
Introduction to Data Communication
The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to
information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Computer Network
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

Software modules in one system are used to communicate with one or more software modules
in the distance System. Such interfaces across a distance are termed as “peer-to-peer”
interfaces; and the local interfaces are termed as “service” interfaces. The modules on each end
are organized as a sequence of functions called “layers”. The set of modules organized as
layers is also commonly called a “protocol stack”.

Over the years, some layered models have been standardized. The ISO Open Systems
Interconnection (ISO/OSI) layered model has seven layers and was developed by a set of
committees under the auspices of International Standards Organization (ISO).

Classification of Computer Networks

1. Based on Transmission Mode

Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are
three types of transmission modes.

 Simplex

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Among the stations only one can transmit
and the other can only receive.

 Half-Duplex

In half-Duplex mode, the communication is bidirectional. In this both station can sent and
receive but not at the same time.

 Full-Duplex

In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

2. Based on Time Transmission Type
 Synchronous Transmission

In synchronous Transmission both the sender and the receiver use the same time cycle for the
transmission. We send bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps. It is the
responsibility of the receiver to group the bits. Bit stream is delivered with a fixed delay and
given error rate. Each bit reaches the destination with the same time delay after leaving the
source.

 Asynchronous Transmission

In Asynchronous Transmission we send one start bit at the beginning and one stop bit at the
end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte. Bit stream is divided into packets.
Packets are received with varying delays, so packets can arrive out of order. Some packets are
not received correctly.

3. Based on Authentication
 Peer to Peer Connection
In peer-to-peer networks, there are no dedicated servers. All the computers are equal and,
therefore, are termed as peers. Normally, each computer functions as both a client and a
server. No one can control the other computers.

 Server Based Connection

Most networks have a dedicated server. A dedicated server is a computer on a network
which functions as a server, and cannot be used as a client or a workstation. A dedicated
server is optimized to service requests from network clients. A server can control the
clients for its services.
4. Based on Geographical location
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
LAN is a small high speed network. In LAN few numbers of systems are interconnected
with networking device to create network. As the distance increases between the nodes or
system it speed decreases. So it is limed to few meters only. Networks which cover close
geographical area. LAN used to link the devices in a single office, building or campus. It
provides high speeds over short distance. Systems are connecting directly to Network.
The LAN is owned by private people.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is collection of network (or LAN). This network speed is less than the LAN
network speed.WAN network connect systems indirectly. WAN spread over the world
may be spread over more than one city country or continent. Systems in this network are
connected indirectly. Generally WAN network are slower speed than LAN’s. The WAN
network are owned or operated by network providers. If it is owned by a single owner
 then it is called Enterprise network. Often these types have combination of more than one
topology.

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Metropolitan area network is an extension of local area network to spread over the
city. Itmay be a single network or a network in which more than one local area network
canshare their resources.

5. Based on Reliability
Reliability is maintained by authentication.
 Connection-oriented

This type of communication establishes a session connection before data can be sent.
This method is often called a "reliable" network service. It can guarantee that data
will arrive inthe same order.
 Connection less
This type of communication does not require a session connection between sender
and receiver for data transfer. The sender simply starts sending packets to the
destination. A connectionless network provides minimal services.

Topology
The term topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or more
devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus and ring (see
figure 1).

Figure 1 Categories of topology

1. Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point to point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects. (see figure 2)
 Figure 2 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. First, the use of dedicated links
guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems
that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices. Second, a mesh topology is robust.
If one link becomes unavailable it does not incapacitate the entire system. Third, there is the
advantage of privacy or security. Whenever message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it. Finally, point to point links make fault identification and fault isolation
easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This enables the network
manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.

The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and that of I/O ports
required. First, because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available
space (in walls, ceilings or floors) can accommodate. Finally, the hardware required to connect
each link (I/O ports and cables) can be prohibitively expensive. For these reasons, a mesh
topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the
main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other topologies.

One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of a telephone regional office in
which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

2. Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. These devices are not directly linked to one another.
Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The
controller acts as an exchange. If one device wants to send data to another it sends the data to the
controller, which then relay the data to the other connected devices (see figure 3)
 Figure 3: A star topology connecting four stations

A Star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one
link and one I/O port to connect to any number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install
and reconfigure. Far less calling needs to be housed, and additions, moves and deletions involve
only one connection between that device and the hub.

Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other remain
active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the
hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass detective links.

One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single
point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub.
For this reason, often more cabling is registered in a star then in some other topologies (such as
ring or bus).

3. Bus Topology: A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in the network (see figure 4)

Figure 4: A bus topology connecting three stations

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running
between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable
or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels
along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker
and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason, there is a limit on the number of taps
a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the
most efficient path and then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way,
a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be
optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal
reflection at the taps can cause degradation of quality.

In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the
same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin,
creating noise in both directions.

Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area networks

4. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point to point connection with
only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from
device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits
and passes them along (see figure 5).

Figure 5 A ring topology connecting six stations

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate
neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and
number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally, a signal is circulating at
all times in a ring. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue
an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.

However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such
as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a dual
ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.

Today, the need for higher speed LANS has made this topology less popular
5. Hybrid Topology: A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology
with each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

All computers, regardless of topology, communicate by addressing data to one or more

computers and transmitting it across cable as electronic signals. Data is broken into packets and
sent as electronic signals that travel on the cable. Only the computer to which the data is
addressed accepts it.

Protocol
Protocols mean set of rules. It is a formal description of message formats and the rules two or
more machines has to follow to exchange messages. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing.
 Syntax
Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they
are presented.
 Semantics
Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
 Timing
Timing refers to when data should be sent and how fast it can be sent.
 Internetworking Technologies
Internetworking Technologies tell how the Internet accommodating multiple underlying
hardware technologies and how they are interconnected and formed the network, and set of
communication standard which the network used to inter-operate.

The lowercase internet means multiple networks connected together, using a common protocol
suite. The uppercase Internet refers to the collection of hosts around the world that can
communicate with each other using TCP/IP. While the Internet is an internet, the reverse is not
true.

Network Infrastructure or Transmission Infrastructure:

Network infrastructure is divided into two parts.

1. Access Networks
An access network is the part of a telecommunications network which connects end system to
the firstrouter or subscribers to their immediate service provider as shown in figure 7.

Figure 7 Network Infrastructure

It is different from core network which connects all the routers to each other and ISP (Internet
service provider). An access network may be a so-called local area network within a company or
university, a dial telephone line with a modem, or a high-speed cable-based or phone-based
access network.
Access networks can be loosely divided into three categories:
 Residential access networks, connecting a home end system into the network.

 Institutional access networks, connecting an end system in a business or educational

institution into the network.

 Mobile access networks, connecting a mobile end system into the network

Core Networks:
Core network connects all the routers to each other and ISP (Internet service provider). It is a
main back bone for internet. Core network uses circuit switching and packet switching for data
transmission.

ISP (Internet Service Provider):

In internet bottom-to-top the hierarchy consists of end systems (PCs, workstations, etc.)
connected to local Internet Service Providers (ISPs). The local ISPs are in turn connected to
regional ISPs, which are in turn connected to national and international ISPs. The national and
international ISPs are connected together at the highest tier in the hierarchy.

Let's begin at the top of the hierarchy and work our way down. Residing at the very top of the
hierarchy are the national ISPs, which are called National Backbone Provider (NBPs). The
NBPs form independent backbone networks that span North America (and typically abroad as
well). Just as there are multiple long-distance telephone companies in the USA, there are
multiple NBPs that compete with each other for traffic and customers. The existing NBPs
include internetMCI, SprintLink, PSINet, UUNet Technologies, and AGIS. The NBPs typically
have high-bandwidth transmission links, with bandwidths ranging from 1.5 Mbps to 622 Mbps
and higher. Each NBP also has numerous hubs which interconnect its links and at which regional
ISPs can tap into the NBP.

The NBPs themselves must be interconnected to each other. To see this, suppose one regional
ISP, say MidWestnet, is connected to the MCI NBP and another regional ISP, say EastCoastnet,
is connected to Sprint's NBP. How can traffic be sent from MidWestnet to EastCoastnet? The
solution is to introduce switching centers, called Network Access Points (NAPs), which
interconnect the NBPs, thereby allowing each regional ISP to pass traffic to any other
regional ISP. To keep us all confused, some of the NAPs are not referred to as NAPs but
instead as MAEs (Metropolitan Area Exchanges).
Component of Internet:
A network (or internet) is formed using Hardware (or network device) and network software or
Application and protocols.
Hardware or Network device:
1. Hub:
 It is uses to connect systems or nodes or networks.
 It has direct connection to a node (point to point connection).
 It suffers from high collision of data, results to data loss.
 A hub takes data from input port and retransmits the input data on output port.

2. Repeater:
 A repeater is a device which regenerates or amplifies the data or signal so that it
can betravel to the other segment of cable.
 It is use to connect two networks that uses same technology and protocol.
 It does not filter or translate any data.
 Work in physical layer.

3. Bridge:
 It is used to connect two networks.
 It divides the collision domain based on number of ports or interface present in a bridge.
 It uses the packet switches that forward and filter the frames using LAN destination address.
 Bridge examines the destination address of frame and forwards it to the interface
or portwhich leads to the destination.
 It uses the routing table for routing frame from one node to other using MAC address.
 It works in Data Link Layer.

4. Switch:
 It is similar to bridge. It has a greater number of interfaces as compared to bridge.
 It allows direct communication between the nodes.
 It works in Data Link Layer.
 It uses MAC address for data transmission and communication.
5. Router:
 It is used to connect different types of network (types- architecture/ Protocol).
 It work similar to bridge but it uses IP address for routing data.
 Router can't be used for connecting Systems.
 It works in Network Layer.
6. Gateways:
Gateways make communication possible between systems that use different
communication protocols, data formatting structures, languages and architectures.
 Gateways repackage data going from one system to another. Gateways are usually
dedicated servers on a network and are task-specific.

System, Software and Protocols:

Basically, two types of system are used in Internet
 Client system: User which access data from internet.
 Server System: Host data for users using HTML files.

Software or Applications and protocols:

 Chat- IRC (Internet Relay Chat) is used for live discussions on the Internet.

 Ecommerce - Taking orders for products and services on the Internet.

 E-mail - Exchanging electronic letters, messages, and small files.

 FTP - File Transfer Protocol is the most common method of transferring files between
computers via the Internet.

 Hosting - Making information available to others on the Internet.

 Search Engines - These tools are really a part of the World Wide Web and are often used
when looking for information because the Web has grown so large and is without any
inherent organizational structure.

 Telnet - Creation of a dumb terminal session to a host computer in order to run software
applications on the host system.

 World Wide Web - This is largest, fastest growing, part of the Internet, the part for
which Internet browsers like Netscape’s Navigator and Microsoft’s Explorer were
designed. Business is the leading factor fueling the rapid growth of the Web making
information, advertising, and product ordering readily available to everyone with Web
access.

 TCP/IP
 Browser

WAN Protocols
 Frame Relay
Frame relay is used to connect large number of sites in the network because it is
relatively inexpensive to do so. The service provider gives you a frame relay circuit and is
charged for the amount of data and the bandwidth you use as oppose to T1 circuit that
charges with a flat monthly rate whether you use partial bandwidth or the full bandwidth
regardless. Frame relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the Data
Link layer and the Physical layer of the OSI model.
  Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is designed to run over existing telephone
networks. It can deliver end to end digital service carrying voice and data. ISDN
operates at OSI model, physical layer, data link layer and network layer. It can carry
multimedia and graphics with all other voice, data services. ISDN supports all upper
layer protocols and you can choose PPP, HDLC or LAPD as your encapsulation
protocol. It has two offerings, Primary rate which is 23B+D channels. 23, 64 kbps and
one 64kbps mainly used for signaling. The other is the Basic Rate which has 2B+D
channels two 64kbps and one 16kbps. At data link layer ISDN supports two protocols;
LAPB and LAPD. LAPB is used to mainly transfer data from upper layers and has three
types of frames. I-Frames carry upper layer information and carries out sequencing,
flow control, error detection and recovery. S- Frames carry control information for the I-
frame. LAPD provides an additional multiplexing function to the upper layers enabling
number of network entities to operate over a single physical access. Each individual link
procedure acts independently of others. The multiplex procedure combines and
distributes the data link channels according to the address information of the frame.
Each link is associated with a specific Service Access Point (SAP), which is identified in
the part of the address field.

 High Level Data Link Control (HDLC)

High Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit oriented data link layer frame protocol
that has many versions similar to LAP, LAPB, and LAPD. CISCO routers default
encapsulationis HDLC, but it is proprietary to CISCO.

OSI model

OSI (Open System Interconnection), developed by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO), was the solution designed to promote interoperability between
vendors. It defines architecture for communications that support distributed processing.

The OSI model describes the functions that allow systems to communicate successfully
over a network. Using what is called a layered approach, communications functions are
broken down into seven distinct layers.
 Figure 8 Interaction between layers in OSI model.

The seven layers, beginning with the bottom layer of the OSI model, are shown in
figure 8. Routers are used as intermediate node to create a link between A and B end
system.
OSI model layers are dependent on each other. Each layer serves the upper layer and
also depends upon the services from the lower layer.
OSI model also provide the layer abstraction. Layers are dependent on each other for
services but in terms of protocol they are independent.
In each layer information is added into original data as header but in data link layer
trailer is added into the data as shown in figure 9.

Figure 9 Exchange of data using OSI model

OSI Model Layer
Layer 1: Physical Layer
▪ It defines the transmission of data across the communications medium
andtranslation of binary data into signals.
▪ Mode of transmission over the link i.e Simplex or Half Duplex or Full Duplex
▪ It defines the transmission rate of bits per second.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

▪ It divides the data into number of frames.
▪ It uses the MAC address for sending frames from one node to other.
▪ It provides flow control, error control and access control.
Layer 3: Network Layer
▪ It divides data into number of packets.
▪ It uses IP address for routing packets to their destination.
▪ It provides end to end connection.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
▪ It divides message into segments and also reassemble the segments to
createoriginal message.
▪ It can be either connection-oriented or connectionless.
▪ It uses service-point address or port address for process-to-
process communication.
▪ Flow control and error control also provided by transport layer.
Layer 5: Session Layer
▪ Session Layer establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction
amongcommunicating systems.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
▪ It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems.
▪ It translates information from text/numeric into bit stream.
▪ It also encrypts the information for security purpose and compress the
information to reduce the number of bits in the information.
Layer 7: Application Layer
▪ It provides the interface to the end user and supports for services such as
Email,file transfer and distributed information service.
OSI Model and Protocol stack
Layer Protocol

Application HTTP, FTP, SMTP,

TELNET
Presentation JPG, GIF, MPEG,
Session TCP 3-way Handshaking
Transport TCP, UDP
Network IP, IPX
Data Link Ethernet, Token Ring, HDLC
Physical X.21, RS-232, DS, DS3

TCP/IP model
• TCP/IP protocol suite was developed before the OSI model.
• TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share resources across a
network.
• In 1969 the Defense Advanced research projects Agency (DARPA) funded a research and
development project to create an experimental packet switching network. This network is called
ARPANET.
• In 1975 the ARPANET was converted from an experimental network to an operational network,
and the responsibility for administering the network was given to the Defense Communication
Agency (DCA).
• The TCP/IP protocols were adopted as Military Standards (MIL STD) in 1983, and all hosts
connected to the network were required to convert to the new protocols.
• DARPA funded to implement TCP/IP in Berkely Unix.
• In 1983, the old ARPANET was divided into MILNET and smaller ARPANET. The Internet was
used to refer to the entire network; MILNET and ARPANET.

Advantages of TCP/IP
Open protocol standards, freely available and developed independently from any specific
computer hardware or operating system. A common addressing scheme which is enable to
connect the most widely used networks. It may use any protocols. It connects dissimilar systems.
It provides client/server framework. It provides access to the Internet

Differences of the OSI and TCP/IP models

TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer into its application layer. TCP/IP combines
the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer. TCP/IP appears simpler because it has
fewer layers. TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of
packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does.
Packet Switching fundamentals
A switched network consists of a series of interlined device called switches (shown in figure 10).
It is a device which can create a temporary connection between two or more system linked to the
switch. In switched network some of the nodes are systems and other are used for routing.

The end systems (communicating devices) are labeled A, B, C, D, and so on, and the switches
are labeled I, II, III, IV, and V. Each switch is connected to multiple links.

Figure 10 Switched Network

There are three methods of switching

1. Circuit Switched Networks

2. Packet Switched Networks

A. Datagram Networks
B. Virtual- circuit Networks
3. Message Switched Networks

1. Circuit Switched Network:

 In circuit-switched networks, a dedicated path is needed for communication between
the end systems are reserved for the duration of the session.
 Each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.
 Each link is divided into n channels by using FDM (frequency division Multiplexing)
or TDM (TimeDivision multiplexing).

Figure 11 trivial circuit-switched network

In the above figure one link is divided into n channel (here n=3). A circuit switched network
requires the following three phase during the session.

1. Setup Phase: First of all two system needs to create dedicated circuit or path for
communication. For example, in figure 11 when system A needs to connect to system
M, it sends a setup request that includes the address of system M, to switch I. Switch I
finds a channel between itself and switch II that can be dedicated for this purpose.
Switch I then send the request to switch II, which finds a dedicated channel between
itself and switch III. Switch III informs system M of about system A.
To establish a path system M must send an acknowledgement for the request of A.
Only after system A receives this acknowledgement the connection is established. Only
end to end addressing is required for establishing connection between two end systems.
2. Data Transfer Phase
After the establishment of the dedicated path (channels), the two systems can transfer data.
3. Teardown Phase
When one of the systems needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to
release the resources.

2. Packet Switched Networks

a) Datagram Networks
 In packet switched network message is divided into number of packets. Each packet is
of fixed size defined by network or protocol.
 Datagram switched network is also known as Connectionless packet switching
 There is no dedicated link between source and destination.

 No dedicated Resources are allocated for packet. Resources are allocated on demand and
it follows first come first basis. When a switch receives a packet, irrespective of the
source or destination, the packet must wait if the other packets being processed.
 A single message is divided into number of packets. During the transfer of packets from
source to destination, each packet is treated independently. Destination can receive
unordered packets and later packet can be ordered and combine the packets to extract the
message.
 Packets are referred as datagrams in this type of switching. Datagram switching is
normally done at the network layer.
 The datagram networks are referred to as connectionless networks. Connectionless means
switches have no connection state information.
 There is no setup and teardown phase. So, a routing table is required in every switch to
route packet from source to destination. A Routing table is based on the destination
address. The routing table updated periodically. The destination addresses and the
 corresponding forwarding output ports are recorded in the tables. This is different from
the table of a circuit switched network in which each entry is created when the setup
phase is completed and deleted when the teardown phase is over. Figure 4`shows the
routing table for a switch.

Destination Output Port

address
1234 1
4444 2
6666 3
….. .
2222 3

Figure 12 Routing table for a switch

Destination Address
Every packet in a datagram network carries a header that contains information of the
destination address of the packet. When the switch receives the packet, this destination address is
examined; the routing table is consulted to find the corresponding port through which the packet
should be forwarded. This address, unlike the address in a virtual-circuit-switched network,
remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.

Efficiency:
The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched network; resources
are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred. If a source sends a packet and
there is a delay of a few minutes before another packet can be sent, the resources can be
reallocated during these minutes for other packets from other sources.
Delay
There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit network. Although
there are no setup and teardown phases, each packet may experience a wait at a switch before it
is forwarded. In addition, since not all packets in a message necessarily travel through the same
switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message.
Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram approach to packet switching at the
network layer.

b) Virtual –Circuit Networks:

A virtual-circuit network uses the characteristics of both the circuit switched network and the
datagram network. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer,
while a circuit- switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in
 the network layer. Virtual-circuit network is also known as Connection-oriented packet
switching

Addressing
Two types of addressing is used in virtual-circuit network
 Global Address: It is an address which can uniquely identify the systems (source or
destination) in a network or internet. This address is used to create virtual circuit
identifier only.
 Virtual Circuit Identifier: The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is known
as virtual circuit identifier (VCI). It is a number which is used in a frame between two
switches. This VCI changes from one switch to another. Every switch uses a fixed range
of values for VCI.

Three phases of Virtual –Circuit Networks:

1. Data Transfer Phase

 To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to have a table
entry for this virtual circuit.
 The table, in its simplest form, has four columns.
 This means that the switch holds four pieces of information for each virtual circuit that
is already setup.

 Figure 12 shows such a switch and its corresponding table. Figure 13 shows a frame
arriving at port 1 with a VCI of 14. When the frame arrives, the switch looks in its table
to find port 1 and VCI of 14. When it is found, the switch knows to change the VCI to 22
and send out the frame

from port 3.
 The data transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frames to the destination.
 The procedure at the switch is the same for each frame of a message.
 The process creates a virtual circuit, not a real circuit, between the source and destination.

Figure 13 Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

2. Setup Phase
In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit. For example,
suppose source A needs to create a virtual circuit to B. Two steps are required: the
setup request and the acknowledgment.

Figure 14 Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

- Setup Request:
A setup request frame is sent from the source to the destination. Figure 6 shows the
process.
a. Source A sends a setup frame to switch 1.
b. Switch 1 receives the setup request frame. It knows that a frame going from A to B goes
out through port 3. The switch, in the setup phase, acts as a packet switch; it has a
routing table which is different from the switching table. For the moment, assume that it
knows the output port. The switch creates an entry in its table for this virtual circuit, but it
is only able to fill three of the four columns. The switch assigns the incoming port (1) and
chooses an available incoming VCI (14) and the outgoing port (3). It does not yet
know the outgoing VCI, which will be found during the acknowledgment step. The
switch then forwards the frame throughport3 to switch 2.
c. Switch 2 receives the setup request frames. The same events happen here as at switch1;
three columns of the table are completed: in this case, incoming port (l), incoming VCI
(66), and outgoing port (2).
d. Switch 3 receives the setup request frame. Again, three columns are completed: Incoming
port (2), incoming VCI (22), and outgoing port (3).
e. Destination B receives the setup frame, and if it is ready to receive frames from A, it
assigns a VCI to the incoming frames that come from A, in this case 77. This VCI lets
the destination know that the frames come from A, and no other sources.

- Acknowledgment:
A special frame, called the acknowledgment frame, completes the entries in the switching
tables. Figure 15 shows the process.
 a. The destination sends an acknowledgment to switch 3. The acknowledgment carries the
global source and destination addresses so the switch knows which entry in the table is
to be completed. The frame also carries VCI 77, chosen by the destination as the
incoming VCI for frames from A. Switch 3 uses this VCI to complete the outgoing VCI
column for this entry. Note that 77 is the incoming VCI for destination B, but the
outgoing VCI for switch 3.
b. Switch 3 sends an acknowledgment to switch 2 that contains its incoming VCI in the
table, chosen in the previous step. Switch 2 uses this as the outgoing VCI in the table.
c. Switch 2 sends an acknowledgment to switch 1that contains its incoming VCI in the
table, chosen in the previous step. Switch 1uses this as the outgoing VCI in the table.
d. Finally switch 1 sends an acknowledgment to source A that contains its incoming VCI in
the table, chosen in the previous step.
e. The source uses this as the outgoing VCI for the data frames to be sent to destination B.

Figure 15 Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network

1. Teardown Phase
In this phase, source A, after sending all frames to B, sends a special frame called a
teardown request. Destination B responds with a teardown confirmation frame. All switches
delete the corresponding entry from their tables.

Note: In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the same source and
destination travel the same path; but the packets may arrive at the destination with
different delays ifresource allocation is on demand.
 Efficiency of Virtual-Circuit Networks:
Virtual-Circuit Networks uses the resources efficiently and it reduces the waiting time of data frame.

Delay in Virtual-Circuit Networks:

In a virtual-circuit network, there is a delay for setup and for teardown. If resources are
allocated during the setup phase, there is no wait time for individual packets. Figure 8 shows the
delay for a packet traveling through two switches in a virtual-circuit network.

Figure 16 Delay in a virtual-circuit network

The packet is traveling through two switches (routers). There are three transmission times (3T),
three propagation times (3Ƭ), data transfer depicted by the sloping lines, a setup delay (which
includes transmission and propagation in two directions), and a teardown delay (which includes
transmission and propagation in one direction).

Packet Switching versus Circuit Switching

Packet Switching Circuit Switching
1. Packet switched network is implemented in 1. Circuit-switched network is implemented in
the physical layer. the physical layer.
2. Message is divided into number of packets or 2. Complete message is transfer from source to
frames. destination.
3. Resources are allocated on demand if 3. Resources are reserved during the datatransfer.
available (or free). 4. Less efficient and more costly.
4. More efficient and less costly. 5. As the number of users increases, the
5. A link can be used by any number of user. bandwidth for each user decreases. But most of the
6. It has unpredictable delay due to waiting of time fixed number of user can use a link because
packets/frames at switch, if resources are not
number of channel is fixed.
available.
7. Suitable for most of the Internet applications. 6. It has less delay in data transmission.

7. Suitable for real time applications.

Internet Standards:
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF):
The IETF is an open international community concerned with the development and operation
of the Internet and its architecture. The IETF was formally established by the Internet
Architecture Board (IAB) in 1986. The IETF meets three times a year; much of its ongoing work
is conducted via mailing lists by working groups. Typically, based upon previous IETF
proceedings, working groups will convene at meetings of the IETF to discuss the work of the
IETF working groups. The IETF is administered by the Internet Society, whose WWW site
contains lots of high-quality, Internet-related material.
The IETF Internet Engineering Task Force) is the body that defines standard Internet
operating protocols such as TCP/IP. The IETF is supervised by the Internet Society Internet
Architecture Board (IAB). IETF members are drawn from the Internet Society's individual and
organization membership. Standards are expressed in the form of Requests for Comments
(RFCs). The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is an organized activity of the Internet
Society (ISOC). It is an openstandard organisations, with no formal membership or membership
requirements. All participants and managers are volunteers, though their work is usually funded
by their employers or sponsors.

The IETF started out as an activity supported by the US federal government, but since 1993 it
has operated as a standards development function under the auspices of the Internet society, an
international membership-based non-profit organization. The mission of the IETF is to make
the Internet work better by producing high quality, relevant technical documents that influence
the way people design, use, and manage the Internet.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) :

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a professional association with
its corporate office in New York City and its operations center in Piscataway, New Jersey. It
was formed in 1963 from the amalgamation of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and
the Institute of Radio Engineers. Today it is the world's largest association of technical
professionals with more than 400,000 members in chapters around the world. Its objectives are
the educational and technical advancement of electrical and electronic engineering,
telecommunications, computer engineering and allied disciplines.
The IEEE is best known for developing standards for the computer and electronics industry. In
particular, the IEEE 802 standards for LANs are widely followed. IEEE manages the Ethernet
address space and assigns addresses as needed.
IEEE is one of the leading standards-making organizations in the world. IEEE performs its
standards making and maintaining functions through the IEEE Standards Association(IEEE-SA).
IEEE standards affect a wide range of industries including: power and energy, biomedical
and healthcare, Information Technology (IT), telecommunications, transportation,
nanotechnology, information assurance, and many more. In 2013, IEEE had over 900 active
standards, with over 500 standards under development. One of the more notable
IEEE standards is the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN group of standards which includes the IEEE
802.3 Ethernet standard and the IEEE
802.11 Wireless Networking standard.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM):

Asynchronous Transfer Mode, a network technology based on transferring data in cells or
packets of a fixed size. The cell used with ATM is relatively small compared to units used with
older technologies. The small, constant cell size allows ATM equipment to transmit video, audio,
and computer data over the same network, and assure that no single type of data hogs the line.
Some people think that ATM holds the answer to the Internet band width problem, but others are
skeptical. ATM creates a fixed channel, or route, between two points whenever data transfer
begins. This differs from TCP/IP, in which messages are divided into packets and each packet
can take a different route from source to destination. This difference makes it easier to track and
bill data usage across an ATM network, but it makes it less adaptable to sudden surges in
network traffic.
ATM (asynchronous transfer mode) is a dedicated-connection switching technology that
organizes digital data into 53-byte cell units and transmits them over a physical medium using
digital signal technology. Individually, a cell is processed asynchronously relative to other
related cells and is queued before being multiplexed over the transmission path.
Asynchronous transfer mode was designed with cells in mind. This is because voice data is
converted to packets and is forced to share a network with burst data (large packet data)
passing through the same medium. So, no matter how small the voice packets are, they always
encounter full- sized data packets, and could experience maximum queuing delays. This is why
all data packets should be of the same size. The fixed cell structure of ATM means it can
be easily switched by hardware without the delays introduced by routed frames and software
switching. This is why some people believe that ATM is the key to the Internet bandwidth
problem. ATM creates fixed routes between two points before data transfer begins, which
differs from TCP/IP, where data is divided into packets, each of which takes a different route to
get to its destination. This makes it easier to bill data usage. However, an ATM network is less
adaptable to a sudden network traffic surge.

The ATM provides data link layer services that run on the OSI's Layer 1 physical links. It
functions much like small-packet switched and circuit-switched networks, which makes it ideal
for real-rime, low-latency data such as VoIP and video, as well as for high-throughput data traffic
like file transfers. A virtual circuit or connection must be established before the two end points
can actually exchange data.
ATM services generally have four different bit rate choices:

 Available Bit Rate: Provides a guaranteed minimum capacity but data can be bursted
to highercapacities when network traffic is minimal.

 Constant Bit Rate: Specifies a fixed bit rate so that data is sent in a steady stream.
This isanalogous to a leased line.

 Unspecified Bit Rate: Doesn’t guarantee any throughput level and is used for
applications suchas file transfers that can tolerate delays.

 Variable Bit Rate (VBR): Provides a specified throughput, but data is not sent
evenly. This makes it a even popular choice for voice and videoconferencing.
ATM Service includes:
 Voice and video
 Packetized voice and video
 Systems Network Architecture (SNA)
 WAN/VPN connectivity
 Web hosting
 E-commerce
 Client-server (terminal-host) data
 LAN interconnection
 LAN emulation
 Remote access
 File transfer
 Internet/intranet/extranet access
◦ E-mail messaging
◦ Text imaging
 Forms processing
Use in internet: ATM is normally utilized by Internet service providers on their private long-
distance networks. ATM operates at the data link layer (Layer 2 in the OSI model) over either
fiber or twisted- pair cable
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
The ITU coordinates the shared global use of theradio spectrum, promotes international
cooperation in assigning satellite orbits, works to improve telecommunication infrastructure in
the developing world, and assists in the development and coordination of worldwide technical
standards. The ITU is active in areas including broadband Internet, latest-generation wireless
technologies, aeronautical and maritime navigation, radio astronomy, satellite-based
meteorology, convergence in fixed-mobile phone, Internet access, data, voice, TV broadcasting,
and next-generation networks.
ITU also organizes worldwide and regional exhibitions and forums, such as ITU TELECOM
WORLD, bringing together representatives of government and the telecommunications and ICT
industry to exchange ideas, knowledge and technology.
ITU, based in Geneva, Switzerland, is a member of the United Nations Development Group
ITU has been an intergovernmental public-private partnership organization since its inception. Its
membership includes 193 Member States and around 700 public and private sector companies as
well as international and regional telecommunication entities, known as Sector Members and
Associates, which undertake most of the work of each Sector.

 An organization based on public-private partnership since its inception, ITU

currently has a membership of 193 countries and over 700 private-sector entities and
academic institutions. ITU is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and has twelve
regional and area offices aroundthe world.
 ITU membership represents a cross-section of the global ICT sector, from the world's
largest manufacturers and carriers to small, innovative players working with new and
emerging technologies, along with leading R&D institutions and academia.
 Founded on the principle of international cooperation between governments (Member
States) and the private sector (Sector Members, Associates and Academia), ITU is the
premier global forum through which parties work towards consensus on a wide range of
issues affecting the future direction of the ICT industry.

Internet Protocol (IP)

 The Internet Protocol (IP) is a network-layer (Layer 3) protocol that contains addressing
information and some control information that enables packets to be routed.
 IP is documented in RFC 791 and is the primary network-layer protocol in the Internet
protocol suite. Along with the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), IP represents the
heart of the Internet protocols.
 IP has two primary responsibilities: providing connectionless, best-effort delivery of
datagrams through an internetwork; and providing fragmentation and reassembly of
datagrams to support data links with different maximum-transmission unit (MTU) sizes.

IP Packet Format
Packets in the IP layer are called datagrams. A datagram divided into two parts : Header and
Data. Header can be from 20 to 60 bytes and contains information for routing and delivery of
data.
IP packet fields Details:

 Version: Indicates the version of IP currently used.

 IP Header Length (IHL): Indicates the datagram header length in 32-bit words.
 Type-of-Service: Specifies how an upper-layer protocol would like a current datagram to
be handled, and assigns datagrams various levels of importance.
 Total Length: Specifies the length, in bytes, of the entire IP packet, including the data
and header.
 Identification: Contains an integer that identifies the current datagram. This field is used
to help piece together datagram fragments.
 Flags: Consists of a 3-bit field of which the two low-order (least-significant) bits control
fragmentation. The low-order bit specifies whether the packet can be fragmented. The
middle bit specifies whether the packet is the last fragment in a series of fragmented
packets. The third or high-order bit is not used.
 Fragment Offset: Indicates the position of the fragment’s data relative to the beginning
of the data in the original datagram, which allows the destination IP process to properly
reconstruct the original datagram.
 Time-to-Live: Maintains a counter that gradually decrements down to zero, at which
point the datagram is discarded. This keeps packets from looping endlessly.
 Protocol: Indicates which upper-layer protocol receives incoming packets after IP
processing is complete.
 Header Checksum: Helps ensure IP header integrity.
 Source Address: Specifies the sending node.
 Destination Address: Specifies the receiving node.

IP Addresses
• TCP/IP version 4 or IPv4 uses 32-bit for logical address and IPv6 uses 128-bit for logical

address.

• An IP address represented in dotted decimal notation. Example- 123.22.33.44

 • IP address is divided into net id or network id and host id.

• IP Addresses are divided into five classes: Class A, Class B, Class c, Class C, Class D, Class E.

IP Starting First Last Address No. of No. of Host

Address Binary Address Network
Class Value
Class A 0 1.0.0.0 126.255.255.254 27-1 224– 2

Class B 10 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.254 214 216 -2

Class C 110 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.254 221 28-2

Class D 1110 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.254 Multicast

Class E 1111 240.0.0.0 254.255.255.254 Undefined

Class A:

• It uses first octet for network address to uniquely identify the network and rest three

octet forhost address to uniquely identify the host on that network.

• An important rule is that network address cannot have all 8 bits 0 (zero).

• First bit is set to zero for class A, so following 7 bits in the first octet use to

distinguish the network from other network.

• It means 27-1= 127 network i.e. 0 to126

• Similar to the rule that the network portion of the address cannot be all 0s, the host

portion ofthe address cannot be all 0s and it cannot be all 1s.

• A host portion with all 1s refers to an IP broadcast address.

• And the host portion with all 0s is a reference to the network.

• Class A network is:224– 2 = 16,777,214 number of hosts.

• You subtract 2 because addresses with all 0s and all 1s are invalid.
Class B:

 It uses first two octets for network address to uniquely identify the network and rest

two octetfor host address to uniquely identify the host on that network.

 10 in the first 2 bits, the following 6 bits in the first octet and all 8 bits in the

second octet for total 14 bits are used to distinguish this network from all other

networks.

 Hence 214= 16,384 number of Class B networks.

 And 216-2= 65534 number of hosts on class B network.

Class C:

 It uses first three octets for network address to uniquely identify the network and

last octetfor host address to uniquely identify the host on that network.

 110 in the first 3 bits, the following 5 bits in the first octet, all 8 bits in the second

octet and all 8 bits in the third octet for total 21 bits are used to distinguish this

network from all other networks.

 Hence 221= 2,097,152 number of Class C networks.

 And 28-2=254 number of hosts on class C network.

Class D:

 In the first octet, the first 4 bits are 1110.

 Class D addresses are called Multicast Address which cannot be used for host.

 The purpose of a multicast address is to enable a server somewhere to send data to a

Class D address that no one host has so that several hosts can listen to that address at

the same time. When you are watching TV on the Internet or listening to the radio on
 the Internet, your computer is listening to a Class D address. No server is sending

data directly to your workstation; instead, a server is sending data to the multicast

address. Any host can use software to listen for data at that address, and many hosts

can be listening at once.

Class E:
 In the first octet, the first 4 bits are 1110.

 Class E addresses are reserved addresses and are invalid host addresses. They are

used for experimental purposes by the IETF.

Special Address:
 Address use for Private use
Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
 Loop Back Address
127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255- For testing the TCP/IP connection. It cannot be used for
host addressing.

FIREWALL
Many organizations have confidential or proprietary information, such as trade secrets, product
development plans, marketing strategies, etc., which should be protected from unauthorized access
and modification. One possible approach is to use suitable encryption/decryption technique for
transfer of data between two secure sites, as we have discussed in the previous lesson. Although
these techniques can be used to protect data in transit, it does not protect data from digital pests and
hackers. To accomplish this, it is necessary to perform user authentication and access control to
protect the networks from unauthorized traffic. This is known as firewalls.

A firewall system is an electronic security guard and electronic barrier at the same time. It protects
and controls the interface between a private network and an insecure public network as shown in the
simplified diagram of Fig. 17. It is responsible for partitioning a designated area such that any
damage on one side cannot spread to the other side. It prevents bad things from happening, i.e. loss of
information, without preventing good things from happening, that is controlled exchange of
information with the outside world. It essentially enforces an access control policy between two
networks. The manner in which this is implemented varies widely, but in principle, the firewall can
be considered as a pair of mechanisms: one that is used to block traffic, and the other that is used to
permit traffic. Some firewalls place more emphasis on blocking traffic, while others emphasize on
permitting traffic. Probably the most important issue to understand of a firewall is the access control
policy it implements. If a firewall administrator has no idea about what or whom he is protecting
his network, what should be allowed and what should be prohibited, a firewall really won't help his
organization. As firewall is a mechanism for enforcing policy, which affects all the persons behind it,
it imposes heavy responsibility on the administrator of the firewall. In this lesson various issues
related to Firewalls are discussed.

Figure 17 Schematic diagram of a firewall

Why a Firewall is needed?

There is no need for a firewall if each and every host of a private network is properly secured.
Unfortunately, in practice the situation is different. A private network may consist of different
platforms with diverse OS and applications running on them. Many of the applications were
designed and developed for an ideal environment, without considering the possibility of the
existence of bad guys. Moreover, most of the corporate networks are not designed for security.
Therefore, it is essential to deploy a firewall to protect the vulnerable infrastructure of an
enterprise.

Access Control Policies

Access control policies play an important role in the operation of a firewall. The policies can be
broadlycategorized in to the following four types:

Service Control:
 Determines the types of internet services to be accessed.
 Filters traffic based on IP addresses and TCP port numbers.
 Provides Proxy servers that receives and interprets service requests before it is passed on

Direction Control:
 Determines the direction in which a particular service request may be initiated and allowed
to flow throughthe firewall

User Control:
 Controls access to a service according to which user is attempting to access it.
 Typically applied to the users inside the firewall perimeter.
 Can be applied to the external users too by using secure authentication technique

Behavioral Control:
  Controls how a particular service is used
 For example, a firewall may filter email to eliminate spam
 Firewall may allow only a portion of the information on a local web server to an external user

Firewall Capabilities
Important capabilities of a firewall system are listed below:
 defines a single choke point to keep unauthorized users out of protected network
 It prohibits potentially vulnerable services from entering or leaving the network
 It provides protection from various kinds of IP spoofing
 It provides a location for monitoring security-related events
 Audits and alarms can be implemented on the firewall systems
 A firewall is a convenient platform for several internet functions that are not security related
 A firewall can serve as the platform for IPSec using the tunnel mode capability and can be used to
implement VPNs

Limitations of a Firewall
Main limitations of a firewall system are given below:
 Firewall cannot protect against any attacks that bypass the firewall. Many organizations buy
expensive firewalls but neglect numerous other back-doors into their network.
 A firewall does not protect against the internal threats from traitors. An attacker may be able
to break into network by completely bypassing the firewall, if he can find a ``helpful'' insider
who can be fooled into giving access to a modem pool
 Firewalls can't protect against tunneling over most application protocols. For example,
firewall cannot protect against the transfer of virus-infected programs or files

Types of Firewalls
The firewalls can be broadly categorized into the following three types:

Packet Filters: Packet filtering router applies a set of rules to each incoming IP packet and then
forwards or discards it. Packet filter is typically set up as a list of rules based on matches of fields in
the IP or TCP header. An example table of telnet filter rules is given in Fig. 8.3.2. The packet filter
operates with positive filter rules. It is necessary to specify what should be permitted, and everything
that is explicitly not permitted is automatically forbidden.

Application-level Gateway: Application-level gateway, also called a Proxy Server acts as a relay of
application-level traffic. Users contact gateways using an application and the request is successful
after authentication. The application gateway is service specific such as FTP, TELNET, SMTP or
HTTP.
Circuit Level Gateway: Circuit-level gateway can be a standalone or a specialized system. It does
not allow end-to-end TCP connection; the gateway sets up two TCP connections. Once the TCP
connections are established, the gateway relays TCP segments from one connection to the other
without examining the contents. The security function determines which connections will be allowed
and which are to be disallowed.

Network Address Translation

NAT works by using one set of addresses for communications on the internet and a separate set of
addresses for communication on the private network. IANA set aside three ranges of IP addresses
given below for communication on the internal network.
Class A addresses: 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255.255
Class B addresses: 172.16.0.0 – 172.31. 255.255
Class C addresses: 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
As these addresses are reserved for internal network addressing, these are not routable. The Firewall
performs translation of an internal address to an external IP address and vice versa to facilitate
communication between the private and the public network, as shown in Fig. 18. However, the NAT
affords a substantial degree of security by preventing direct communication. Moreover, NAT allows
the use of same IP addresses in different private networks. This prolongs the life expectancy of IPv4
on the internet. Without NAT the supply of IP addresses would have exhausted long back.

Figure 18 Function of a Network Address Translator