Ministry of Secondary Education Republic of Cameroon

Progressive
 §*
Comprehensive
*
High School Peace – Work – Fatherland
BETHESDA – Douala SCHOOL YEAR 2021/2022
Department of Computer Studies

COMPUTERNETWORK&DATACOMMUNUCATION
Class:UpperSixthBy:EKABOLEMARTIN

Todaycomputerisavailableinmanyofficesandhomesandthereforethereisaneedtosharedataandprogr
amsamongvariouscomputers.Withtheadvancementofdatacommunicationfacilitiesthecommunicati
onbetweencomputershasincreasedandthusithasextendedthepowerofcomputerbeyondthecomputerr
oom.Nowausersittingatoneplacecancommunicatewithcomputersofanyremotesitethroughcommuni
cationchannel.Theaimofthislessonistointroduceyouthevariousaspectsofcomputernetworkanddatac
ommunication.

Learningobjectives

Itisexpectedthataftergoingthroughthislesson,youwouldbeableto
- Understandbasicsofthevarioustypesnetworktechnologiesintheareaofcomputers,LocalArea
Network(LAN)anddifferentcomponentsofcomputernetwork
- explainthefeaturesandtheuseofcomputernetworkanddatacommunication
- describetheOSImodelandits7layers
- Givesomenetworksecurityproblemsandeventualsolutions

Contents
I. .............................................................................................................................................................2
II. .............................................................................................................................................................4
III. .........................................................................................................................................................6
IV. .......................................................................................................................................................11
V. ...........................................................................................................................................................13
VI. .......................................................................................................................................................17
VII. .......................................................................................................................................................19
VIII. .......................................................................................................................................................22
IX. .......................................................................................................................................................23

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I. BASICNETWORKINGCONCEPTS

I.1-DefinitionandNetworkBasics

Networkingistheconceptofsharingresourcesandservices.Anetworkisasetofinterconnectedobjects(roads,
computers,
…)withsomethingtoshare.Acomputernetworkisthereforeagroupofinterconnectedcomputersystemsshari
ngresourcesandinteractingusingasharedcommunicationslink.Allnetworksmusthavethefollowing:

- Aresourcetoshare(resource)
- Apathwaytotransferdata(transmissionmedium)
- Asetofrulesgoverninghowcommunicationbetweendevicestakesplace(protocols)

I.2-BENEFITSOFCOMPUTERNETWORK
Specifically,networksareaboutsharingthreethings:information,resources,andapplications.

 Sharinginformation:networksallowuserstocommunicatewitheachotherinvariousways:email,ch
at,forums,etc.
 Sharingresources:Certaincomputerresources,suchasprintersorharddrives,canbesetupsothatnetw
orkuserscansharethem.Sharingharddrivesinvolvesalsosharingoffilesandfolders.Anetworkcanbeu
sedtoshareanInternetconnection.
 Sharingapplications:severaluserscanworktogetheronasinglebusinessapplication.

Apartfromsharing,otherbenefitsofacomputernetworkare:

 FlexibleAccess:Networksallowtheiruserstoaccessfilesfromcomputersthroughoutthenetwork.
 Reducingofcost:Insteadofbuyingaprinterforeachcomputerofabignetwork,asingleprintercanbesha
red,andthencostisconsiderablyreduced

I.3-DOWNSIDES(SHORTCOMMINGS)OFNETWORKING
Althoughnetworksareoneofthebestthingsthateverhappenedtocomputers,noteverythingaboutnetworksisro
sy.Thefollowingsectionsdescribesomedisadvantagesofusinganetwork:

 Viruses:Ifavirusisintroducedtothenetwork,eitherintentionallyorunintentionally,itwillrapidlysp
readaroundalloftheworkstationsandcouldstarttocausehavoctopeoples'filesortotheefficientworki
ngofthenetwork.
 Networkfailure:Ifthefileserverfailsthenno-
oneonthenetworkcanaccessanyfilesorfolders.Thismeansthatnobodycandoanywork.Foranorgan
ization,thiswouldbeextremelycostlyanddisruptive.

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  Slowservice:Asmoreuserslogontothenetworkandrequestfiles,sendthingstobeprintedandopenm
oresoftwareapplications,thenetworkcanstarttoslowdown.
 Cost:Buildinganetwork,itsinitialcostisveryexpensive.

I.4-Networkinghardware
Networkinghardwareincludesallcomputers,peripherals,interfacecardsandotherequipmentneededtoperf
ormdata-
processingandcommunicationswithinthenetwork.Someexamplesofnetworkinghardwareare:FileServers,
Workstations,NetworkInterfaceCards,Hubs,Switches,Repeaters,Bridges,andRouters:

 Workstations:Eachusercomputersconnectedtoanetworkiscalledworkstations.Atypicalworkstati
onisacomputerthatisconfiguredwithanetworkinterfacecard,networkingsoftware,andtheappropriat
ecables.
 NetworkInterfaceCards(NIC):Itisaninternaldevicethatprovidesthephysicalconnectionbetweent
henetworkandthecomputerworkstation.
 Hub:Ingeneral,ahubreferstoahardwaredevicethatenablesmultipledevicesorconnectionstobeconn
ectedtoacomputer.Itisthemostbasicnetworkingdevice
 Switch:Itisahardwarefiltersforwardspackets(orconcentrators)workthesamewayashubs,buttheyca
nidentifytheintendeddestinationoftheinformationthattheyreceive,sotheysendthatinformationtoonl
ythecomputersthataresupposedtoreceiveit.
 Repeaters:Sinceasignallosesstrengthasitpassesalongacable,itisoftennecessarytoboostthesignalw
ithadevicecalledarepeater.Therepeaterelectricallyamplifiesthesignalitreceivesandrebroadcastsit.
 Bridges:Abridgeisadevicethatallowsyoutosegmentalargenetworkintotwosmaller,moreefficientn
etworks.Thebridgemanagesthetraffictomaintainoptimumperformanceonbothsidesofthenetwork.
Bridgesmustbeusedbetweennetworkswiththesameprotocol.
 Routers:Arouterisadevicethatforwardsdatapacketsbetweencomputernetworks,creatinganoverla
yinternetwork.Arouterhasalotmorecapabilitiesthanothernetworkdevicessuchasahubswitch
 Gateway:Agatewayisanetwork
 Firewall:AsoftwarehardwarenetworkaccessportsFirewallsareagreatstepforhelpingpreventun-
authorizedaccesstoacompanyorhomenetwork.
 Modem:TheModemisahardwaredevicethatenablesacomputertosendandreceiveinformationovert
elephonedigitalanalogmodulation)andthenconvertingitbackoncereceivedontheotherend(demodu
lation).
 Proxy:Aproxyisacomputerserverorsoftwareprogramthatispartofthegatewaycachebandwidth.

II. CLASSIFICATIONOFCOMPUTERNETWORK

Computernetworkscanbeclassifyindifferentways:accordingtothegeographicalareacovered,thestrategyuse
dortypeofconnection

II.1ACCORDINGTOTHETYPEOFCONNECTION

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Accordingtothetypeofconnection,thereexisttwotypesofconnections.Wiredconnectionandwirelessconnect
ion

II.1.1Wiredconnection

AwirednetworkiswhenyouphysicallyconnectyourcomputerorothercompatibledevicetoyourSuperHubwit
hanEthernetcable.Thebestthingaboutawiredconnectionisthereliabilityandspeeditgivesyou(wiredisfastert
hanwireless).Thismakesitidealforthingsthatusealotofbandwidth,likeplayingonlinegamesonyourXbox.

II.1.2Wirelessconnection

Awirelessnetwork,asitsnamewouldsuggest,isanetworkofcomputersandcomputerperipheralsthatareconne
ctedtoeachotherwithoutwires.

Advantages
 Itiseasiertoaddormoveworkstations.
 Itiseasiertoprovideconnectivityinareaswhereitisdifficulttolaycable.
 Installationisfastandeasy,anditcaneliminatetheneedtopullcablethroughwallsandceilings.
 Accesstothenetworkcanbefromanywherewithinrangeofanaccesspoint.
Disadvantages
 Asthenumberofcomputersusingthenetworkincreases,thedatatransferratetoeachcomputerwilldecre
aseaccordingly.
 Asstandardschange,itmaybenecessarytoreplacewirelesscardsand/oraccesspoints.
 Securityismoredifficulttoguaranteeandrequiresconfiguration.
 Deviceswillonlyoperateatalimiteddistancefromanaccesspoint.

II.2ACCORDINGTOTHEGEOGRAPHICALAREACOVERED

Accordingtothegeographicalareacovered,thereexistthreemaintypesofnetwork:LAN,MANandWAN

II.2.1LocalAreaNetwork(LAN)

ALANisacomputernetworkthatspansonlyasmallgeographicalareasuchasanoffice,homebuildingorclosedb
uildings.ALANisusefultoshareresourceslikefiles,printers,gamesandotherapplication.Theinfrastructurein
aLANisprivate.ThedistancebetweencomputersinaLANcannotbemorethan15Km.Ex:Aschoolnetwork

II.2.2MetropolitanAreaNetwork(MAN)

AMANisanetworkofcomputersspreadoveracityorclosedcities.Itmaybeasinglenetworksuchasacabletelevi
sionnetwork,oritmaybemanyLANSconnectedtogether.AMANmaybeoperatedbyoneorganization(withse
veralofficesinonecity)orbesharedandusedbyseveralorganizationsinthesamecity.Itcanbeeitheraprivatenet
workorapublicnetwork.Ex:AnetworkofalltheagenciesofCAMCCULinBamenda

II.2.3WideAreaNetwork(WAN)

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AWANisasystemofinterconnectingmanycomputeroveralargegeographicalareasuchasstates,countriesore
venthewholeworld.Thesekindofnetworksusetelephonelines,satellitelinkandotherlong-
rangecommunicationtechnologiestoconnect.Suchnetworksaredesigntoserveanareaofhundredskilometres
suchasnationaltelephonenetwork.ForinstanceacompanylikeExpressUnionwithagenciesatFundong,Bame
nda,Douala,Bafoussam,YaoundéuseaWANtoconnectallitsagencies.AlthoughaWANmaybeownedorrent
edbyprivatebusiness,itisusuallyapublicnetwork,designedtoconnectLANsorMANstogether.Themostkno
wnandthelargestWANisInternet.

II.3ACCORDINGTOTHEARCHITECTURE

Accordingtothestrategyusedthereexisttwomaintypesofnetwork:Client/
ServernetworkandPeertoPeer(P2P)network:

II.3.1Client/servernetworks

Computersthatperformaserviceonbehalfofothernetworkdevicesarecalledservers.Thereareseveraltypesof
servers.Forexample,acomputerthatprovidesothernetworknodeswithaccesstonetworkstoragedevicesiscall
edafileserver.Printserversprovideothernetworknodeswithaccesstonetworkprinters.Computersthatuseth
eservicesofaserverarecalledclients.Networksinwhichserverscontrolaccesstonetworkstorageandothernet
workresourcesarecalledclient/servernetworks.InaClient/
servernetwork,theroleoftheserveristoprovideservicesdemandedbyclientcomputers

II.3.2Peer-to-peernetworks

Computersthatperformsimilarfunctionsonanetworkarecalledpeers.Networksinwhichnosingle,centralize
dcomputercontrolsnetworkfunctionsarecalledpeer-to-peernetworks.Theideaofpeer-to-
peernetworkingisthateachcomputeronthenetworkcanbebothaserverandaclient.Sinceanycomputeronthene
tworkcansharearesourceforothertouse.Userscanconfiguretheircomputerssothattheycansharedirectoriesor
printerswithotherusersonthenetwork.Allcomputersareconsideredtohaveequal,orpeer,status.

II.3.3ComparisonbetweenPeertoPeernetworkandClient/Servernetwork

Strategy Advantages Disadvantages

·Heavyprocessingpowercanbelocalizedwhenneeded. ·Administrativetasksnotentir
·Overallinstallationcostsarelessthanahierarchicalnetwork. elycentralized.
Client/
Server

·Serversprovideclientswithaccesstosharedprinters,networks ·Expensivetoaddnodes.
torage(includingsharedapplications),networksecurityfeature
s,andothernetworkresources.
·Relativelyinexpensivetoimplement,canoftenbeimplemente ·Decentralizedadministratio
donexistingequipment. n.
P2P

·Potentially,allresourcescanbemadeavailableoveranetwork. ·Securitycanbedifficulttocon
·Processingpowercanbelocalizedtothepointofneed. trol

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III. NETWORKTOPOLOGIES

Networktopologyisthelayoutpatternofinterconnectionsofthevariouselements(linksnodestopology

III.1PhysicalTopology
Itisthephysicalconfigurationofanetworkthatdetermineshowthenetwork'scomputersareconnected.Commo
nconfigurationsincludethebustopology,meshtopology,ringtopology,startopology,treetopologyandhybri
dtopology.

III.1.1-BusTopology
BusTopologyisthesimplestofnetworktopologies.Inthistypeoftopology,allthenodes(computersaswellasser
vers)areconnectedtothesinglecable,bythehelpofinterfaceconnectors.Thiscentralcableisthebackboneofthe
networkandisknownasBus.EveryworkstationcommunicateswiththeotherdevicethroughthisBus.Asignalfr
omthesourceisbroadcastedandittravelstoallworkstationsconnectedtobuscable.Althoughthemessageisbroa
dcastedbutonlytheintendedrecipient,whoseMACaddressorIPaddressmatches,acceptsit.Aterminatorisadd
edatendsofthecentralcable,topreventbouncingofsignals.Abarrelconnectorcanbeusedtoextendit.

Advantages(benefits)ofLinearBusTopology

1) Itiseasytoset-upandextendbusnetwork.
2) Cablelengthrequiredforthistopologyistheleastcomparedtoothernetworks.
3) Bustopologycostsveryless.
4) LinearBusnetworkismostlyusedinsmallnetworks.GoodforLAN.

Disadvantages(Drawbacks)ofLinearBusTopology

1) Thereisalimitoncentralcablelengthandnumberofnodesthatcanbeconnected.
2) Dependencyoncentralcableinthistopologyhasitsdisadvantages.Ifthemaincable(i.e.bus)encounters
someproblem,wholenetworkbreaksdown.
3) Itisdifficulttodetectandtroubleshootfaultatindividualstation.
4) Maintenancecostscangethigherwithtime.
5) EfficiencyofBusnetworkreduces,asthenumberofdevicesconnectedtoitincreases.
6) Itisnotsuitablefornetworkswithheavytraffic.
7) Securityisverylowbecauseallthecomputersreceivethesentsignalfromthesource.

III.2-RingTopology

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Thisisatypeofnetworktopologyinwhichcomputersareconnectedinacloseloopconfiguration.Eachworkstati
onisconnectedtotwoothercomponentsoneitherside,anditcommunicateswiththesetwoadjacentneighbors.D
atatravelsaroundthenetwork,inonedirection.SendingandreceivingofdatatakesplacebythehelpofTOKEN.T
okencontainsapieceofinformationwhichalongwithdataissentbythesourcecomputer.

AdvantagesofRingTopology

1) Thistypeofnetworktopologyisveryorganized.Eachnodegetstosendthedatawhenitreceivesanempty
token.Thishelpstoreduceschancesofcollision.
2) Evenwhentheloadonthenetworkincreases,itsperformanceisbetterthanthatofBustopology.
3) Thereisnoneedfornetworkservertocontroltheconnectivitybetweenworkstations.
4) Additionalcomponentsdonotaffecttheperformanceofnetwork.
5) Eachcomputerhasequalaccesstoresources.

DisadvantagesofRingTopology

1) Eachpacketofdatamustpassthroughallthecomputersbetweensourceanddestination.Thismakesitslowert
hanStartopology.
2) Ifoneworkstationorportgoesdown,theentirenetworkgetsaffected.
3) Networkishighlydependentonthewirewhichconnectsdifferentcomponents.

III.3-StarTopology
InStartopology,allthecomponentsofnetworkareconnectedtoacentraldevicewhichmaybeahub,arouteroras
witch.Allthedataonthestartopologypassesthroughthecentraldevicebeforereachingtheintendeddestination.
ThislateractsasajunctiontoconnectdifferentnodespresentinStarNetwork,andatthesametimeitmanagesandc
ontrolswholeofthenetwork.

AdvantagesofStarTopology

1) AscomparedtoBustopologyitgivesfarmuchbetterperformance,signalsdon’tnecessarilygettransmit
tedtoalltheworkstations.
2) Easytoconnectnewnodesordevices.Instartopologynodescanbeaddedorremovedeasilywithoutaffec
tingrestofthenetwork.
3) Centralizedmanagement.Ithelpsinmonitoringthenetwork.
4) Failureofonenodeorlinkdoesn’taffecttherestofnetwork.Atthesametimeit’seasytodetectthefailurea
ndtroubleshootit.

DisadvantagesofStarTopology

1) Ifthecentraldevicefailswholenetworkgoesdown.

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 2) Theuseofanextracentraldeviceincreasestheoverallcostofthenetwork.
3) Performanceandaswellnumberofnodeswhichcanbeaddedinsuchtopologyisdependedoncapacityof
centraldevice.

III.4-TreeTopology
TreeTopologyintegratesthecharacteristicsofStarandBusTopology.InTreeTopology,thenumberofStarnet
worksareconnectedusingBus.Thismaincableseemslikeamainstemofatree,andotherstarnetworksasthebran
ches.ItisalsocalledExpandedStarTopology.Ethernetprotocoliscommonlyusedinthistypeoftopology.

AdvantagesofTreeTopology

1.ExpansionofNetworkispossibleandeasy.
2.Here,wedividethewholenetworkintosegments(starnetworks),whichcanbeeasilymanagedandmaintained
.
3.Errordetectionandcorrectioniseasy.
4.Ifonesegmentisdamaged,othersegmentsarenotaffected.

DisadvantagesofTreeTopology

1.Becauseofitsbasicstructure,treetopology,reliesheavilyonthemainbuscable,ifitbreakswholenetworkiscri
ppled.
2.Asmoreandmorenodesandsegmentsareadded,themaintenancebecomesdifficult.
3.Scalabilityofthenetworkdependsonthetypeofcableused.

III.5-Meshtopology
Inameshnetworktopology,eachofthenetworknode,computerandotherdevices,areinterconnectedwithonea
nother.Everynodenotonlysendsitsownsignalsbutalsorelaysdatafromothernodes.Infactatruemeshtopolog
yistheonewhereeverynodeisconnectedtoeveryothernodeinthenetwork.

TocalculatethenumberofcablesneededinacompletemeshtopologyuseN(N-1)/
2whereNisthenumberofcomputers

AdvantagesofMeshtopology

1)Datacanbetransmittedfromdifferentdevicessimultaneously.Thistopolo
gycanwithstandhightraffic.
2)Evenifoneofthecomponentsfailsthereisalwaysanalternativepresent.Sod
atatransferdoesn’tgetaffected.
3)Expansionandmodificationintopologycanbedonewithoutdisruptingothe
rnodes.

DisadvantagesofMeshtopology

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1)Therearehighchancesofredundancyinmanyofthenetworkconnections.
2)Overallcostofthisnetworkiswaytoohighascomparedtoothernetworktopologies.
3)Set-upandmaintenanceofthistopologyisverydifficult.Evenadministrationofthenetworkistough.
III.6Hybridtopology
Similarlyinthistypeoftopologyweintegratetwoormoredifferenttopologiestoformaresultanttopologywhich
hasgoodpoints(aswellasweaknesses)ofalltheconstituentbasictopologiesratherthanhavingcharacteristicsof
onespecifictopology.

AdvantagesofHybridNetworkTopology
1) Reliable:Unlikeothernetworks,faultdetectionandtrouble
shootingiseasyinthistypeoftopology.
2) Scalable:It’seasytoincreasethesizeofnetworkbyaddingn
ewcomponents,withoutdisturbingexistingarchitecture.
3) Flexible:HybridNetworkcanbedesignedaccordingtother
equirementsoftheorganizationandbyoptimizingtheavailable
resources.

DisadvantagesofHybridTopology

1) ComplexityofDesign:It’snoteasytodesignthistypeofarchitectureandit’satoughjobfordesigners.C
onfigurationandinstallationprocessneedstobeveryefficient.
2) CostlyHub:Thehubsusedtoconnecttwodistinctnetworks,areveryexpensive.Thesehubsaredifferen
tfromusualhubsastheyneedtobeintelligentenoughtoworkwithdifferentarchitecturesandshouldbefu
nctionevenifapartofnetworkisdown.
3) CostlyInfrastructure:Ashybridarchitecturesareusuallylargerinscale,theyrequirealotofcables;co
olingsystems,sophisticatenetworkdevices,etc.

III.2Logicaltopology
Thelogicaltopologydefineshowthesystemscommunicateacrossthephysicaltopologies.Logicaltopologiesa
reboundtonetworkprotocolsanddescribehowdataismovedacrossthenetwork.Differentnetworkaccessexisti
ngare:CSMA/CD,CSMA/CAandTokenPassing

a) CSMA/CD(CarrierSenseMultipleAccess/CollisionDetection)

EthernetusesCSMA/
CDtomanagemediaaccess,asdefinedintheIEEE802.3specification.Devicesthathavedatatotransmitlistenfo
ranopeningonthelinebeforetransmitting(CarrierSense)andwhenadevicedetectsanopening,ittransmitsitsd
ata.However,severaldevicesmaysimultaneouslysensethatthelineisclearandtheymayalltransmitatthesamet
ime.Ifthishappens,thedatapacketscollideandthedataislost.Thisiscalledacollision.

UsingtheCSMA/
CDprotocol,thedeviceswilleachdetectthatacollisionhasoccurred(collisiondetection)andeachofthemwillw

9
aitarandomamountoftimebeforeretransmitting.Thelikelihoodoftwoormoredevicesrandomlyselectingthes
amedelayisalmostzero,soretransmissionislikelytobesuccessful.

b) CSMA/CA(CarrierSenseMultipleAccess/CollisionAvoidance)

WithCSMA/CA,adevicelistensforanopportunitytotransmititsdatainasimilarfashiontoCSMA/
CD.However,whenadevicesensesanopening,itfirsttransmitsasignalnotifyingotherdevicesthatitistransmitt
ingbeforeaqaAActuallysendingthedata.Thismeansdatapacketswillnevercollide,althoughwarningpackets
might.Unfortunately,CSMA/
CAcreatesasignificantoverheadasitaddsunnecessarytraffictothenetwork,slowingeverythingdown.CSMA
/
CAwascommonlyusedbyolderAppleTalknetworks,butnowadaysmostApplesystemscanuseEthernethard
wareanduseofCSMA/CAhasdeclined.OneareawhereCSMA/CAcontinuestobeusedisinwirelessnetworks.

c) TokenPassing

InCSMA/CDandCSMA/
CAthechancesofcollisionsarethere.Asthenumberofhostsinthenetworkincreases,thechancesofcollisionsals
owillbecomemore.Intokenpassing,whenahostwanttotransmitdata,itshouldholdthetoken,whichisanempt
ypacket.Thetokeniscirclingthenetworkinaveryhighspeed.Ifanyworkstationwantstosenddata,itshouldwait
forthetoken.Whenthetokenhasreachedtheworkstation,theworkstationcantakethetokenfromthenetwork,fil
litwithdata,markthetokenasbeingusedandplacethetokenbacktothenetwork.

IV. COMMUNICATIONOVERNETWORK
IV.1Whatisdatacommunication?
Acommunicationsystemcanbedefinedasthecollectionofhardwareandsoftwarethatfacilitatesintersysteme
xchangeofinformationbetweendifferentdevices.

Datacommunicationistheexchangeofdatabetweentwodevicesusingsomeformofwiredorwirelesstransmis
sionmedium.Itincludesthetransferofdata,themethodoftransferandthepreservationofdataduringthetransfe
rprocess.

IV.2Characteristicsofdatacommunication
Fordatacommunicationtobeeffective,thefollowingthreefundamentalcharacteristicsshouldbeconsidered:

 Delivery:Thesystemmustdeliverdatatothecorrectortheintendeddestination.
 Accuracy:Thesystemmustdeliverdataaccurately(error-free).
 Timeliness:Thesystemmustdeliverdatainatimelymannerwithoutenoughtimelags.

IV.2-DataCommunicationComponents
Therearefivebasiccomponentsinadatacommunicationsystem

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  Message:Themessageistheinformationthatistobecommunicated.
 Sender:Thesenderisthedevicethatsendsthemessage.
 Receiver:Thereceiveristhedevicethatreceivesthemessage.
 Medium:Thetransmissionmediumisthephysicalpaththatcommunicatesthemessagefromthesender
tothereceiver.
 Protocol:Protocolreferstoasetofrulesthatcoordinatestheexchangeofinformationbetweencomputer
sthatareconnectedtothenetwork.Boththesenderandthereceivershouldfollowthesameprotocoltoco
mmunicatedata.

IV.3-DataTransmissionMode
Datatransmissionmodereferstothedirectionofsignalflowbetweentwolinkeddevices.Therearethreetypesoft
ransmissionmodes—simplex,half-duplexandfull-duplex

1) Simplex:Theinformationflowsinonedirectionacrossthecircuit,withnocapabilitytosupportrespons
eintheotherdirection.
2) Half-duplex:Inhalf-
duplexmode,eachcommunicatingdevicecanreceiveandtransmitinformation,butnotatthesametime.
3) Full-duplex:allowsbothcommunicatingdevicestotransmitandreceivedatasimultaneously.Afull-
duplexmodecanbecomparedtoatwo-wayroadwithtrafficflowinginbothdirections.

IV.4-DataCommunicationMeasurement

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Themeasurementofthequantityofdatathatcanbepassedoveracommunicationlinkinagiventimeisdoneinter
msofbandwidth.Ondigitalcircuits,bandwidthismeasuredinbitspersecond(bps).Inthedigitalcontext,thele
velofbandwidthfallsintothreecategories.

 Narrowband:Innarrowband,thereisasingletransmissionchannelof64Kbpsorless.Therecanbeanu
mberof64Kbpschannels(N×64Kbps),buttotalcapacityisnotmorethan1.544Mbps.
 Wideband:Inwideband,thebandwidthliesbetween1.544Mbps(alsocalledT1line)and45Mbps(T3li
ne).
 Broadband:Thebandwidthcapacityisequalto45Mbps.Broadcasttelevision,cabletelevision,micro
waveandsatelliteareexamplesofbroadbandtechnologies.

IV.5AnalogandDigitalDataTransmission
Themajorroleofthephysicalmediumistomovethedatafromonecommunicatingdevicetoanother.Depending
ontheformofsignalused,datatransmissioncanbeanalogdatatransmissionordigitaldatatransmission.

 AnalogSignals:Valuesonanalogdevicesare(normally)infinitelyvariable.Aspeedometerthatshows
acar'sspeedbymeansofadialisananalogdevice.Thehandonthatdialmovessmoothlyaroundthedialan
dcantakeanyvaluethatthecar'senginecancreate.
 DigitalSignals:Digitalsignalsandobjectsdealintherealmofthe discrete or finite,meaningthereisali
mitedsetofvaluestheycanbe.Thatcouldmeanjusttwototalpossiblevalues,255,4,294,967,296,oranyt
hingaslongasit’snot∞(infinity).

IV.6SerialandParallelCommunication
Thetransmissionofbinarydataacrossalinkcanbeaccomplishedineitherparallelorserialmode.Inparallelmod
e,multiplebitsaresentwitheachclocktick.Inserialmode,1bitissentwitheachclocktick.

IV.7DataTransmissionMethod
Whilethereisonlyonewaytosendparalleldata,therearetwosubclassesofserialtransmission:asynchronous,sy
nchronous.
 With asynchronoustransmission signaltimingisnotrequired;signalsaresentinanagreedpatternofb
itsandifbothendsareagreedonthepatternthencommunicationcantakeplace.
 Withsynchronoustransmissionisdatatransfermethodsignalselectronicreceiverblockscalledfram
espackets

V. TRANSMISSIONMEDIA
Atransmissionmedium(pluraltransmissionmedia)referstothephysicalmediathroughwhichcommunicatio
nsignals(dataandinformation)canbetransmittedfromonepointtoanothermedia.Therearetwocategoriesoftra
nsmissionmediausedincomputercommunications:

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 - GuidedMedia(orBoundedMedia,orWiredMedia)
- UnguidedMedia(orunboundedMedia,orWirelessMedia)

V.1-Guided(Bounded)Media
Guidedmediaarethephysicallinksthroughwhichsignalsareconfinedtonarrowpath.ThesearealsocalledBou
ndedmedia.BoundedmediaaregreatforLABSbecausetheyofferhighspeed,goodsecurityandlowcost.How
ever,sometimetheycannotbeusedduedistancecommunication.Threecommontypesofboundedmediaareuse
dofthedatatransmission.Theseare:coaxialcable,twistedpaircableandFiberopticcables

a) Twisted-PairWiring

Twisted-
pairwiringreferstoatypeofcablecomposedoffour(ormore)copperwirestwistedaroundeachotherwithinaplas
ticsheath.Thewiresaretwistedtoreduceoutsideelectricalinterference.TheRJ-45connectorsontwisted-
paircablesresemblelargetelephoneconnectors.Twisted-
paircablescomeintwovarieties:ShieldedTwistedPair(STP)andunshieldedTwistedPair(UTP).

→ Unshieldedtwistedpair(UTP)UTPcableisthemostcommontypeoftelecommunicationmediuminu
setodayandisgenerallythebestoptionforschoolnetworks.Itismostsuitedforbothdataandvoicetransm
issionandhenceiscommonlyusedintelephonesystems.Thecablehasfourpairsofwireinsidethejacket.
AnUTPcostlessthanSTPeasilyavailable.Therearefivelevelsofdatacabling
- Cat1:Theseareusedintelephonelinesandlowspeeddatacable.
- Cat2:Thesecablescansupportupto4mpsimplementation.
- Cat3:Thesecablesupportsupto16mpsandaremostlyusedin10mps.
- Cat4:Theseareusedforlargedistanceandhighspeed.Itcansupport20mps.
- Cat5:ThisisthehighestratingforUTPcableandcansupportupto100mps.
→ AdisadvantageofUTPisthatitmaybesusceptibletoradioandelectricalfrequencyinterference.Shield
edtwistedpair(STP)issuitableforenvironmentswithelectricalinterference;however,theextrashield
ingcanmakethecablesquitebulky.ShieldedtwistedpairisoftenusedonnetworksusingTokenRingtop
ology.

b) CoaxialCable
Coaxialcableshaveasinglecentralconductor,whichismadeupofsolidwire(usuallycopper).Thisconductoriss
urroundedbyaninsulatoroverwhichasleeveofmetalmeshiswoventoblockanyoutsideinterference.Thismeta
lmeshisagainshieldedbyanoutercoveringofathickmaterial(usuallyPVC)knownasjacket.Coaxialcableisver
yrobustandiscommonlyusedinCableTVnetwork.Ascomparedtotwistedpairs,italsooffershigherbandwidth
.Acoaxialcableiscapableoftransmittingdataatarateof10Mbps.

c) Fiber-OpticCable
Fiberoptic(oropticalfiber)referstothetechnologyassociatedwiththetransmissionofinformationaslightimp
ulsesalongaglasswireorfiber.Opticalfibercablecantransmitdataoverlongdistanceswithlittlelossindataint

13
egrity.Inaddition,becausedataaretransferredasapulseoflight,opticalfiberisnotsubjecttointerference.Fiber
opticcablehastheabilitytotransmitsignalsovermuchlongerdistancesthancoaxialandtwistedpair.Italsohast
hecapabilitytocarryinformationatvastlygreaterspeeds.Thiscapacitybroadenscommunicationpossibilitiest
oaAalapincludeservicessuchasvideoconferencingandinteractiveservices.however,itismoredifficulttoinst
allandmodify.10BaseFreferstothespecificationsforfiberopticcablecarryingEthernetsignals.

Fig4:boundedmedia

V.2-UnboundedTransmissionMedia
UnguidedmediafacilitatedatatransmissionthroughtheEarth'satmosphere(air,waterorvacuum)atamuchfast
errateandprovidewideareacoverage.Thedatasignalsarenotguidedorboundtoafixedchanneltofollow.Somec
ommonlyusedunguidedmediaoftransmissionincluderadiofrequency(RF)propagation,microwavetrans
mission,satellitetransmission,infraredwavetransmission,BluetoothandWi-Fi.

a) RadioFrequencyPropagation

Inradiofrequencypropagation,thesignaliscarriedovercarrierwaves(waves,whichcarrysignalsoverthem),w
hichhavefrequenciesintherangeofradiofrequencyspectrum.Therearethreetypesofradiofrequencypropagat
ion—groundwave,ionosphericandlineofsight.

b) MicrowaveTransmission

Microwavetransmissionusemicrowavesignalsthattravelatahigherfrequencyandarepopularlyusedfortrans
mittingdataoverlongdistances.Microwavecommunicationusesparabolicantennas(satelliteTVdishantenna
s)thataremountedonthetower,whichcouldbetensofkilometersaway,butinlineofsight.Duetolongdistances,r
epeatersareusedatregularintervalsinbetweenthetransmitterandthereceivertoboostthesignals

c) InfraredWaveTransmission

14
Infraredfrequenciesarejustbelowthevisiblelightspectrum.Thesearethehigh-frequencywavesusedforshort-
rangecommunication.Thewavesarecheap,directionalandcanbeeasilybuilt;however,thewavesdonotpassth
roughsolidobjects.InfraredwavesareusedinTVremotes,garagedoorsandwirelessspeakers.Computermachi
nesinanofficecaneasilybeconnectedtoawirelessLANusinginfraredwaves

d) SatelliteTransmission

Satellitetransmissionissimilartomicrowavetransmissionexceptinsteadoftransmissioninvolvinganotherne
arbymicrowavedishantenna,itinvolvesasatellitemanymilesupinspace.Thecommunicationiscarriedthroug
huplinksanddownlinks.Theuplinktransmitsthedatatothesatelliteanddownlinkreceivesthedatafromthesat
ellite.UplinksanddownlinksarealsocalledearthstationsbecausetheyarelocatedontheEarth.

e) Bluetoothtransmission

TheBluetoothtechnologyisusedtocreateapersonalareanetwork(PAN)orpiconetthatletselectronicdevicessu
chascomputers,cellphones,PDAsandwirelesskeyboardstocommunicatewitheachotherwithintherangeof1
0m.Itusesradiosignalsthatareomnidirectional,thatis,signalstravelinalldirectionsfromthesource.Hence,the
communicatingdevicesneednotbealignedwitheachother.

f) Wi-Fitransmission

bl

ThetermWi-
Fi,whichstandsforWirelessFidelityiswidelyusedforcreatingwirelessLANsandalsoforprovidingwirelessIn
ternetaccess.TocreatewirelessLAN,thedevicesinthenetworksuchascomputer,laptopandPDAshouldbeequ
ippedwithwirelessnetworkinterfacecard(NIC)tosendandreceiveWi-Fisignals.AWI-Fi-
enaeddeviceshouldbewithinaspecificrange(i.e.upto50m)fromthenetworktoconnect.

MediaType Bandwidth Performance:TypicalErrorRate Transferrate

Twisted-pair(LAN) 1MHz Poortofair(10–5) 10Mbps–100Mbps
Coaxialcable(LAN) 1GHz Good(10–7to10–9) 10Mbps–1Gbps
Microwave(WAN) 100GHz Good(10–9) 6Mbps–54Mbps
Satellite(WAN) 100GHz Good(10–9) 50Kbps–100Mbps
Fiber(WAN) 75THz Great(10–11to10–13) 50Kbps–100Mbps
Table2:TraditionalTransmissionMediaCharacteristics

VI. COMMUNICATIONPROTOCOLS

Acommunicationprotocolisasetofrulesthatcoordinatesthe
exchangeofinformationbetweencomputersconnectedtoanet
work.Ifonecomputerissendinginformationtoanotherandthe
ybothfollowthesameprotocol,themessagegetsthrough;regar

15
dlessofwhattypesofmachinestheyareandonwhatoperatingsystemstheyarerunning.Aslongasthemachinesh
avesoftwarethatcanmanagetheprotocol,communicationispossible.

VI.1Networkprotocol
Aprotocoldefineswhatiscommunicated,howitiscommunicated,andwhenitiscommunicated.Thekeyeleme
ntsofaprotocolaresyntax,semantics,andtiming.

 Syntax:Syntaxreferstothestructureorformatofthedata,meaningtheorderinwhichtheyarepresented.
 Semantics:Semanticsreferstothemeaningofeachsectionofbits.Howisaparticularpatterntobeinterp
reted,andwhatactionistobetakenbasedonthatinterpretation.
 Timing:Timingreferstotwocharacteristics:whendatashouldbesentandhowfasttheycanbesent.

Someimportantprotocolsare:

Protocol Fullmeaning Itsjob

FTP FileTransferProtocol Allowsfiletransferbetweentwocomputers
HTTP HyperTextTransferPro Protocolusedinthewebservice
tocol
TCP TransmissionControlP Areliableconnectionorientedprotocolusedtocontrolthemanagem
rotocol entofapplicationlevelservicesbetweencomputers.
IP InternetProtocol identifierofeachcomputerorcommunicationdevicesonthenetwork
andinternet.
ARP Addressresolutionprot enablesthepackagingofIPdataintoethernetpackage
ocol
ICMP Internetcontrolmessag providesmanagementanderrorreportingtohelpmanagetheprocess
eprotocol ofsendingdatabetweencomputers.
SMTP SimpleMailTransferPr AnInternetprotocolfortransferringe-mail.
otocol
POP postofficeprotocol Transfertofe-5mail,usedtosynchronizemessages
Telnet TelephoneNetwork Amethodofopeningausersessiononaremotehost.
PPP Point-to-PointProtocol Datatransferusingmodem
UDP UserDatagramProtoco Anunreliableconnectionlessprotocolusedtocontrolthemanageme
l ntofapplicationlevelservicesbetweencomputers.
DHCP Dynamichostconfigur isamethodofassigningandcontrollingtheIPaddressesofcomputers
ationprotocol onagivennetwork

VI.2TheOSIModel
OpenSystemsInterconnection(OSI)isasta
ndardreferencemodelforcommunicationbet
weentwoendusersinanetwork.In1983,theIn
ternationalOrganisationforStandardisatio
n(ISO)publishedadocumentcalled'TheBasi
cReferenceModelforOpenSystemsIntercon

16
nection',whichvisualizesnetworkprotocolsasasevenseparatebutrelatedlayers:physical,datalink,network,t
ransport,session,presentationandapplicationlayers.

ThesevenlayersoftheOSIreferencemodelcanbedividedintotwocategories:

 UpperLayers:TheupperlayersoftheOSImodelconsistoftheapplication,presentationandsessionl
ayers.Primarily,theselayersdealwithapplicationissuesandareimplementedonlyinthesoftware.
 LowerLayers:ThelowerlayersoftheOSImodelcomprisethetransport,network,datalink,andphysi
callayers.Theselayershandlethedatatransportissues.Thephysicallayeranddatalinklayerareimplem
entedinbothhardwareandsoftware.Thenetworkandtransportaregenerallyimplementedonlyinsoftw
are.

Thislayerconveysthebithardwarecards
Physical
Protocols:FastEthernet,ATMBit
(Layer1)
Device:Hubs,Repeaters,CablesandConnectors
Physicaladdressing,Provideslow-
levelerrordetectionandcorrection.Forexampleifapacketiscorruptedthislayerisresponsibl
DataLink eforretransmittingthepacket.
(Layer2) Protocols:PPP,FDDI,Tokenring,Ethernet,SLIP
Device:NIC,TokenRingswitches,Bridges
DataUnit:Frame
Thislayerprovidesswitchingroutingnodeinternetworkingpacket
Network
Protocols:IPv4,IPV6,IPX,OSPF,NWlink,NetBEUI,ICMP,ARP,RARP
(Layer3)
DataUnit:Packet,Datagram
Thislayerprovidestransparent
Transport
Protocols:TCP,SPXandUDP
(Layer4)
Device:Router,gatewayDataUnit:Segments
Thislayerestablishes,managesandterminatesconnectionsbetweenapplications.Thesessio
Session nlayersetsup,coordinates,andterminatesconversations,exchanges,anddialoguesbetweent
(Layer5) heapplicationsateachend.Itdealswithsessionandconnectioncoordination.
Protocols:NetBIOSDevice:gatewayDataUnit:data
Thislayerworkstotransformdataintotheformthattheapplicationlayercanaccept.Thislayerf
Presentation ormatsandencryptsdatatobesentacrossanetwork,providingfreedomfromcompatibilityp
(Layer6) roblems.Itisalsocalledthesyntaxlayer.
Protocol:SSL,WEP,WPA,KerberosDevice:Gateway
Application Thislayersupportsapplicationandend-
(Layer7) userprocesses.Communicationpartnersareidentified,qualityofserviceisidentified,userau
thenticationandprivacyareconsidered,andanyconstraintsondatasyntaxareidentified.Ever

17
 ythingatthislayerisapplication-
specific.Thislayerprovidesapplicationservicesforfiletransfers,e-
mail,andothernetworksoftwareservices.
Protocol:DHCP,DNS,FTP,HTTP,IMAP4,NNTP,POP3,SMTP,SNMP,SSH,TELNETa
ndNTP
Device:PCDataUnit:Data

VII. LANTECHNOLOGIES

EachcomputerinaLANcaneffectivelysendandreceiveanyinformationaddressedtoit.Thisinformationisinth
eformofdata'packets'.Thestandardsfollowedtoregularizethetransmissionofpackets,arecalledLANstandar
ds.TherearemanyLANstandardsasEthernet,TokenRing,FDDIetc.UsuallyLANstandardsdifferduetotheir
mediaaccesstechnologyandthephysicaltransmissionmedium.

VII.1-EthernetMediaStandards
TheIEEE(InstituteofElectricalandElectronicEngineer)802Standardscomprisesafamilyofnetworkingstand
ardsthatcoverthephysicallayerspecificationsoftechnologies.Ethernet,FastEthernetand10BASE-T.
 ThefirstpartoftheMediaStandardspecifiesthetransmissionspeed(10,inthiscasespecifies10Mbps)
 Thesecondpartofthename"BASE"specifiesthattheEthernetsignalisaBasebandsignal.
 ThefinalpartoftheEthernetMediaStandardspecifiesthekindofcableused.HereTspecifiestwisted-
paircable.ThefollowingtableshowsthecommonEthernetMediaStandards.
Name CableType Connector MaximumLength Speed
10Base-T Category3orbetterU RJ-45 100meters(328ft) 10mbps
TPcable
10Base-FL Fiberopticcable ST,SC,LC,MT-RJ 2000meters 10mbps
100Base-TX Cat5twistedpair RJ-45 100meters(328ft) 100mbps
100Base-FX FiberOptic ST,SC,LC,MT-RJ 2000meters 100mbps
1000Base-T CAT5eorhigher RJ-45 100meters(328ft) 1gbps
Note:Xrepresentsahighergradeofconnection,and100BaseTXistwisted-
paircablingthatcanuseeitherUTPorSTPat100Mbps.Withfibre-
opticcablesuchas100BaseFX,thespeedisquickerthanstandard10BaseF.The“L”standsfor“Long”inlongwa
velengthlasersand"S"standsforShortWaveLength.

VII.3-LANprotocols

a) Ethernet/fastEthernet
TheEthernetcalledCSMA/CDmethod.
TheEthernetprotocolallowsforlinearbus,star,ortreetopologies.Datacanbetransmittedoverwirelessaccessp
oints,twistedpair,coaxial,orfiberopticcableataspeedof10Mbpsupto1000Mbps.Toallowforanincreasedspe

18
edoftransmission,theEthernetprotocolhasdevelopedanewstandardthatsupports100Mbps.Thisiscommonl
ycalledFastEthernet.
AdvantagesofEthernetare:Lowcostcomponents,Easytoinstall,Easytotroubleshoot

b) LocalTalk

LocalTalkisanetworkprotocolthatwasdevelopedbyAppleComputer,Inc.forMacintoshcomputers.Themet
hodusedbyLocalTalkisCSMA/
CA.TheLocalTalkprotocolallowsforlinearbus,star,ortreetopologiesusingtwistedpaircable.Aprimarydis
advantageofLocalTalkisspeed.Itsspeedoftransmissionisonly230Kbps.

c) TokenRing

TheTokenRingprotocolwasdevelopedbyIBMinthemid-1980s.Theaccessmethodusedinvolvestoken-
passing.TheTokenRingprotocolrequiresastar-
wiredringusingtwistedpairorfiberopticcable.Itcanoperateattransmissionspeedsof4Mbpsor16Mbps.Duet
otheincreasingpopularityofEthernet,theuseofTokenRinginschoolenvironmentshasdecreased.

d) FDDI

FiberDistributedDataInterface(FDDI)usesadualringphysicaltopology.TheaccessmethodusedbyFDDIin
volvestoken-
passing.Transmissionnormallyoccursononeoftherings;however,ifabreakoccurs,thesystemkeepsinformat
ionmovingbyautomaticallyusingportionsofthesecondringtocreateanewcompletering.Amajoradvantageof
FDDIisspeed.Itoperatesoverfiberopticcableat100Mbps.

e) ATM

AsynchronousTransferMode(ATM)isanetworkprotocolthattransmitsdataataspeedof155Mbpsandhigher
.ATMworksbytransmittingalldatainsmallpacketsofafixedsize;whereas,otherprotocolstransfervariablelen
gthpackets.ATMsupportsavarietyofmediasuchasvideo,CD-
qualityaudio,andimaging.ATMemploysastartopology,whichcanworkwithfiberopticaswellastwistedpairc
able.

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Protocol Cable Speed Topology Method
TwistedPair,Coaxial,F
Ethernet 10Mbps LinearBus,Star,Tree CSMA/CD
iber
FastEthernet TwistedPair,Fiber 100Mbps Star CSMA/CD
LocalTalk TwistedPair .23Mbps LinearBusorStar CSMA/CA
TokenRing TwistedPair 4Mbps-16Mbps Star-WiredRing Tokenpassing
FDDI Fiber 100Mbps Dualring Tokenpassing
ATM TwistedPair,Fiber 155-2488Mbps Bus,Star,Tree
TableComparetheNetworkProtocols

VIII. NETWORKADRESSING

XI.1-WhatisanIPaddress?

AnIP(InternetProtocol)addressisauniqueidentifierforanodeorhostconnectiononanIPnetwork.AnIPaddr
essversion4(IPv4)isa32bitbinarynumberusuallyrepresentedas4decimalvalues,eachrepresenting8bits,inth
erange0to255(knownasoctets)separatedbydecimalpoints.Thisisknownas"dotteddecimal"notation.Exam
ple:140.179.220.200

Itissometimesusefultoviewthevaluesintheirbinaryform.140.179.220.200becomes10001100.10110011.1
1011100.11001000

EveryIPaddressconsistsoftwoparts,oneidentifyingthenetworkandoneidentifyingthenode.TheClassofthea
ddressandthesubnetmaskdeterminewhichpartbelongstothenetworkaddressandwhichpartbelongstotheno
deaddress.

XI.2-AddressClasses

TheInternetcommunityoriginallydefinedfiveaddressclassestoaccommodatenetworksofvaryingsizes.Mic
rosoftTCP/
IPsupportsclassA,B,andCaddressesassignedtohosts.Theclassofaddressdefineswhichbitsareusedforthenet
workIDandwhichbitsareusedforthehostID.Italsodefinesthepossiblenumberofnetworksandthenumberofh
ostspernetwork.

Class 1stOctetDeci 1stOctetHi Network/ DefaultSubnet NumberofNetworks HostsperNetwork(Us

malRange ghOrderB HostID(N=Ne Mask ableAddresses)
its twork,H=Hos
t)
A 1–126* 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 126(27–2) 16,777,214(224–2)
B 128–191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 16,382(214–2) 65,534(216–2)
C 192–223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 2,097,150(221–2) 254(28–2)
D 224–239 1110 ReservedforMulticasting
E 240–254 1111 Experimental;usedforresearch

20
Note:
→ ClassAaddresses127.0.0.0to127.255.255.255cannotbeusedandisreservedforloopbackanddiagno
sticfunctions.
→ ClassDaddressesarereservedforIPmulticastaddresses.Thefourhigh-
orderbitsinaclassDaddressarealwayssettobinary1110.Theremainingbitsarefortheaddressthatinter
estedhostsrecognize.
→ ClassEisanexperimentaladdressthatisreservedforfutureuse.Thehigh-
orderbitsinaclassEaddressaresetto1111.
→ AllbitswithinthenetworkIDcannotbesetto1.All1'sinthenetworkIDarereservedforuseasanIPbroad
castaddress.
→ AllbitswithinthenetworkIDcannotbesetto0.All0'sinthenetworkIDareusedtodenoteaspecifichoston
thelocalnetworkandarenotrouted.

PrivateIPAddresses:Thereareaddressesusedintheprivatenetworks

Class PrivateNetworks SubnetMask AddressRange

A 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0-10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0-172.31.0.0 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0-172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.0-192.168.255.255

IX. NETWORKSECURITY

Networksecurity consistsoftheprovisionsandpoliciesadoptedbya networkadministratortopreventandmo

nitorunauthorizedaccess,misuse,modification,ordenialofacomputer network and network-
accessibleresources.

IX.1NetworkSecurityProblems
Networksecurityproblemscanbedividedroughlyintofourintertwinedareas:secrecy,authentication,nonrep
udiationandintegritycontrol.

1. Secrecy:Thisisalsocalledconfidentiality,andhastodowithkeepinginformationoutofthehandsofun
authorizedusers.
2. Authentication:thisdealwithdeterminingwhomyouaretalkingtobeforerevealingsensitiveinformat
ionorenteringintoabusinessdeal.
3. Nonrepudiation:Thisdealswithsignatures:Howdoesamazon.caprovethatKartikindeedplacedanor
derforabook,whichKartikclaimsheneverplaced?
4. Integrityofservice:Howdoesoneensurethatthemessagereceivedwasreallytheonesent,andnotsome
thingthatamaliciousadversarymodifiedintransitorconcocted?

21
 IX.2Typesofattacksoveranetwork
Weclassifytheattacksthatcompromisenetworksecurityaspassiveattacksandactiveattacks.

a) PassiveAttacks:Theseattacksareinthenatureofeavesdroppingon,ormonitoringof,transmissions.T
hegoaloftheopponentistoobtaininformationthatisbeingtransmitted.Passiveattacksareverydifficultt
odetectsincetheydonotinvolvethealterationofthedata.Twotypesofpassiveattacksare:
 releaseofmessagecontentswhereaneavesdroppertriestolearnthecontentsofwhatisbeingtransmitted
.Thiscanbepreventedbyencryption
 trafficanalysis:wheretheopponenttriestoobservethepattern,frequencyandlengthofmessagesbeing
exchangedwhichcouldbeusedinguessingthenatureofthecommunicationthatistakingplace.
b) ActiveAttacks:Activeattacksinvolvesomemodificationofthedatastreamorthecreationofafalsestre
am.Itisdifficulttopreventactiveattacksabsolutelybecausetodosowouldrequirephysicalprotectionof
allcommunicationsfacilitiesandpathsatalltimes.Instead,thegoalistodetectthemandtorecoverfroma
nydisruptionordelayscausedbythem.

IX.3Datacompressionanddataencryption
Inothertosenddataeasilythroughanetwork,itisrequiredtocompressitinothertoreducespaceforstorageandba
ndwidthfortransmission.Datacompressionistheprocessofconvertingdatafromalargeformatintoasmallerf
ormat,usuallybythemeansofanalgorithm.Somepopularexamplesofdatacompressiontechniquesinclude:

a) GraphicInterchangeFormat(GIF):Thisisawidelyusedcompressionformatthatisusedforstoringan
dtransferringgraphicimagesinrelativelysmallfilesovercomputernetworksuchasInternet
b) JointPictureExpertGroup(JPEG):Thisisapopularfilecompressionformatforstoringandtransferri
ngcolourphotographandhighqualityimagesinrelativelysmallfilesovercomputernetworksuchasInte
rnet
c) MotionPictureExpertGroup(MPEG):Thisisastandardfilecompressionformatforstoringandtrans
ferringdigitalaudioandvideo(movingimages)inrelativelysmallfilesovercomputernetwork
d) Huffmancoding:Thisisalosslesscompressiontechniqueinwhichthecharactersinadatafileareconver
tedtoabinarycode,wherethemostcommoncharactersinthefilehavetheshortestbinarycode,andthelea
stcommonhavethelongest.
e) Run-
lengthencoding:Thisacompressiontechniquethatisdesignedforcompressing,long,repetitivecharac
terstringsinapieceoftext,aswellascompressingbyteofamonochromeimagefile.

Animportantcharacteristicfeatureinanycodingschemeisthecompressionratio.Itistheratioofacompressedf
iletotheoriginaluncompressedfile.Therearetwobasicformofdatacompression:losslesscompressionandloss
ycompression.
- Losslesscompressionistheformofcompressioninwhichtheoriginaldatacanberestoresexactly.
(ex:zip)

22
 - Lossycompressionistheformofcompressioninwhichtheoriginaldatacannotberestoredexactlyduet
olossofsomeofitselements(ex:mp3)
Dataencryptionreferstomathematicalcalculationsandalgorithmicschemesthattransformplaintextintocyp
hertext,aformthatisnon-
readabletounauthorizedparties.Therecipientofanencryptedmessageusesakeywhichtriggersthealgorithmm
echanismtodecryptthedata,transformingittotheoriginalplaintextversion.

23