CHAPTER-1: COMPUTER SYSTEM

What is Computer?
Computer is an electronic data processing device that takes raw data as input from the user
and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives
the result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-
numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.

A computer has four functions

a. accepts data Input

b. processes data Processing

c. produces output Output

d. stores results Storage

Input (Data):
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the
collection of letters, numbers, images etc.

Process:
Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the
computer system.

Output:
Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called as
Result. We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.

Computer System
All of the components of a computer system can be summarized with the simple equations.
COMPUTER SYSTEM = HARDWARE + SOFTWARE+ USER
• Hardware = Internal Devices + Peripheral Devices
All physical parts of the computer (or everything that we can touch) are known as Hardware.
• Software = Programs
Software gives “intelligence” to the computer.
• USER = Person, who operates computer.
Generation of computer:
First Generation (1940-56):
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes & machine language was used for giving
the instructions. These computers were large in size & their programming was difficult task.
The electricity consumption was very high. Some computers of this generation are ENIAC,
EDVAC, EDSAC & UNIVAC-1.

Second Generation (1956-63):

In 2nd generation computers, vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors. They required only
1/10 of power required by tubes. This generation computers generated less heat & were
reliable. The first operating system developed in this generation.

The Third Generation (1964-71):

The 3rd generation computers replaced transistors with Integrated circuit known as chip. From
Small scale integrated circuits which had 10 transistors per chip, technology developed to MSI
circuits with 100 transistors per chip. These computers were smaller, faster & more reliable.
High level languages invented in this generation.

The fourth Generation(1972- present):

LSI & VLSI were used in this generation. As a result microprocessors came into existence. The
computers using this technology known to be Micro Computers. High capacity hard disk were
invented. There is great development in data communication.

The Fifth Generation (Present & Beyond):

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The
use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the
face of computers in years to come.

Input Devices: Those devices which help to enter data into computer system.
Eg. Keyboard, Mouse, Touchscreen, Barcode Reader, Scanner, MICR, OMR etc.
Output Devices: Those devices which help to display the processed information.
Eg. Monitor, Printer, Plotter, Projector

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The main component to make a computer operate is the computer chip or microprocessor.
This is referred to as the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and is housed in the computer case.
Together, they are also called the CPU. It performs arithmetic and logic operations. The CPU
(Central Processing Unit) is the device that interprets and executes instructions.
 ARCHITECTURE OF COMPUTER

COMPUTER MEMORY
A computer system needs memory to store the data and instructions for processing. There are two
types of memory
1. Primary memory: It is also called main memory. Program and data are loaded into the primary
memory before processing. It is of two types viz.
(i) Random Access Memory (RAM) and
(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM).

RAM ROM

It stands for Random Access

It stands for Read Only Memory
Memory

It is temporary memory. It is permanent memory.

Its contents are not lost even

Data will be wiped out as the
when the power is
power supply is turned off.
turned off.

2. Secondary Memory: This memory is used to store the data or instructions for future use. The
secondary memory is non-volatile and has larger storage capacity than primary memory. It is
slower and cheaper than the main memory. Examples of secondary memory devices include Hard
Disk Drive (HDD), CD/DVD, Memory Card, etc.

Volatile memory(RAM)
Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information.
Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either Static RAM or dynamic RAM.
SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and is easy to interface to but
uses six transistors per bit.
Dynamic RAM is more complicated to interface to and control and needs regular refresh cycles
to prevent its contents being lost. However, DRAM uses only one transistor and a capacitor
per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and, with more bits on a memory chip, be
much cheaper per bit. SRAM is not worthwhile for desktop system memory, where DRAM
dominates, but is used for their cache memories.

Non Volatile Memory (ROM)

Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when
not powered.

Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory and ROM/PROM/EPROM/EEPROM

memory (used for firmware such as boot programs).
Cache Memory:
Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access
more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks
first in the cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it
does not have to do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory. It is of
two types- L1 cache is on the same chip as the microprocessor. L2 is usually a separate static
RAM (SRAM) chip.

Secondary Memory:
A. Hard Disk (Local Disk)
B. Optical Disks: CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R, DVD-RW
C. Pen Drive
D. Floppy Disks
F. Memory Cards
G. External Hard Disk
H. Blu Ray Disk
Blu-Ray Disk:
Blu-ray (not Blue-ray) also known as Blu-ray Disc (BD), is the name of a new optical disc
format. The format offers more than five times the storage capacity of traditional DVDs and
can hold up to 25GB on a single-layer disc and 50GB on a dual-layer disc. While current optical
disc technologies such as DVD, DVD±R, DVD±RW, and DVD-RAM rely on a red laser to read and
write data, the new format uses a blue-violet laser instead, hence the name Blu-ray.

Units of Memory:
The smallest unit is bit, which mean either 0 or 1.
1 bit = 0 or 1
1 Byte = 8 bit
1 Nibble = 4 bit
1 Kilo Byte = 1024 Byte= 210 Byte
1 Mega Byte = 1024 KB= 210 KB
1 Gega Byte = 1024 MB= 210 MB
1 Tera Byte = 1024 GB= 210 GB
1 Peta Byte =1024 TB= 210 TB
1 Exa Byte =1024 PB= 210 PB
1 Zetta Byte = 1024 EB= 210 EB
1 Yotta Byte = 1024 ZB= 210 ZB
Internal Storage encoding of Characters:
ASCII (American standard code for information interchange): ASCII code is most widely used
alphanumeric code used in computers. It is a 7- bit code, and so it has 27 =128 possible code
groups.
It represents all of the standard keyboard characters as well as control functions such as
Return & Linefeed functions.

ISCII (American standard code for information interchange): To use the Indian language on
computers, ISCII codes are used. It is an 8-bit code capable of coding 256 characters. ISCII code
retains all ASCII characters and offers coding for Indian scripts also.

Unicode: It is a universal coding standard which provides a unique number for every
character, no matter what the platform, no matter what the program, no matter what the
language. Unicode version 3.1 represented 94,140 characters.

Booting
The process of loading the system files of the operating system from the disk into the
computer memory to complete the circuitry requirement of the computer system is called
booting.

Types of Booting:
There are two types of booting:
• Cold Booting: If the computer is in off state and we boot the computer by pressing the
power switch ‘ON’ from the CPU box then it is called as cold booting.
• Warm Booting: If the computer is already ‘ON’ and we restart it by pressing the ‘RESET’
button from the CPU box or CTRL, ALT and DEL key simultaneously from the keyboard then it
is called warm booting.

Software
Software, simply are the computer programs. The instructions given to the computer in the
form of a program is called Software. Software is the set of programs, which are used for
different purposes. All the programs used in computer to perform specific task is called
Software.

Types of software
1. System software:
a) Operating System Software
DOS, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Unix/Linux, MAC/OS X etc.
b) Utility Software
Windows Explorer (File/Folder Management), Compression Tool, Anti-Virus Utilities, Disk
Defragmentation, Disk Clean, BackUp, WinZip, WinRAR etc…
c) Language Processors
Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler
2. Application software:
a) Package Software/General Purpose software
Ms. Office 2003, Ms. Office 2007, Macromedia (Dreamweaver, Flash, Freehand), Adobe
(PageMaker, PhotoShop)

b) Tailored or Customized Software

School Management system, Inventory Management System, Payroll system, financial system
etc.

Operating system
Operating system is a platform between hardware and user which is responsible for the
management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of a computer. It
hosts the several applications that run on a computer and handles the operations of computer
hardware.

Functions of operating System:

• Processor Management
• Memory Management
• File Management
• Device Management

OS User Interface:
There are different types of user interfaces each of which provides a different functionality. Some
commonly used interfaces are :

(A) Command-based Interface: Command-based interface requires a user to enter the commands to
perform different tasks like creating, opening, editing or deleting a file, etc Examples of operating
systems with command-based interface are MS-DOS and Unix.

(B) Graphical User Interface: Graphical User Interface (GUI) lets users run programs or give
instructions to the computer in the form of icons, menus and other visual options. GUI interfaces
include Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora and Macintosh etc.

(C) Touch-based Interface: Using the touchscreen, a user provides inputs to the operating system,
which are interpreted by the OS as commands like opening an app, closing an app, dialling a number,
scrolling across apps, etc. Examples of popular operating systems with touch based interfaces are
Android and iOS.

(D) Voice-based Interface: Now a days user can use voice-based commands to make a computer
work in the desired way. Some operating systems which provide voice-based control to users include
iOS (Siri), Android (Google Now or “OK Google”), Microsoft Windows 10 (Cortana).
Types of Operating System:
• Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing
real-time applications. Example of Use: e.g. control of nuclear power plants, oil refining,
chemical processing and traffic control systems, air

• Single User Systems: Provides a platform for only one user at a time. They are popularly
associated with Desk Top operating system which run on standalone systems where no user
accounts are required. Example: DOS.

• Multi User Systems: Provides regulated access for a number of users by maintaining a
database of known users. Refers to computer systems that support two or more simultaneous
users. Another term for multi-user is time sharing. Ex: All mainframes are multi-user systems.
Example: Unix

• Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed to

run at a time, the system is grouped under the single-tasking system category, while in case
the operating system allows for execution of multiple tasks at a time, it is classified as a multi-
tasking operating system.

• Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of independent

computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed
operating system. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When
computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system.

Commonly used operating system

UNIX: Pronounced yoo-niks, a popular multi-user, multitasking operating system developed at
Bell Labs in the early 1970s. UNIX was one of the first operating systems to be written in a
high-level programming language, namely C. This meant that it could be installed on virtually
any computer for which a C compiler existed.

LINUX: Pronounced lee-nucks or lih-nucks. A freely-distributable open source operating

system that runs on a number of hardware platforms. The Linux kernel was developed mainly
by Linus Torvalds and it is based on Unix. Because it’s free, and because it runs on many
platforms, including PCs and Macintoshes, Linux has become an extremely popular alternative
to proprietary operating systems.

Windows: Microsoft Windows is a series of graphical interface operating systems developed,

marketed, and sold by Microsoft. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named
Windows on November 20, 1985 as an add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest
in graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world’s personal
computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been
introduced in 1984.The most recent client version of Windows is Windows 7; the most recent
server version is Windows Server 2008 R2; the most recent mobile version is Windows Phone
7.5.
SOLARIS: Solaris is a Unix operating system originally developed by Sun Microsystems. It
superseded their earlier SunOS in 1993. Oracle Solaris, as it is now known, has been owned by
Oracle Corporation since Oracle’s acquisition of Sun in January 2010.

BOSS: BOSS (Bharat Operating System Solutions) GNU/Linux distribution developed by C-DAC
(Centre for Development of Advanced Computing) derived from Debian for enhancing the use
of Free/ Open Source Software throughout India. This release aims more at the security part
and comes with an easy to use application to harden your Desktop.

Mobile OS: A mobile operating system, also called a mobile OS, is an operating system that is
specifically designed to run on mobile devices such as mobile phones, smartphones, PDAs,
tablet computers and other handheld devices. The mobile operating system is the software
platform on top of which other programs, called application programs, can run on mobile
devices.

• Android: Android is a Linux-based mobile phone operating system developed by Google.

Android is unique because Google is actively developing the platform but giving it away for
free to hardware manufacturers and phone carriers who want to use Android on their devices.

• Symbian: Symbian is a mobile operating system (OS) targeted at mobile phones that offers a
high-level of integration with communication and personal information management (PIM)
functionality. Symbian OS combines middleware with wireless communications through an
integrated mailbox and the integration of Java and PIM functionality (agenda and contacts).
The Symbian OS is open for third-party development by independent software vendors,
enterprise IT departments, network operators and Symbian OS licensees.

LANGUAGE PROCESSORS: Since a computer hardware is capable of understanding only

machine level instructions, So it is necessary to convert the HLL into Machine Level Language.
There are three Language processors:

A. Compiler: It is translator which coverts the HLL language into machine language in one go.
A Source program in High Level Language get converted into Object Program in Machine Level
Language.

B. Interpreter: It is a translator which converts the HLL language into machine language line by
line. It takes one statement of HLL and converts it into machine code which is immediately
executed. It eliminate the need of separate compilation/run. However, It is slow in processing
as compare to compiler.

C. Assembler: It translate the assembly language into machine code.

Microprocessor:
A microprocessor is a semiconductor chip, which is manufactured using the Large Scale
integration (LSI) or Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), which comprises Arithmetic Logic Unit,
Control unit and Central Processing Unit (CPU) fabricated on a single chip.
Terminologies:

Registers: A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU
(central processing unit) in order to speed up its operations by providing quick access to
commonly used values. All data must be represented in a register before it can be processed.
For example, if two numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers must be in registers, and the
result is also placed in a register.

Bus:
A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to
another. You can think of a bus as a highway on which data travels within a computer. When
used in reference to personal computers, the term bus usually refers to internal bus. This is a
bus that connects all the internal computer components to the CPU and main memory.
All buses consist of two parts — an address bus and a data bus.
The data bus transfers actual data whereas the address bus transfers information about where
the data should go.
The control bus is used by the CPU to direct and monitor the actions of the other functional
areas of the computer.
It is used to transmit a variety of individual signals (read, write, interrupt, acknowledge, and
so forth) necessary to control and coordinate the operations of the computer.

The size of a bus, known as its width, is important because it determines how much data can
be transmitted at one time. For example, a 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data, whereas a
32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits

Clock speed: Also called clock rate, the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions.
Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are
executed and synchronizes all the various computer components. The CPU requires a fixed
number of clock ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each instruction. The faster the clock, the
more instructions the CPU can execute per second.
Clock speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz ((GHz).
16 bit Microprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers. A 16-bit microprocessor can
process data and memory addresses that are represented by 16 bits. Eg. 8086 processor

32 bit Microprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers. A 32-bit microprocessor can
process data and memory addresses that are represented by 32 bits. Eg. Intel 80386
processor, Intel 80486

64 bit Microprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers; a special high-speed storage
area within the CPU. A 32-bit microprocessor can process data and memory addresses that
are represented by 32 bits. Eg. Pentium dual core, core 2 duo.

128 bit Microprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers. A 128-bit microprocessor can
process data and memory addresses that are represented by 128 bits. Eg. Intel core i7

**Omitted Portion
Types of Computer
On the basis of working principle
a) Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
Eg: Thermometer, Speedometer, Petrol pump indicator, Multimeter
b) Digital Computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as
digits, usually in the binary number system.

c) Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and
analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing
complex simulations. The instruments used in medical lies in this category.

On the basis of Size

a) Super Computer
The fastest type of computer. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for
specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For
example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers
include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum
exploration. PARAM, Pace & Flosolver are the supercomputer made in India.

b) Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches,
for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just
below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers
because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single
program faster than a mainframe.
c) Mini Computer
A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and
mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small
mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and
workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of
supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously. Generally, servers are comes in this
category.

d) Micro Computer
i. Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
ii. Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard.
It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.
iii. Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have
no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

e) Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic
term for a user’s machine (client machine) in contrast to a “server” or “mainframe.”

Difference between RISC & CISC architecture

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing):
1. RISC system has reduced number of instructions.
2. Performs only basic functions.
3. All HLL support is done in software.
4. All operations are register to register.

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing):

1. A large and varied instruction set.
2. Performs basic as well as complex functions.
3. All HLL support is done in Hardware.
4. Memory to memory addressing mode

EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing):

It is a 64-bit microprocessor instruction set, jointly defined and designed by Hewlett Packard
and Intel, that provides up to 128 general and floating point unit registers and uses
speculative loading, predication, and explicit parallelism to accomplish its computing tasks. By
comparison, current 32-bit CISC and RISC microprocessor architectures depend on 32-bit
registers, branch prediction, memory latency, and implicit parallelism, which are considered a
less efficient approach in microarchitecture design.

PORTS: A port is an interface between the motherboard and an external device. Different
types of port are available on motherboard as serial port, parallel port, PS/2 port, USB port,
SCSI port etc.

Serial port(COM Port): A serial port transmit data one bit at a time. Typically on older PCs, a
modem, mouse, or keyboard would be connected via serial ports. Serial cables are cheaper to
make than parallel cables and easier to shield from interference. Also called communication
port.
Parallel Port (LPT ports): It supports parallel communication i.e. it can send several bits
simultaneously. It provides much higher data transfer speed in comparison with serial port.
Also called Line Printer Port.

USB (Universal Serial Bus): It is a newer type of serial connection that is much faster than the
old serial ports. USB is also much smarter and more versatile since it allows the “daisy
chaining” of up to 127 USB peripherals connected to one port. It provides plug & play
communication.

PS/2 Port: PS/2 ports are special ports for connecting the keyboard and mouse to some PC
systems. This type of port was invented by IBM

FireWire Port: The IEEE 1394 interface, developed in late 1980s and early 1990s by Apple as
FireWire, is a serial bus interface standard for high-speed communications and isochronous
real-time data transfer. The 1394 interface is comparable with USB and often those two
technologies are considered together, though USB has more market share.
Infrared Port: An IR port is a port which sends and receives infrared signals from other
devices. It is a wireless type port with a limited range of 5-10ft.

Bluetooth: Bluetooth uses short-range radio frequencies to transmit information from fixed
and mobile devices. These devices must be within the range of 32 feet, or 10 meters for
Bluetooth to effectively work. A Bluetooth port enables connections for Bluetooth-enabled
devices for synchronizing. Typically there are two types of ports: incoming and outgoing. The
incoming port enables the device to receive connections from Bluetooth devices while the
outgoing port makes connections to Bluetooth devices.