COMPUTER GRAPHICS
‘As per the New NEP Syilabus for BCA 5° Semester Course of
Bengaluns City University and Bangalore University
Authored By
Dr, Aruna Devi. C
MCA, M.Phil, Ph.D
Associate Professor and HOD -BCA,
Department of Computer Applications
Dayananda Sagar College of Arts, Science and Commerce
Bengaluru
Skyward Publishers
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Bengelore-18, Phone: 080-26602595 / 43706620,
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Website: wineakyrworepubliherscois[A Text Book of “Computer Grphies™ ~ As_per the New NEP Syllabus for 3 Semester BCA Course of
Bengalur City University & Bangalore University by Aruna Devi C.
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This text book has been written for Computer Science Cours. This text bod is orgonized in such a way that
‘covers the concept of Computer Graphics.
‘As Computer Graphics remains one of the most exciting and rapidly growing in computer fel. Ie is known,
commonly used in various applications. In this book students can get abasic understanding of graphics and
learn how images are drawn using programming language. This book helpsthe students to earn all the topes
fromone text book where covers theall the concep.
‘Chapter 1 deals with Introduction to Computer Graphics then the applications of Computer geaphles and also
about various display devices, Chapter 2 deals with the concept of displaying the 2D objects using algorithms
and their ateibutes. Chapter 3 deals with two dimensional transformaticns: Chapter 4 deals with viewing
‘ransformation and the concept of clipping used to clip an object. Chapter S deals with 3D coordinate system
and their transformations with different display techniques. Chapter 6 deals with segments concepts, Chapter’?
eals with ineractive picture construction techniques. Chapter 8 deals withthe diferent graphical Input devies.
Applications, Dayananda Sagar College of Arts, Sclence and Commerce, for rndering all help an co-operation
necessary for completion of this hook.
| wish to express my special thanks to Mr, Srikanth and Skyward Publishers tam for providing this opportunity
Your valuable suggestions and comments for further improvernent of the book can be sent to arunatO4@gma
Dr. Aruna Devi CCais
‘Total: 48 Hes
Application of computer graphics; Graphic sofware; Video display devices: Raster scan and random
scan displays; CRT functioning - Factors affecting CRT; Raster scan system; Color CRT monitors -
Display processor with raster system: Raster co-ordinate system Color mapping Instruction set and
raster system applications:
Line dravving methads-Diceet, DDA and Bresenhams, line attributes, Circle draw
Dieet and
midpoint circle drawing ~ ellipse drawing-Bresenhams ellipse algorithn-Area filligscantine ares
filing and character attributes
Geometric transformation; Translation; Rotation; Scaling:
= Composite transformation ~ Raster methods for
representations; Homogeneous co-ordinates
geometric transformations:
Reflection and shear matrix
Window and viewport; Clipping process - Point clipping, Line elippng, Text clipping, Line clipping
techniques -Cohen Sutherland line clipping algorithm, Midpoint subdivision algorithm; Area clipping
Sutherland and Hodgman polygon clipping algorithm, Window to view port transformation
3D-Coordinate system; 2D-Display techniques; parallel projections, Perspective projections,
Orthogonal projections: 3D-Transformations; Translation, Scaling, Rotation, Reflection: polygon
surfaces, polygon tables; Octrees; Hidden surface removal: Depth bulfer anid scan line anethod
Introduction to segments, Functions for segmenting, display file, segment attributes, display file
compilation,
Input Devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Touch panels, Track ball, Light pen, Graphic tablets.
Positioning techniques, Grid, Consteaints, Dynamic manipulation, Gravity field, Rubber bond,
Dragging, Selection technique, Menu, Pointing and selection by naming. Tablet; Data glove; Digitizers
Voice systems,
12
13
1a
15
16
7
19
a9
120
hat
La
13
14
115
116
uu?
18
CONTENTS
Incoduetion
LA History of Computer Graphies
Applications of Computer Graphics
Computer Graphics Classifications
Graphics Software
How interactive graphics display iors
Video Display Devices
1.6.1 Raster Sean Display
1.62. Random Sean Display
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
1.74 CRT Functioning
1.7.2 Factors afecting CRT
Color CRT Monitors
18.1 Beam-Penewation Method
182 Shadow-hesk Method
Display Processors
19. RacterSean Systeme
419.2. Random-Sean Systems
Color Mapping
Instruction St
(ther Display Technologies
12 Direct lew Storage Tube (OVST)
1.12.2 Plat Pano Display
1.123 Plasma Pane!
1.12.4 Liquid Crystal Display
Outpt Primitives
Pointsand Lines
Line Drawing Algorihns|
LISA. DDA Line Drawing Algorithms
L182 Bresenham's Line Algorithn
Cirle Generating Algorthan
AGL DDA Circle Drawing Algoritho,
1.162 Srosonham's ise Algorthm
1163 Midpoint Gale Algor:
lipse Generating Algorithm
‘Ateribates of Output primitces
Lit
as
16
naa
rg
Ly
iat
121
122
fers
Las
125
125
126
123
129
130
1a
136
137
138
naa
12
161 bine Atunbates > a4 Surface Rendering 38
se ava ing 2.47 ype and cutaway Views an
LAKE Unwaeter Atbates 158°Thiee Dimensional and Stereescopic Views 38
19 Romow Questions
20-Trasiomation, Windowing an
5.35 Diflreace between Poll
Perspective Projection 30
‘34 Three Dimensional Transformation 39
5441 Translation 38
21 Goomet Transformation 5.42 Rotation san
2 Transat 34 3Scaling
23 Pts 344° Reflection as
4 Seating Polygon Surfaces ate
25 ther fassormation atrees a7
281 Retletion 7 curvesand Surfaces 321
252. Shear 7.1 Bester Curves an
2.6 Mate representation and Homogeneous Coordinates 38 ikdden Surface Removal 325
27 Composite Transformation 2.1 Back ace Detection / Removal 326
28 Genera Pivot Point Rotation 1382 Depth Butler Method 327
29. General Fised Point Sealing 29 ScanLine Method 330
2 Raster Method for Teansformaton 3:10 Review Questions 331
211 Viewing Tansformation 7, Hail np bone deans —SSSSCSCS*C~C~“~S~CS*~
Liquid Seystal Diply
> Bresenhans Line Algom
{> Brosentims inte Ageia,
Review Questions12
1.1 Intraduction
Computer Graphies isa picture that is generated by 2 eon ter Graph
of producing picture or images using a computer: This include eadeling ~ creation, manipulation,
and storage of geometric objects and rendering ~ converting a scene to an image, ot the pracess of
transformation
sbaclingilursination, and animation ofthe ntage
Computer iagery is fou sion, in newspapers, for example in weather reports, oF ia all
kinds of meaics! investigation and surgical procedures, The development af camputer graphics has
‘made computers easier to interact with,and better for understanding and interpreting man}
lay, we tind computer g
business, industry, government, art, entertainment, advertising, education, and taining,
rely in the
iphies used rout
1.1.1. History of Computer Graphics
‘+ In tho 1950's, the first computer driven display was use! to g
te simple pictures. This
display used Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Using dark and light characters, a pieture can be
reproduced, 1950: Ben Laposky created the first graphicimages,an Oscilloscope, generated by
an electronic (analog) machine. The image was produced by manipulating electronic beams
and recording them onto high-speed fil,
etd
Interactive graphics. One of the worst problems w paecessibility of machines,
1960; William Fetter coins the computer graphics to deseribe new design methods:
+ Inthe eaely 1970's, outp
1960's, beginnings of modern inceraccive graphics, output ave vector graphics and
the cost and
Xe startusing raster displays graphiescapabilty was tl falely eunky.
+ ln the 1990's output are built-in raster graphics, bitmap image snd pixel, Personal computers
costs decrease drastically; trackball and mouse becosne tke stanlarl ineractive devices.
+ i the 1996", since the introduction of MGA and SVGA, personal computer could easily display
photo-realistic images and movies. 3D image renderings are become the main advances and kt
stimulated cinematic graphics applications
1.2 Applications of Computer Graphics
‘Some of the main applications of computer graphic are given below
1. Computer-aided design 2, Presentation Graphies
3. Computer Art 4. Entertainment
5, Educational and Training 6. Informatian Visualization
7. Image Processing 8. Information graphies
9, Viral Real
Computer
1d Design (CAD) is a4
Is useful In various designing fields such as architecture, mechanical and cle
siveraf, spacecraft, compoters, textes and many more
This isa type of software, which enables users to create rapid and precise drawings and rough sketch
ans of iain product
pe of computer based soo! usec for drafting aad designing, CAD
cal, automobiles,
Ta design the applications, objects are rst displayed In
1
-ame display allows the designers to quickly soe the effects of interactive ad
wire frameoualine so that the averall shape
sand internal features of objects ean be soen. [F
Figure 1.1 Wire-frame Model of a Teayot
we packages for CAD applications ty
enviconment, i, different view of abjects
lly provide she designer with muti window
In the mechanical fel, it s used for designing various machirery and tools that are useful fr
manufacturing purposes,
ln the field of electronics, itis used in ma
nulacturing process phaaning, digital circutt desi
in the feld of architecture, itis used for designing all types of buildings. t enables them
to design buildings in 2D and 3D models to give almost areal replica ofthe original work
Architects use interactive graphies methods to layout floor pla, that show the positioning of
rooms, doors, windows, stars, shelves and other bullding feat res,
{48 seul Wt engineering processes in conceptust design, and laying out and analyzing
‘components in manufacturing methods.
[2 resostasonGrphicr |
Presentation graphics, used to produce illustrations for reports or to generate 35-mm slides or
transparencies for use with projectors. It is used to summarize finsncal, statistial, mathematical,
ifle, data for research reports and ather types of reports.
‘Typical examples of presentation graphies are bar eharts, line graphs surface graphs, ple charts, and
other displ
‘sshowing relationships between multiple parameter
sure 1.2 gives examples of two-ditwensional graphics combined with geographical information. This
illustration shows bar charts combined onto one graph and a pie chart with three sections. Similar
sgraphs and charts can he displaved in three dimensions to provide additional information,F Sibtory unm res
a % A
My 22%
s
: (
¢
&
s c\
é 26%
Grade 36%
Figure 1.2 Two Dimensional Bar Chart and Pie Chart
Computer graphies methods are widely used in both fine art and commercial art applications
“Artists use a variety of computer methods, including special-purpose hardware, artist's paintbrush
programs specially developed software, symbolic mathematics packages. CAD, desktop publishing
Software, and animation packages that provide facilites for designing object shapes and specifying
‘object motions.
‘Apaintbrush program that allows artists to “paint” pictures onthe sereen of a video monitor
‘Actually, the picture is usally painted electronically on graphics tablet (digitizer) using & stylus,
‘which ean sirmatate different brosh strokes, brush widths, and colors
Fine artists use a variety of other computer technologies to produce images.
‘The artist uses a combination of three-dimensional modeling packages, texture mapping, drawing
programs and CAD software
“Animations are also used frequerty in advertising, and television commercials are produced frame
Trame of the motion is rendered and saved as an image file. The motion of
‘oving abject positions slightly from thelr positions in the previous
jmation requires 24 frames for each second
by frame, where each
ceach frame is simulated by m
frames. Phew the frames are transfected to film. Film 2
inthe animation sequence. To playback the animation on. video monitor, 30 frames per second are
required.
Morphing is another application where one object is transformed into another, This method has
been used in TV commercials for example, To turn an oll can into automobile engine, an automobile
Into ati
Computer graphics methods are used regularly in many movies, TV sees for generating some
graphics scene. Some times the graphies object are combined with the acters and live scenes
Musi videos use graphics in several ways. Graphics objects can be combined with the live action, or
graphics and image processing techniques can be used to produce a transform:
fr object into another (morphing). Animation is used frequently in advert
commercials
[os educationstand Training |
Computer graphics techniques is used in education and training. Computer generated models af
physical, financial, and economic systems ae often use
operation ofthe system.
Some examples of simulators used ate
«+ Flightsimulator
+ Automobile driving simulator
i television
Which can help trainees to understand the
+ Space Shuttle simulator
+ Military Tanker simulator
For training, special systems are designed, Like the simulators for practice sessions or training of
le capt seat errant operas ed ieee prsom Soe
simulators have no video sereens,
For example:
> Aight simulator with only a control pane! for instrument flying, Bu: most simulators provide
‘graphics sereens for visual operation,
> Automobile-driving simulator is the simulator usod to investigate the behavior of drivers in
critical situations. The drivers’ reactions are then used asa basis for optimizing vehicle design
to maximize traffic safe.
Ens
Information visualization is the interdisciplinary study of “the visual
collections of non-numerical information, such 2s files
presentation of large-scale
lines of code insofware systems, library
and bibliographic databases, networks of relations on the internet
leis increasingly applied as a critical component in scientific research, digital libraries, data mining,
financial data analysis, market studies, manufacturing production control, and drug discoverypee
Figure:1.3 Graphic representation ofa minute fraction of the WWW,
demonstrating hypertinks
Information visualization presumes that “visual representations and interaction techniques take
advantage of the human eye's broad bandwidth pathway into the mind to allow users to see, explore,
and understand large amounts of information at once. Information visualization focused on the
_reation of approaches for conveying abstract information in intuitive ways.
Basten
Compater graphics ancl image processing are fundamentally different operations. Computer graphics
is used to ereate a picture. Image processing on the other hand applies techniques to modify or
Interpret existing pletures
‘Two principal applications of image pravessing ate
+ Improving pietare quality
+ Machine pereeptioa of visual information, as used in robotics,
Inimage processing methods, we first digitize a photograph or other picture into an image fil. Then
dligtal methods caw he applied to searrange picture parts, to enhance colar separations, orto improve
the quality of sha
raphe Systems snd Outpus Patines 17>
nageproces:
papies re typienllyerminet 1
Mutical oplicatlonsalsomakeestensiveuseu
nd cnmnpe
ngtechniquestorpictursenhancements
Medicine. or example, uses ese techniques to model ane sik’ pica! fonctions, to design
aruticial limbs, and to plan and practice surgery:
iy
Information gzaphies or infographics are graphic visual represenictions of information, data or
Imowledze These graphics present comple information quickly andl clear, such as 1 signs, maps,
fournaliem, technical vriting ond eccation, With an information zr, eon
mathemon
process inlarmation,
puter scientists,
ans, and siatistieians develop and communicate cone:
sig a single symbol ta
{in newspapers infographics are commonty used 10 show the weather a well as maps Pig. 14 and
site plans for newsworthy events, and graphs for statistica
me
Figure 1.4 A Subway Map
‘Traffic signs au other public signs rely heavily un information graphics, such as stylized human
Figures, icons aad emblems to represeat concepts such as yield caution, and the direetion of tafe
Public places such as wansie terminals usually have some sort of integrated “signage system” with
standardized icons and stylized maps.
ag
Virtual reatity (VR) is a term that applies to computer-simutated environments that can simulate
Places inthe reat world, as wells in imaginary worlds, Most curveat virtual realty environmentsare
brimarily visual expertences, displayed ethor on a computer screen or through special stereoscupie
displays, but some simulations include additional sensory information, such as sound through
speakers or headphones, The simulated environment can be similar tothe real world-—for example,
in simulations for pilotFigure 1.5 Classic Virtual Reality HMD with Glove
1.3 Computer Graphics Classifications
“The computer grapbies can he eategorized into different variety of ways. These are the following:
object (dimenstonality).
Type of interaction,
+ Role ofthe picture.
+ Relationship herween objects and their pictures
saphically a8 abstract or real ‘The picture
poet can be represent
pe of Object: The
ation gan bo 2-D ad 3D type.
‘+ 2D type af object ean be lin
gray seale image.
> 3-0 type of object can be line drawing (or wireframe), line drawing with various efects,
shading color image with varions effects
‘action: It determines te user's degree of contr over the object and its image.
+ Type oftate
Ia ee and stuart desging where the wer tare lack
ei the de
raster painting, animation, and artwork t
applications the drawing is just a representation ofthe object being,
+ Role of the Picture:
wend, For example dr
prodict How ever in CAD
sosigned or analyzed
Grophice Sytam ond Ovinut Pitives
+ Reiaiiouship betwees Objects and their Picture:
his category arises fromm the logical a
‘een abjects an ther pictures. Fv exampk, the user may deal with
c {plotting}, oF with sequence af related pictures, or with a collection,
pplleations)
pe
1.4 Graphics Software
in computer graphics, graphics software is a program or collection of programs that enable a person
tomanipulate visual Images ana computer
{objects (asin CAD
‘There ae two general classifications for graphics software,
+ General programming packages
+ Special purpose application packages.
spbles
era 7 nackages are used in high-level programming Ianguage, stich as Cor
FORTRAN. They use a set of yraphies functions to generate picture comparents like Straight lines,
polygons, cirles and ather figures,
Application grophies packages are designed for nonprogrammers, so that users can generate displays
without worrying about how graphics operation works. Example, artist's palating programs and CAD.
Some of
sraphics sofware:
¥ Photoshop ¥ tilustrater
¥ Corel DRAW
Y Microsoft Paint
¥ Pieasa and many more
¥ Paint Shop Pro
v The cimP
¥ Digital Image Suite
‘Graphics software is used in many facets of life and business. Some of the common things people use
sraphics software for editing and sharing digital photos, creating logos, drawing and modifying clip
art creating digital finer, creating Web graphics, designing advertisementsand product packaging,
{ouching up scanned photos, and drawing maps orather diagrams.
1.5 How Interactive graphics display works
ve graphics display cunsists of throe compen:
+ Frame Butler or digital memory.
+ Display Controller or video controler,
‘Television Monitor
+ Frame Buffer
{nthe frame buffer the displayed Image fs stored as.a mexrix of intensity values,
+ Display Controller:
A special purpose processor, called display controller is used to cantol the operation of the
display device. The display controller is used! to passes the contents ofthe frame buffer to the“Tre computor Grapes
ue image must be passed
order to maintain a stead
In the frame buffer tive image's stored asa pattern of binary
a rectangular array of pixels. piel
find white image, we can represent
1 repeatedly to the monitor 30 or ma
picture on the screen
sal murders which represent
is the smallest addressable portion of an image. na black
lack pixel as 1's ad white pixel as 0's in the frame busfer:
[ Ear | [ [ 1 I |
* [ TEE alee | 1
‘Seccele
‘ 14
3 roo)
mates)
= ae)
a Pas. 7),
i
L
os 6 7 8 9
—
Figure 1.6 Grid of Pixels,
Frame buffer is the portion of vi
ideo card memory that holds the information necessary ©
Stones Systems ond Output nie >
aes aes Te
pshbhebRREAHERt
eb RER EEE
nee
|staatestefeste
Figure 1.8 Frame Buffer of a Rectangle
foaa00900 9901 9600]
Igacooon tr rat0n0
Inooorrtt 0000 00
Inout top Gyn001 1
‘OLOQN19 9000
1000001 19011101
Sean Line Data
ie ta
eee
ioonond9 Orono} 5 say
ct
Scan Liney
Toovonn9 O1Dn000
Taooonno Oionogit
s fer determines the resclutien and
display a single screen image. The size of the frame bust
maximum colors it can display. Frame bufler is a two dimensional table where each row-
‘column stores information about brightness and color values of the corresponding pixel inthe
Hiovn000 Hoousie|
loo1i7100 over
Igonos0t" Yau
{00000000 on00%008
screen. Ina frame buffer each pixel can be represented by 1 to 24 bits
TEEPE EEE i Becton tb
efoystolel Lets) Py p[rewoac] beam (1 m
Spor tpoy ers] sole ;
Dols] apololt|ijolo ¥ \ f
spar a aa a ole {Beton Gun ti
ape Taye
sfottppol eel ofoTa
Oo} oft] af of elalolfefo ‘i
estt tele] ef aloe
olelipstefet elelele i nae
Single Bit Plane
CRT Raster
Figure 1.7 Display Device with Single Bit Plane Frame Buffer
TV Monitor
Figure (.9 The frame Buffer Display.
‘The display controller reads the byte of data from the frame buffer and converts its 0's and 1's into
corresponding video signal. Theo the signal i transferved to the TV monitor, producing a black ant
‘white pattern on the screen,
Suppose we wish to change the displayed picture. We just need to modify the frame hulfer’s contents
torepresent the new pattern of pisels,
Two problems in drawing curved and straight lines on a graphic display are:
¥ Choice of witich pixe should be black and which pisel is white
¥ Slantinglinesandl curvesin theimagewill be far from smooth and will instead show unpleasant
staircase” effec.
‘The first problem is solved by using a procedure, or algorithm, that computes which pixel should be
black from the equation af the linear curve{important in displaying pictures. Any display based on the CRT must be reeshed at feast
60 simesa second.
‘The Image must be transmitted to the display point by point. The longer It takes to transmit each
clement of the picture the fewer elements can be transmitted and the less information can be
displayed,
{s transmitted, it will begin flickering, Picwures can be made to Grow, Shrink,
Stl the entire ima
Rotate by applying the transformations, based'en mathematical techniques: coordinate geometry,
Lrigonametry,and matrix methods.
Tocreate pictures directly on the display screen, a number of different input devices-light pen, tablet,
and mouse have been invented to make this kind oF interaction mote convenient.
1.6 Video Display Devices
1.6.1 Raster Scan Display
6
Phics monitor using a CRT is the raster scan display, based on television technology.
hethed
‘© The electron beam is swept across the screen, one row ata time and from top to bottom. As the
sam intensity is turned on and off dependent on
ation defining the picture to be created. Fig, 1.10
lectron earn moves across each row, th
‘© Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the refresh bufer or frame buffer. This
"memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points, Stored intensity values
are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen one row (scaa line) at
‘2 Each screen pointis relerred to asa pie! or pel. Intensity range for pisel positions depends on
the capability ofthe raster system.
‘© Abit value of 1 Indicates that the electron beam isto be turn on at that position, and a value of
(O ndicates that the beam intensity isto be of
A system with 24 bits per pixel and a screen resolution of 1024 by 1024 requires 3 megabytes
‘of storage forthe frame buffer: On a black-and-white system with one bit per pixel the frame
buffer is called a bitmap. For systems wich multiple bits per plxel, the frame butfer Is often
referred tos a pixmap.
Figure 1.10 Raster Scan Display
Refreshing on rasterscan displays is carried out atthe rate of 60 to 80 frames per second, refresh
rates are described in units of cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), where cycle corresponds to une
frame.
-Atthe end ofach sean line, the electron beam returns tothe leftside ofthe screen to begin displaying
the next scan line, The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing each scan tne, i called the
Inorizontal retrace ofthe electron beam. Similarly when the electron lam returns to the tup left
comer of the screen to bogin the next fram fe cafod vertral retrace
SCAN LINE,
Horizontal retrac
Vertical retrace
Figure 1.11 Interlacing Sean Lines on a Raster-scax DisplayTi4 Computer Guapice
First all points on the even mumbr sean tne
isplayed, thew all points along the ocd-numbered
ice ane displayed,
Invraster-sean systems eacia frame is clisplayed in two passes isi an dateriaced rajresk procedure.
The first pass, the beam sweeps across every other scau line frum top to bottom. The seconel pass
the vertical retrace, the beam sweeps out the remaining scan lines, interlacing technique the entire
screen is scanned in half the time, it would take to siwep avis all the Tines, at once, froma tap to
bottom; itis effective method for reducing iekering.
ee
*+ Decreasing memory costs have made rastersysiems popular
+ High degree realism is achieved in picture with the akt a advanced shading and hidden surface
1m and Output Pinitves
to splay aspect pcre the system ess trough te StF commands in the dss
Sara scorn ae ne icon hor brn ro
Sane aee tune ofa laure 30t0 60 ines exh second When a pal stot be
snatch erences dled to aed tes ate rater than ames pr second
Fue cahngof test oflines oud bore othe phosphor
Fandorrssanayeteme ore dsigne forlne drawing apeMlonsan canna aly reais sheet
been process
+ Produce smoothie drawings.
1 technigue
+ Computer monitors and Ts use this method. J
(P| Disadvantages of Raster-scan Display
‘The lnes produced are zigagas the plated values are discrote
+ Resolution is low
1.6.2 Random Scan Display
‘ma random scan display, a CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where
a picture is to be drawn, Random sean monitors draw a picture one line at a time are veferted to a8
sector display (or stroke-wrting or calligraphic displays) Fig 4.12
Dicture definition is now stored as a see of lin ds
asthe refresh display file or refresh buffer,
sawing commands in an area af memory referred to
Figure 1.12 Random Scan Systeu
Disadvantages of Random Sean Display
+ Goatien
| + Difficale to display realistic scenes
Difference between Raster Scan and Random Sean Display
‘i
z cae tiiey ae aes
Tia Raster scan display the electron beam is| In Random scan display the electron beam
[ieee Sa alae eee
nee ce
Raster Sean Random Sean
| Picture definition is stored ina memory area | Picture definition is stored in a memory area
eae ara ar) fa il: cad vk ute oeurcs ere sre at
felisucactrimensyetues raise | drawing ommands
points.
‘Raster displays have less resolution. Random displays have high resolutions since
eee the picture definition is stored as a set of
j line drawirg commands and not as a set of |
intensity values
"the lines produced are zig zagas the plotted | Smooth lines are produced as the electron
surface technique.= ————___
Decreasing memory ests have made raster | Random scan systens ae generally costes]
1-7 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
‘cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube in which images are prosuced when an
eetvon beam
strikes a phosphor-coated surface
Phe electron gun generatesa beam of electrons, which passes through foc
hat direct the beam toward specified pusitions on the phosphior-coated sere
a detection system
The phosphor then emits a small spot of ligh each rt
al poof ight a each posit contacted y the election beams the
ihtemited hy the pesphor des very apy
Some mtho snes fr matining the screen pictur, One wy a eth
to redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly directing the elect :
hisype o dsp seal a ees GT
beain back over the same points,
7.1 CRT Functioning
cathode ray tube consists of several hasie components:
> Heating Metal (Filment)
> cathode
> Contvol Grid
‘hen electricity is supplied, the filament heats up and a stream or “ray” of electrons pours off the
lement into the vacuum,
lectron beam touches the screen. : ‘ ae
Focusing Electron
Cathode “Anode Beam Path
— aS
Sp oe
=e ae)
Heating
Filament
Control
Accelerating
Gria cet
Figure 1.13 Operation ofan Electron Gun
tensity of the electron beam Is contrlled by setting voltage levels on the control grid
+ Abigh negative voltage applied to the control grid will shutoff the beam,
2 Systems end Oui
= A smaller negative voltage on the contral grid decreases the nunher af electrons passing
through
+The brightness of the picture Is controlled by the control grid
Focusing System
The electron beam fs forced to converge into a small spot on the phosphor coated screen, Otherwise
the electron will repel each other: Focusing is done with the help ofa focasing structure containing
metal plates t different potentials
‘Acceleration Anode
Treconsists of tivo metal plates mounted perpendicular to the beam axis with holes at their centers
through which the beam pas. Its maintained at sufficient high relative 2otential to accelerate the
beam to necessary veloc
Deflection System
Deflection system is to change direction. It deflects information rapidly so that it can display elearly
fan sereen without flickering.
‘The deflection system contains a set of colls mounted at the neck of the ube. There are two sets of,
deflecting plates: horizontal and vertica
“The horizontal deflection plates controls the vertical deNecvion. The vertical deflection plates controls
horizontal deflection.
Vertical ——~\, Phosphor
- Deflection \-- Coated
Focusing Plates \ Gand
base Stem
= — ay le
= lectron
et Beam
onnector Electron Hopyontal
Pins Gum Deflection
Plates
Figure 1.14 Electrostatic Deflection of the Electron Beam in a CRT
Phosphor
‘The phosphors used in graphic display are chosen for color and persisten-.
|
The properties are:<8 _ Computer rapier
¥ The persistence whick isthe time i takes tv exit
at intensity
* fom the sereen to decay to 1/10"of is
¥ Color should be wii
he background,
Y High efficiency in terms of electric energy converted to ight.
¥ Resistance to burning under prolonged execution
especially for application whese dask colored information
pears on
‘Tolmprove performance many different phosphors have heen proces, using various compounds of
«alelum, cadhnium, and zine together with traces of rare eacth
1.7.2 Factors Affecting CRT
‘The important factor Is the quality ofthe image in computer graphics. The Quality of mage depends
bon the following
+ Resolution + Porsistence,
+ Addressabilty. + Aspect Ratio,
Resolution
+ Resolution isthe number of pointes ner inch or centimeter that ean be plotted hor
vertical
tally &
+ Its nothing but the clarity and sharpness ofthe pleture,
+ The smaller the spot size, the higher the resolution.
+ The higher the resolution, the better is dhe graphics system.
+ High quality resolution is 1280 « 1024
640 x 480
ty
Figure 1.15 Screen with 640 » 480 Resolution
Size Resolution
13-inch 640% 490
ib ‘300% 600
W7einch 1024 «768,
2tnch 1024768
Table
Grovhies Sistem and Ovinus Primitive 19
Persistence
Persistence isdefined as the timeilt takes to emit ight from the sereen to decay to 1/10" of ts originat
‘tensity fow long small spots contine to emit tight after the beam Is moved
+ Lower persistence requites high refresh rate & its good foranimation,
+ High persistence is useful for displaying highly complex state plewure.
+ Graphics monitors are usually constructed with 10 to 60 microseconds.
adressability
© Addressability is a measure ofthe spacing hetween the centers af vertical and hortzantal lines
+ The picture on a screen consists of intensified points.
+ The smallest addressable point on the sereen is called pivel ar picture element.
+ ingraphies mode there are B00%600 pisels
‘Aspect Ratio
Aspect ratio gives the ratio between vertical points and horizontal raints necessary to produce equal
length ines in both ditections on the screen,
Aspoct ratio = 4 means: vertical line with 3 points is equal in length to horizontal line of 4 points
1.8 Color CRT Monitors
CRT monitors display colour picture by using combination af phosphors that emit diferent colored
light. Cotour CRT monitors use two techniques:
© Bean-Penetration method
+ Shadow-Mask method,
1.8.1 Beam-Penetration Method
‘The beam penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used im random-scan systems.
‘There are tw layers of phosphor; they wre vod ylissplaas
‘the inside ofthe CRT screen. The multilayered phosphor in which a hyer of red phosphor is deposited
‘ochind the initial Ieyer of green phosphor
Penetration of Electron beam
‘The color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor layers.
+ A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer to prchice a red colour
+ Abeam of very fastolectron penetrates through the red iayerand excites the inner green layer
to produce green colour:
At intermediate beam speed a combination of re
different colours, orange and yellow.
i and green light is emitted to shave woCiao Computer Graphics
[Dlfpicnes tages of Bean
*
on Method
+ Probiom with tis method is the need to change the Dea
in orderto switch colours canbe displayed
«+ only 4 colours are possible.
Li + quatry of picture is not god when
red touther techniques.
{18.2 Shadow-Mask Method
‘Shadow-Mask method are commonly used in raster scan systems, example Colour TV.
‘They produce a much wider range of colours than the Beam Penetration method. A shadow-mask
CCRT has three phosphor color dots at each pil postion. One phosphor dot emits a rad light, another
emits a green light, and the third emits a blue light. This type of CRT has three electcon guns, one for
teach-color dot, and a shadow-mask ged just bohind the phasphor-coated screen.
Electron
Guns
Magnified
Phosphor-Dot
Triangle
Figure 1.16 Shadow mask CRT
Armetal shadow mask pierced with small holes,
xl behind the phosphor coated sereen. The three
‘electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains a series
‘of holes aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns.
‘When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot triangle, which
appears as 2 small color spot on the screen. The phosphor dots in the triangles are arranged so that
‘ach electron beam can activate onl its corresponding color dat when it passes through the shadow
mask.
Different colours are displayed by varying the intensity levels ofthe three electron beams. By turning
off the red and green guns, we get only the colour blue. Other combinations of beam intensities
produce a small ight spot for each phe position.
Crophic Syste ord Output
“The color we see depends on the amount of excitation ofthe red, green, and blue phuspnors
«© Auwhite (orgray) is produced! by all three dots with equal intensity,
+ Yellow is proguced with the green and red dots only.
+ Magenta is produced with the blue and red dots
+ Cyan is produced when hlue and green are activated equally.
tn some low-cost systems, the electron beam can only be set to on or off and it can produce eight
alors.
More sophisticated systems ean set intermediate intensity levels for the electron
produce several million diferent colors.
(ee
———
1.9 Display Processors
isan interpreter or pice of hantiare that convert asplay processor cole int pcre. There are
‘so types of display processor
+ Raster-Scan Display Processor, + Random-Scan Display Processor
——
1.9.1 Raster-Scan Systems
Interactive raster graphics systems typically employ several processing units. In ation ro the
central processing unlt or CPU, a special-purpose processor, called the video controlier or display
controller, is used to control the operation ofthe display device.
Organization of Simple Raster System
video
conirober
‘alter
Figure 1.17 Architecture of Raster System with a Display Processor
[A Major Task of the Display Processor:
« Digitizing a picture definition inan application program into a set of pivel-Intensty values for
storage inthe frame butfer
«+ Digitizing means simply capturing an analog signal in digital form.
+ This digitization process is called scan conversion.Comput
ee eee
+ The functions generate various line styles, displaying color a
ind performing
transformietfons ond manipulations on displayed objects
+ A fixed area of the systein memory is reserved forthe frame bulla the video controller is
given direct access to the frame-bulfer memory.
+ Frame-buffer locations and the corresponding screen postions are roferenced in Cartesian
coordinates
+ Display processors are typically designed 0 inter
input devices, such asa
1.9.2. Random-Scan Systems
‘The organization ofa simple randomy-scan system (sometimes cilled vector sean system).
+ An application program is input and stored tn the systein memory
package.
‘+ Graphics commands in the application program are
display file stored in the system memory,
ong with a graphics
anslated by the graphics package inte x
+ This display file is then aceessed by the display processor to refresh the screen,
«© The display processor Is referred as Display processor unit or graphics controller which goes
ehzough ach comesand nthe display fle during every refesh ce
I —
cu | | sem | Disa L se
| ancy a
l
oe
v0 Devices
Figure 1.18 Architeviure vf w Simpie Ramon Scan System
1.10 Color Mapping
A color model is an abstract mathematical model describing the way colors can be represented
as tuples of numbers, typically as three or four values or calor components, A color model is a
specification ofa 3-D coordinate system,
‘The different typeof color models
+ RGB color model + CMY color model. + Yigeulor model
RGR CH
of
‘he RGB color modelis composed of the primary BA
colors Red, Green, an Hite. This system defines !
the color model that Is used in mst color CRT blue} (0,01)
‘monitors and color raster graphics. The RG
snoxlel uses the Cartesian coordinate system.
This movel is called additive, and the colors
interest is cube shown in Fig, 1.19 "RGB Color
Model. (RGB values are normalized to 0-1), in
Which RGB values are at three corners; cyan,
magenta, and yellow are the three other corners,
bblac is a& their origin; and white isa the corner
facthest from the origi. The primary colors can
bbe added to produce the secondary colors
Figure 119 RGB Color Model
For example - magenta is red plus blue, cyan is green plus blue, and yellow is red plus gréen. The
combination of red, green, and blue at full intensities makes white
ed fellow
Gan
Green Blue cyan
Magenta
(cw meaet
Figure 1.20 Primary and Secondary Colors for RGBand CMY Modets.
‘The importance ofthe RGB color model i that i relates very closely to the way that the human eye
(2) RGB Model
perceives color RGB Is a basle ealor model for computer graphics recause color displays use red
green, and blue to create the desired colo.“The CMY color model Fig. 1.21 tsa subset of the
RGB color model and is primarily used! in color
print production, CMY color model stands for
‘an, magenta, and yellow. The CMY eolor space
i subtractive, meaning that cyan, magenta
yellow, and blacc pigments or inks are applied
tw a white surface to subtract some color from
‘white surface to create the final color,
nd Oust Prine.
1.12 Other Display Technologies
In gosros ine-trawing display hased on ERT has some disadvant
+ High cost +The tendency to ticker sehen the display picture is omptes.
‘These two problems led to the development of inherent image storage capability.
The most widely used display devices are
+ Direct View storage Tube (D¥ST]
+ Liquid Ceystal Displays (LCDs)
+ Phasina Parl
For example - Cyan is white minus red, magenta
is white minus green, and yellow is white minus
blue,
SERIE
“Thisis the color model used by the US. Commercial Color Television Broadcasting, [Lisa recodli
GB for transunission efficiency and for downward compatibility for black & white television.
‘The YUV color space is “derived from the RGD space. It comprises the luntinance (¥) ad two color
«lifference (U, V) components. The luminance can be computed as a weighted sum of red, green
and blue components; the color difference, or chromiinaace, components are formed by subtracting
Tuminance from blue and from red,
Figure 1.21 CMY Color Model
1.11 Instruction Set
In onter to provide a flicker-free display, the display processor must execute Ks program 30 to 60
times per second because there Is ao pixmap (pixmap Is for multiple-bit-per-pixel system). Since
pixel map refers tothe contents ofthe refresh bufer and tothe buffer memory itself
‘The display processing unit (DPU}, or graphics controller has aa dnstruction set and instruction
adress register, which goes through the classic instruction fetch, decode, and execute evcle found
inany computer
‘The program executed by the DPU isin main memory which i shared by the general CPU and DPUL
he application program and graphics subroutine package alsa reside in main memory and executed
on the general CPU.
‘The graphics package creates a display program of DPU instructions and tells the DPU where to start
the program.
Tre DPU then asynchronously executes the display progeam until i is told to stop by the graphics
package.
A JUMP instruction at the end of the display program transfers control back to its start, so that the
dlisplay continues tobe refreshed without CPU Intervention,
1.12.1 Direct View Storage Tube (OVST)
[ERY uses the method of reresh the sereen for the image o seman visible in case of DST i uses tl
hnothod! to maintaining a seraen image Isto store the picuare kofarmation inside the CRE
“Two electron guns are used ina DYST:
+ ‘The Primary Gun ~is used to store the picture pattern
+ Flood Gun - maintains the piture display
Advantages of Direct View Storage Tube (DYST)
1 ereshing is needed ery compos pletnes cane spayed 3 ory gh esnhtanns wrist Hicker
errr
{Gil Disadvantayes of Direct View Storaze Tube (DYST)
= They ordinary do lisp coho au tha selected part ot pine canna bere
mustbe erseda
+ Tociminate a pieture section, thee
picture redrawn,
1.12.2 Flat Ponel Display
Hat Panel aisplays have rectuceu vowune, weight,
anil power requirements compared to a CRT.
The feature of flat-panel displays is that they are
‘hunner than CRTS as they can be wall mounted
Examples are small TV monitors, caleelators,
pocket video games, laptop computers, and
armrest viewing of movies on airlines, as
advertisement boards in elovators.
Flat-panel displays a
categories a:
+ Bmissive displays
+ Noo-emissive displays
Figure 1.22 flat sereen TV'sG
28 Computer Graphics
The emissve dspiays.ave devices that convert electrical energy in light. Plasma Panels one example.
The Non-emissive disploys use optical ettee
graphs patterns. Exannple i lquid-erystat device.
eee
1.12.3 Plasma Panel
A plasma display panel (PDP) Isa type of flat panet display common to large TV displays. They are
called “plasma” displays hecause the pixels rely on plasma cells
sto convert sunlight o light fram Some ather source into
iter _>- Magnesium ose Coming
Pret
rt Pate ise i Fates
x
Figure 1.23 Plasma Panel Display
Te has milions
such 25 neo!
emit ight.
y cells in between two panels of glass, The cells hold a misture of noble gases
The gas inthe cells is electrically turned into plasina which then excites phosphors to
[tow Piasia Disptays Work?
The xenon, neon, and Klint gas i w plasma television fs contained In hundreds of thousands af Uy cols
positioned between cwo pats of lass Long alectrodor ae also put together between the glass plate front
| and behing the celts. The address electrodes sit beh the cll, along the rear glas plate. The transparent
| display electrodes, which ae surrounded hy an insulating heletric material and covered by a magnesium
| oxide protective layer, are motnted in front ofthe cl, along the front slass plate As the pas ons rach tothe
lectrodes and collide, photons are emitted |
|na monocirome plasma panel, the ionizing state can be maintained by applying low-level volage between
alte horizontal and vertical electrodes even after the joniing voltage s removed To erase a cel ll wage
‘5 removed froma pal ofelctraes, This ype of panel has inherent memory and docs aot use phosphors,
in color panels the back of each els coated with a phospho: The ultraviolet photons emitted bythe plasma
fscite these phosphors to give of colored light
very piso is made up of three separate sulpisel cells, each with ferent colored phosphors. One subpixet
has eed light phosphor one subpine has a green light phosphor and one sutpielhasa blu light phosphor
‘These colorsbend together to create the overall color ofthe piel te sameas shadow mask CRT or color LCD,
Brightness is controled by pulse-width modulation Plasma csplays use the some phosphors 3s CRTs which
accounts forthe ext production when viewing television or computer video Images.
Charscteriatios of Phsina Panel
"Plasma deplays are bight having a wide range of cokars
7 Thyhoes veya lnieancr'arroon cle comparctthelter othe mdlaninne
|e menace
Dayna dls ue a mach power per squnre meter a CHT vse,
{72 | advantages of Plasma Pane! 1
Peer eee
+ Slim profile
+ Wider viewing angles than those of LCD; images do not suffer frm degradation at hi
Leos
es
~ Soscbict lagers ska
| Geneaty nnn come ie esha
| + stscetibe ween glare in bright ooms.
+ Heavier than LD deo the requirement ofa gl cron tooth pases
+ tze more lc on average tan an LCD dr
1.12.4 Liquid Grystel Display
A liquid crystal display (L£0) is a thin, at eletrone vival dispiay that use the ight modlating
Dropertes of gud eystals. Liquid Crystal do not emi light dre. They are used ina wie range
ofapplications including: computer monitors, television, instrament panel arf rack dislare,
inches
signage, etc. They are more compact, lightweight, portable, less eyensive, mote reiable,
‘on tho eyes
nd easier
Polarize
Glass suistrate with IT0 electrodes.
Liquid crystals Layer
Glass suostrate with common electrode
Film (IT0) with horizontal ridges to line
up with the horizontal iter
5. Horizontal iter flm 0 block/allow
through igh
6, Reflective surface to send light back to
Figure 1.24 Schematic diagram of Liquid Crystal Displayteach pivet of an LCD typieally consists of a layer
ent
Los, vn ie patarizing filters, the axes of
perpendicular to each
other: With no actual liquid erystal between the
‘hes; light passing through the first
oud ie blocked by the second (crossed)
soluvTaer The surfaces of the electrodes that are
we liquid crystal material are ad
ign the quid erystal molecules fee
yorticwiar direction. Before applying an jmerecligs
Pol the orientation of the liguld erystal
nel ‘eteratined by the alignment at the
+ oF olustrodes,
Figure 1.25 Sub Pixels of Color LCD
dual pixel is divided into three cols, or subpisel, which are coloured red,
green, snd blue, respectively, by additional filters, Each subpixel can be controlled independently
to yleld thousands or millions of possible colours for each pixel. CRT monitors employ a similar
wher stretores vfa phosphors, although the electron beam employed in CRTS do nat hit exact
of LCD displays:
4@ Passivesmatrix LOD. © Active-matrix LCD,
and packet calculators,
dedicated cireut supplies an elzetvie
LCD's witha small aummber of segments such as thase used in digital
have invidual electrical contacts For each segment. An extern
charge to control each segment, This display structure is unwleldy for more than a few display.
elements. Each row or column ofthe display has a single electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed
a tine ly row and column addresses. This type of display ts called passive-matrix addressed
Decause the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical
‘Another method for constructing LCD's is to place a transistr at each pixel location, using thin-film
‘wansistor technology, The transistors are used to control the voltage at the pisel locations and to
ange {rem gradually feaking out ofthe liquid-crystal cells. These devices are called active
reve
Difference between CRT and LCD Monitors
+ CRs are bigand bulky while LED's are thin and light,
+ CRs consume more power compared to LCD's
+ A byproduct ofthe power consumption, CRTs also get much hotter compared to LCD's
+ LCD'S have a greater response time than CRIs
Grophice Systems end Output Primitives 1.29"
+ LcD's ave considerably move expensive than CRTs
«chs ean suffer ream deal pivels while CRS do not
1.13 Gutput Primitives
A picture i completely specified by the set of intensities for the pixel gasitions in the disp
se out of many h
‘ostrct a useful picture on a point plotting display we must bul the pic
of pls Lines and curves must he dravn with closely spaced pisels, Polat plotting diet ot use
1m of point coordinates by the computer But the Hickering was
butfrs instead where fed with a str
Graphics programming packages provide functions to describe a scene fy terms of basic goon
structures, referred to as output primitives, Points and straight line segments are the si
geometric components of pictures. Additional output primitives that exn be usec! to constrict a
pleture include etcles and other conic sections, quadlrie surfaces, spline curves ar
olor areas, and character strings.
———_——=
1.14 Points and Lines
Pint plotting is a single coordinate position. in a CRT monitor, for example, the electron beat
turned onto illuminate the sereen phosphor atthe selected location. Line drawing is
hy calculating intermediate positions along the line path between two specified endpoint positions.
An outpat device is then directed to fill n these positions between the endpoints,
straight line canbe drawn
For analog devices, such a¢.a veetor pen plotter ora random-scan display,
smoothly from one endpoint to the other Digital devices display a streight Iie szmnent
discrete points between the two endpoints, Diserete coordinate pasitiens sions,
caleulated from the equation ofthe line
=—rral ene
For a raster video display, the line color (Intensity) is loaded into the Fame buller at the
corresponding piel coorlinates. Reading from the frame bller, the vieo controler then
the sereen pixels. A computed line position of (10.48, 2081) for example, would be eo
| piel position (20,21) Thus rounding of coordinate values to integers causes ines a
twit asta step oppearance "the joggies)
| Gee
eee
lisplayed[Po red t Sean fine no. an column number, To Joat an intensity value
| frame butfer at a position corresponding to column x long sean line y 4s kuown us sean conversion
line
‘The procedure is
setPixel(s,y, intensity)
getPisel(sy)
4.15 Line Drawing Algorithms
‘Straight line segments are uses in computer generated pictures. G
eral requirement to dravea lines
+ Lines should appear stenight
+ Lines should terminate accurately.
+ Lines should have constant density.
+ Line donsity should he independent of Une length and angle.
+ Lines should be drawn rapidly.
‘The Cartesian slope intercept equation fora straight line is
fem x0] om
Where mistheslope of theline
bas the y intercept
The ewo endpoints are represented as x,.y,) and (3,9,
Slope ofthe fine m is
Ye / ee
fa @
mh yyintercept 8
b=y,-m.s,
ee @
Figure 1.27 Line path between two endpoints
For any given x interval dx along a line, we compute the corresponding y interval By
y= max 0
Thereforedx= AY (5)
These equations form the basis for determining deflection voltages in analog devices
+ For ines with slope |m |< 1, Axcan be et propartional to 2 small horizontal deflection voltage
and the corresponding vertical deflection is then set proportional to Ay as calculated fram
Eg.
Grophiestystems and Output Primitives LID
+ Forlines with slope | m |> 1, ay can be set proportional toa small vertical i
with the corresponding horizaual deflection voltage set proportional to 3s. cate
Eqs
sn vokage
sted trom
+ Por lines with m= 1, ay= dy-and the horizontal and vertical defections vol
+ In each case, a smooth line with slope m is generated between the specified endpoints.
equal
t Heat las iat ate
Figure 1.28 Straight line segments with five sampling positions
1.15.1 DDA Line Drawing Algorithm
The digital differential analyzer (ODA) isa scan-conversion line algorithm based on calculating either
By or Ax using equation 4 and 6
Steps:
‘We sample the line at unit intervals in one coordinate and determine cosresponding integer values
nearest to the line path forthe other coordinate.
Consider first a line with positive slope as shown in Fig. 1.27.
feat unitx intervals (Ax = 1) and co
(6)
Slope Less
than 1
Figure 1.29 Line with Negative Stepe
‘where 'K’takes integer values starting from 1 for the frst point, and increases by t until the final
encipoint is reached. And ‘m’ can be any real number between O and 1
+ Ifthe positive sto and compute each successive x vale 3
032._Computer ropes
Seep 2
‘Phese Equations 6 and 7 are hased on the
slow assumption that lines are to be processed:
: een fom the left endyoint to the right endpoint. IF
i : this processing is reversed, so that the starting
| endpoint isa the right, then ether we have
axe-1 withy,y-mand 8)
of dys-1 sithy, yes, ©
& =
: tpivel{cound(s) roundly), 15
Advantages of DDA Line Drawing
Graphics Systems and OutpuPenitivas 1.33
Y
See
Dl iesavanages of DDA Line Drovwing
eee
Tape 2 ood points (My ¥) and Oy
‘calculate a= 8, = 4, amd BY 9, = Yy
is! position
“The accumulation of round oF eror Is successive addition a the Aoating point ancements fs sed find the
ttakelocof time 1 compute the pixel pesiton
Step 3: Obtain the munber of eps by uEing the condition [= oom]
weer) > absty) then steps = abs(6x) else sens» abs) — ~ 7
Tf at et taal ee nee . a " DDA Line drawing for a line with endpoints (20, 10) and (28, 20)
+ du/staps ad ySne = 4y/stens so [asa > abstey) 4
seep 5: Plot the sterting point Gx 1) y, | abs (8) > abs(10) fatse |
step 6: forbs 2 ko steps Am inccanents of 2 10-10 | ehonsteps=abs(iy) steps = 30
[sep 7) oot the next posot by generating 3 98 Iie assent eenee ey eta
4 ine [ yincsdysttoat)swps, ovine = 10 /40=1
Step 8: for Loop -
ser 9: __ Stor 7 att ae? | 20) T
ox) oe io 1
Err Er eee eereeeeceee| 7 ios ui ; I
po | as 1
weld Ueda int vat 9,80 RARE HD are i 9)
‘ oT j
fs ek OP) = or BEEBE 7
fontaine, yy Ae FO é 28
Th ase
(sade sa0500) @ 268
sepeobst; ce EZ) 7 1 Coert
ase stapesanston: (“~_s “I Candie ae tiiee
sincsurs teat) steps;
yinesdy {803880085
uipixen{cound(x) round), 2)
5 keatenes Kea)
Figare 1:31 DDA Line Drawing Algorithms134.) Computer Grephies
1.15.2 Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
An accurate and efficient raster line-generating algorithm, developed by Bresenlham, scan converts
lines using only incremental integer calculations. It entirely implements with integer avthmete,
Integer arithmeticismuch faster than loating point. Thisalgorithm doesnotrequireany multiplication
or division.
4.
~\ specitea [@lO
t Une ath 3
O<[mj 1 step 3: fapent steps T and Bote yo8
* As in the circle Alg, the next positions Pee
‘long the eliptial path i seleced by, a i
tuatuting the decision parameter tthe hs
tnidpoine With the decision parameter, Mee [Srengz ans = Sune ise pci ie ving pr, noes cae
and P,,, we get the decision parameter at
Region 1 and Region 2 ml
* Decision parameter at Region 1
Figure 1.44 Midpoint between Pixel
Sampling Position xk+ 1.
calculate frst point a5 Gy. 7) = > 5)
seep 2: For repon2y compute initio decsoonparnetr volun 2
Puegeneng
ene
step 8: AS GOV, posi in eegon 4 wth K= 6, tase the volun of
oh, <6 the eye point on hu lie 18 O46 3) a
pace DST 82
Siluoray is poo the nent point along the sige $5 (+ 26 = 2) a8
Phase Pht IK, BI,
apres eh eae Be Ay BY BI 2
seep 4: uterine symetry pots ip he we 2 trate nts then
Seep $1 gett step 3 20 # WADE 25,298 20,7
Suge; fortgion 2, eletate the inal valve ofthe decision piratceresing the 2st
(+8) e227
it exch y, position in region 2, fest the value of 92.
1 pd, ca 8 the next point along the eitipse As (=, + 2, ~ 2) and
eee eee eer
point (x .¥—) of region 1 a5 [Ps
otnerwise ## p2, > @, the next point along the ellipse ss (% » Y= 1) and
Pays pte r= 20
2d increnont using sare 28 eegton
28x=Osincrement 2%, =72
2Py, nerement-2,
ADB unt 28x 3
Region 1 The intial point for region 4 (3.95) = (0,6) gwen
pise, Buttcaps,
> Round caps,
GrophiesSyems and Outpt Pintivos TaP
> Prjtng squares
> -ngobaned by ajting he nd psn oh conponn paral issn
7 Aa femcrtncscaplyeethoqare end shat are prendre te path,
> Round cape Tits obtained by aig» ld secre each but
5 proetiog square Cape: iss bated by extending te ibe anda Bucs that are
Tradone on aoftetine with eon te spelen
GGG
@ ® ©
Figure 1.4 Thick tines drawn with (a) Butt Caps (b) Rowne Caps (¢} Projection Square Caps
Tine Clon,
‘When a system provides color options, a parameter giving the arent color indexis included inthe
listof system-attribute values.
‘The ine color value in PHIGS with the function
‘setPolylineColourindex(lo
red color choices, are ass
[Non-negative integer values corresponds t9 allows ned to the line color
parameter Ic.
setLinetype (2);
setLinewidehSealeactor (2)
stPalyineColourindex (5):
1182 Are Filing
Séan~Line Algorithm orate ig:
Sean ie ing grt wad for ilng pogo aes Ts proce ons he owing
% For each scan-line locate the intersection of the scan-line with the edges.
¢ Sontelntrsecon polit Fo eet
5 Cenrtemehue poston long the curvent canbe between Pl erectionFE) Competer Grapher
points
@
Figure 1.45 (2) Interior pixels alonga scan line passing through a polygonarea
(b) Example : The polygon is filled for this particular sean line from
told andx=18 t024
Draw the interior intersection points pair wise. (a-), (ed)
Problem with corners. Same paint counted twice oF not?
From fig. 45 a, b, cand dare intersected by 2 line segments each,
‘Some scan line intersecting polygon vertex needs special handling. When a scan-line passes
‘through a vertex, it intersects two polygon edges at that point and hence adds two polats to
the ist of interseetions for the scan line. tn fig 1.46, scan line y' intersects the polygon at an
‘ecen number of edges where as scan-line y intersects fve polygon edges we, odd number of
‘edges. Since scan-tine y" generates even number of ncersections, they can be paired to identify
correcily the interior pixel spans.
olution:
0 determine the correct interior point
+ Make a clockwise or counter-clockwise traversal on edges,
‘+ Check ify is monotonically increasing or decreasing.
+ Ifdirection changes, double intersection, otherwise single intersection.
fore:
Sean iney
|
Graphics Sysloms and Duipt Primates C189
4 Calculation can be performed by making use of Coherence properties of an image to be
displayed. Properties of one part ofa scene are related withthe other in a way that can ft be
used to reduce procescing ofthe other
4+ To determine edges intersections, incremental co-ordinate calculation san be performed using
the fac that the Slope of the edge is constant from scan Tie to the next
EAgd Filing Atirbates
Fill an area with a solid color or a patterned fill and chotces forthe particular colors and pattems
‘hese fil options can be applied to polygon regions or to areas defined with curved boundaries. In
addition, areas can be painted using various brush styles, colors, and transparency parameters
Fill styles:
‘Areas are displayed with three basic fi
+ Hollow with a color border.
«+ Filled with a solid color
+ Filled with a specified pattern or design,
‘+ Abasic fil style is selected In & PHIGS program with the function
setinteriorSiyletts)
stylest
Values for the fill-style parameter fs include hollow, solid, and pattern
&> &
Hollow sali Patemed
o o @
Figure 1.47 Polygon All styles.
Another value for fill sryle is hatch, which is used to ll an area with, selected hatehi
parallel lines or crossed lines.
Ml CBR
Diagonal
Ceoss-Hlatch Fill,
ing patterns:
Diagonal
Hatch Fill
Figure 1.48 Polygon fill using Hatch Patterns.ples
Hollow areas are displayed using only the boundary outline, with the interior color the same as the
background colot. A sold fill is displayed in a single color up ta and including the borders of the
region, The color for a solid interior or fora hollow area outline is chosen with
setinteriorColorindex(fe) i
‘where ill color parameter fe is setto the desired color code, Solid fil aFa region can be accomplished
‘with the scarcline procedures.
Other fill options include specifications for the edge type, edge width, and edge color ofa region:
‘These attributes are set independently of the fil style or fill colot, and they provide for the same
options as the line-atribute parameters (line type, line width, and line color) That is, we can display
area edges dotted or dashed fat or thin, and in any available color regardless of how we have filled
the interior.
1.18.3 Cheracter Attributes
‘The appearance of displayed characters is controlled by attributes such
+ Font (typeface) # Syle # Color
# Orientation © Path + Spacing
“Attributes can be set both for entire character strings (text) and for individual characters defined as
marker symbols
lect atrribites. 1
There area many text options that i available to graphics programmers
¢ Fontand siyte
+ Thetexe can beset with afont (or typeface) suchas New York, Courier Helvetica, London,
‘Times New Roman,
+ The characters can be set with a font style such as underline, boldface, italics and in
‘outline or shadow styles.
A font and associated style (selected in a pmeram hy sttin
font parameter tin the function
+ sae oiaer/nigny |
* Alignment: 7
san imegee cade for
setTextFone(it)
6 Color settings for displayed text
setTexiColorindex(te)
where text color parameter ‘tc specifies an allowable color code
(6 We can adjust text size by scaling the overall dimensions (height and width) of characters or
by scaling only the character width,
setCharacterHeight(ch)
Graphics Syste end Outpt Primitives C¥51
shmoter
lar
Figure 1.49 Character Body
Parameter ‘ch’ is assigned a real value greater than 0 to set the coordinate height of capital
letters.
‘The distance between the bottom line and the top line of the character bod Is the same for all
characters in a particular size and typeface, but the body wide may vary.
6 Character’ height Is defined as the
distance between the baseline and the
cap line of characters. Kerned characters
are such as f and J typically extend
beyond the character-bedy limits.
Height 1
Height 2
Height 3
Figure 1.50 The effect of diferent
character height.
{4 The width of text can be set with the function
‘set CharacterexpansionFactor(cw)
where the character-width parameter width 05
‘eis sett positive rel value that scales
the hody wlth of characters. width 1.0
width 2.0
Figure LS1 The effect of different character
width.
4 Spacing between characters is controlled separately with
setCharacterSpacing(es)
where the character-spacing parameter ‘cs’ can he assigned any real value.‘The value assigned to cs determines the spacing between characters bodies.
Nogative values for cs overlap Spaci
character bodies,
0.9
4 Positive values insert space i
to spread out the displayed SPACINg O.5 !
characters.
6 The value 0 to es causes text to be
displayed with no space between
character bodies.
Spacing 1.0
Figure 152 Mheffect of diferentcharacer
/ spacing
4 The erientation for a displayed character strings St acording tothe direction ofthe
character up vector:
&,
rs
Figure 1.53
(2) Direction ofup Vector
(©) Controt Orientation of Display Text
‘where the text-path parameter ‘ty’ can be assigned the value: right, lef up,
of textdisplayed with these four options are shown in fig 154(b).
setCharacterUpVector(upvect)
Parameter ‘upvect’in this Function is assigned
‘wo values that specify the x and y vector
components. For example, with upvect = (1,
1), the direction ofthe up vector is 45 degree
and text would be displayed as shovra in Fig,
153,
4 To arrange character strings vertically or
horizontally
setTextPath(tp)
or down. Examples
HORIZONTAL TEXT
nies sing
Figure 1.54 (a) Text path, vertical and horizontal
(©) Text display with four text path options,
& Alignment tiributes are set with
setTextalignment(h, ¥)
\where parameters andy’ control horizontal and vertical alignment. Horizontal alignment is set by
assigning ha value of ef, centre, or right. Vertical alignment is set by assigning va value of top, cap.
half base or botwom,
- Top
Cap
‘Top Tr
Cap z
STRING Half : Half
}~ Base 7
1 Bottom :
Left Center Right
- is Base
Bottom
Left Right
Geater ©
Figure 1.55 Aligament attribute values for horizontal and vertical strings.
6 Marker attribute is « marker symbol for a single character that can 3e displayed in different
colors and in diferent sizes,
\We selects particular character tobe the marier symbol with
‘where marker type parameter ‘mt’ is set to an integer code. Typical codes for marker type are the
integers 1 through 5, specifying, respectively, a dot (}, vertical cross(+), as asterisk(*), a circle (o),
‘anda diagonal erassfs. Displayed marker types are centered on the marker coordinates,
‘We set the marker size with
setMarkersizescalePactor(ins)
Where parameter marker size ‘ms’ assigned a positive number, Values greater than 1 produce
character enlargement; values less than 1 reduce the marker size.
Marker colors specified with
setPolymarkerColorindex(me)
where parameter ‘me’ assigns a color code. Shear
& Matrixrepresentation and Homogeneous Coordinates
| 2 6 Composite Transformation == a
© General Pivot Point Rotation
General Fised Point Scaling
Raster Method for Transformation
mace? .
"© Window-to-viewpor® Coordinate transformation
4 Cipping Operstions
© oint Clip
$ Line Clipping
> Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping
2%. Midpoint SubatisionAlgritht
‘Area Clppingor Polygon Clipping
> Sutherland Hodgeman Paljgen Clipping
TemtChipping
© Curve Clipping
| 2-# Beerler Gipping
| Roview Questions20Tronsformatin Windowieg ond Clipping “Za >
2.1 Geometric Transformation
‘transformations are one of the primary concepts used in computer graphics for altering or
ianipulating the object. Animation is produced by moving the “camera” or the objects ina scene
‘along animation paths. Many applications use the Geometric Transformations to change the j
position, orientation, and size of object.
‘The basic geometric transformation are:
+ Translation
+ Rotation
+ Seating
Other transformation are:
+ Reflection
+ Shear
In order to transform an object, we transform the points that define it
For example:
++ Polygon: Its vertices.
+ Circle: Its center and, perhaps, its radius
Seana ie a
2.2 Translation
‘translation is applied to an objectby repositioning it alonga straight-line path from one coordinate
location to another We translate (oF move) points toa new position by addinga trans
4, and , tothe original coordinate position (x,y) t0a new position (,y") Fig 2
yet
k=xet, mmesiie)
‘The transiation distance palr (t,t, is called a translation vector or shift veetor.
‘The translation equation (1) can be expressed asa single matrix equation bv using column vectors.
Petit “~
a
Figure 2.1 Translating point from position P to position P” with translation vector T.
nerarange win enon GOA, 6 oar ENT NET]
ew he ne coor
te pesitions with the aquaon:
fan
yor
} ‘New Points
| Forces) x" 21045 =15, 2 58)
[retns) rates, yosaces Gsm
| For (18,10) x! =15¢5=20, y'=10+3=13--> (20,13)
‘The new coordinate points are: (20,10) (30, 10), (25,5)
:
|
Figure 2.2 Moving a Polygon trom Position (a) to Position (b)
“Translation isa rigid-body transformation that moves objects without deformation. Thats,
every paint on
the objec translated by the same amount,
: ton vector tothe coordinate position of each vex and
| esneringto potgonasig the now scr ene ene
| Techange the position ofa circle or ellipse we translate the center coordinates and redraw the figure inthe |
ev location, i
Bvereise
1. Example:
Consider a polygon with 4 Coordinate Points (0, 0) (4, 0), (2, 3), (2,1) with a translation
distance (t,t as (0,1). Find the new coordinate positions forthe palygon.
2. sample:
Consider a triangle with 3 Coordinate Points (20, 0), (60, 0} (40, 100) with s translation
distance (, §,) 25 (300, 10).Find the new coordinate positions fr the polygon.HAD computer Grapes
———
2.3 Rotation
‘A.twordimensional rotation is applied to an object by repositioning it along a circular path in the xy
piane, To rotate an object we need to specify a rotation angle 0 and the position (x,,] of the rotation
‘point (or pivot point) about which the objects tobe rotated
‘To rotate a line or polygon, we must rotate each ofits vertices with the same angle 6 Positive values
for the rotation angle define counterclockwise rotations about the pivot point and negative values
rotate objects in the clockwise direction.
“The transformation equations for rotation of a point position P when the pivot point is at the
coordinate origin. Inte fig,2.3,ris the constant distance ofthe point P from the origin, angle @ isthe
original angular position ofthe point , and @ is the rotation angle.
ing standard trigonometric identities, we can express the transformed coordinates in terms of
angles 8nd ® as
x ercos(+0)
= reos bcos 0-rsin® sind
ylersin (+9)
= reas sind rrsin®cos0
@&y)
nl)
‘The original coordinates of the point in polar
‘coordinates are:
x=reos®,
yersin®
Figure 2.3 Rotation a point from
position (x,y) to (x7) with angle 8.
Sulstitute equation (4) into (3), The transformation equation for rotating a point at position (x,y)
‘with an angle 0 about the origin:
oO)
‘With the column vector representation, the rotation equation in the matrix form:
[x] _[eose -sine) fx
Ly] [sine coso I]
6
Rotations are rgi¢-body transformations that move objects without deformation.
20-Transformaton Wisdowing end Clipping © 23>
Astraight lines rotated by applyingthe rotation equations to each ofthe ineendpoints and redraw.
the line berween the new endpoint.
Polygons are rotated with the rotation angle for each vertex and regenerating the polygon using the
new vertices.
Curved lines are rotated by repositioning the defining points and redrawing the curves.
{Anellipse can be rotated about its center coordinates by rotating the maja and minor axes.
dogree.
Now find the new coordinate positions with the equation:
| x'=xcos0 -ysino
| vexsino+y cose
| New Coordinate Points
For (0,0) x'=0* cos 15-0 sin 15
07 sin 15 +0" cos 15 (00)
| For (40) x'=4*c08 15-0" sin 15
| 4 sin 15+0° cos 15 (206,104)
| For (2,3) x'=2* cos 15 -3* sin 15
yi 2*sin 15 +3 eos 15 3(116,3,
For (2,1) x'=2*cos 15-1 sin 15
y= 2 sin 15-+1* cos 15 (1.67, 1.48)
‘The new coordinate points ate: (0,0), (3.86, 1.04), (1-16, 342), (1.67, 148) |
o
Figure 2.4 Rotating Polygon with @= 15 degree
moo
Secereee.
1. Example:
Consider a triangle with 3 Coordinate Points (20,0), (60,0), (40, 00) with rotation angle 0 =
485 degree. Find the new coordinate positions forthe triangle
|