File Maintenance and Care

While files are not lifetime tools and will become blunt eventually, there are several
steps that can be taken to ensure that they will last as long as possible. Keeping
your files in top condition will help ensure that they are as effective as possible in
caring out the tasks that you need.

Caring for the teeth

Looking after a file’s teeth can help to keep it sharper for longer.

The key thing to remember is that a file cuts on the push stroke. You should never
apply pressure on the draw (pull) stroke, or you could crush the file teeth, blunt them,
or cause them to break off.

Preventing Pinning
 The term ‘pinning’ refers to a file’s teeth becoming clogged with pieces of debris.

Not only can this cause your workpiece to become scratched, but it can also damage
the file teeth themselves, causing them to break or become prematurely blunt.

Some sources recommend giving your file’s teeth a light brush with oil.

In theory, this coat of lubricant should prevent any waste material from getting stuck
in the file’s teeth, as it should just slip straight back out again on the next file stroke.

In practice, however, chips can tend to get stuck to the liquid oil, which can actually
encourage pinning in some cases

Oiling your file can also have an adverse effect on the amount of grip it has, causing
chattering or preventing the file teeth from removing any material at all.

For more information on chattering, see: What is chattering?

Chalking up a victory
Rather than using a liquid to prevent pinning, it is preferable to rub the face of the file
with chalk before you start filing.

This coats the file and its teeth in a layer of powder, giving the waste material no
solid surface to grip onto.
Managing pressure

Pressing too hard on your file is another potential cause of pinning. Be sure to keep
the pressure light when using a file and only apply pressure to the most important
areas.

Keeping files clean

If any debris does end up stuck in the file’s teeth, it is important to make sure it is
cleaned out. Files should be cleaned on a regular basis.
 For more information, see: How to clean a file

File storage

Files should be stored so that their faces cannot rub against each other, or against
other tools. Files can be bought in sets with a carrying case which provide a storage
solution and protection to files. Alternatively, file holders can be built as seen in the
picture below.

For more information, see: How to store a file correctly

See Latest Prices

How to clean a file?

During filing, it’s possible for small chips of material to get stuck in the teeth of the
tool. This is referred to as ‘pinning’.

If left with clogged teeth, the ‘pins’ in the file can scratch the material you were trying
to smooth, defeating the purpose of filing in the first place.

Therefore all files should be cleaned regularly.

See Latest Prices
What are the different ways to clean a
file?
There are two ways to make sure that a file’s teeth are cleared of chips, and they’re
both quick and easy! The first is using a file card whilst the second option is using a
piece of soft metal.

Using a File Card Brush to Clean a File

A file card is a sturdy piece of wood with stiff wire bristles, designed specifically for
removing material that is stuck in file teeth.

All you need to do is place the file card onto the file bristle side down, then push it
sideways along the file in the direction of the teeth.

This will then push any debris along the grooves between the teeth. This should then
fall out of the file once it reaches the end.
Most file cards have a needle on the back that can be used to push out any stubborn
chips that don’t want to come out after a couple of sweeps with the file card.

Pushing with the needle tip should free even the most stubborn chips from the file’s
teeth.
Using Soft Metal to Clean a File

A strip of copper or brass can be used in the same way as a file card to clear any
pinning.

As the metal is soft, it will conform to the surface of the file. The teeth will make
grooves in the bottom of the metal strip, which will then fit snugly into the gaps
between them and chase out any debris.

The metal strip will be stronger than the individual wire bristles and eliminates the
need to use a pin. However, it can only be used once before it needs to be thrown
away.

How to Clean a Rasp?

In comparison to the process for files, keeping a rasp clean is a doddle. If pieces of
wood get stuck in your rasp’s teeth, a few strokes with a stiff-bristled brush will have
them free and clear in no time.
See Latest Prices

How to sharpen a file?

Once a file becomes worn, it is useless and should therefore either be discarded or
sharpened.

You can tell if a file is worn out when it is no longer doing its job effectively, for
example skating over the top of a workpiece instead of removing any material.
See Latest Prices

Guide to Sharpening a File by Etching

You can attempt to resharpen any file quickly and simply by etching. This process
involves the use of acid, which eats away at the surface of the metal, making the
teeth narrower and causing their tips to form more of a point.
Step 1 - Create an Acid Bath and an Alkali Bath
In order to etch your file, you will need to create a 10% solution of sulphuric acid in
water in a container large enough to allow the body of the file to be submerged.

You will need to fill another container of the same size with a saturated solution of
bicarbonate of soda, for rinsing.

You will know that you have created a saturated solution when you can’t make any
more bicarbonate of soda dissolve in the liquid. This will result in the bicarb granules
sitting on the bottom of your container.

Bicarbonate of soda is alkaline. Rinsing your file in a solution containing bicarb after
it has been etched will neutralise the acid and prevent it from continuing to eat away
at the file.
Step 2 - Etch File
 Remove your file’s handle if you can, then submerge the body of the file in the
sulphuric acid solution.
Step 3 - Put Your Feet Up

Leave it for an hour. Time to get those feet up!

Step 4 - Rinse File

Once the file has been sat in the acid bath for an hour, rinse it thoroughly by swilling
it in the alkali bath.

Make sure your file is properly dry afterwards, to prevent rusting.

Your file should now be sharp enough to use once again.

Guide to Sharpening a File by Etching

 This process is not particularly well suited to the home DIYer, as it involves
annealing the file and then grinding off all of its teeth before recutting them again.

From there, the file goes back through the heat treating process, before being reborn
as a brand new file.

For more information on the tooth cutting and heat-treating processes, as well as an
explanation of annealing, see: How are files made?

Should I Re-Sharpen my File?

The best way to make this decision is to weigh up the cost involved. If buying in the
materials that you need to etch your file sharp is cheaper than buying a new file then
you might want to consider giving it a go.

If you do choose to sharpen your file, it’s worth bearing in mind that it will not be as
sharp as a brand new file.

Of course, if you’re an amateur blacksmith then you may have the facilities to re-cut
your file yourself. If you don’t, though, the cost of re-cutting the file is likely to be a lot
more than buying a new one.

Recycling Files
If you decide that it’s time for your file to go to the great tool drawer in the sky, you
may want to consider recycling it. Many metalworkers grind old files and rasps into
knives by shaping and sharpening the edges with a grinding wheel.
See Latest Prices

How to
store a file
correctly

Shop for Files

Files are easy to store. There are just two things to remember that will
help to keep your files in top condition for a long time.

Put your files away carefully

As tempting as it is to sling your tools into a drawer or storage bin once

you’ve finished using them, this can cause teeth to break off, or your file
to snap.
This is because the people who forged your file designed it so that it
would be as resistant as possible to damage through wear or being bent
by using a high amount of carbon during the alloying process.

Weakness to sudden shocks is a side effect of this process. Other

elements can help to compensate for this, but they can’t always mitigate
it completely.

Keep your files separate

Files are abrasive tools that have been designed to wear through other
substances during use, including other metals.

When they come into contact with other files, however, they are
contacting a material that has equal hardness.

This means that both files have the potential to cause damage to one
another.

The best way to keep this from happening is to hang your files up on a
rack after use. Some file handles have a built in hanging hole which
makes this particularly easy.
 If you can’t hang up your files, it’s better to use dividers to keep them
apart in your drawer or toolbox rather than just keeping them loose.

Keep away from moisture

Files should always be stored in a dry place. They can rust easily and,
once they have, they are no longer usable.

PREVIOUS

How to sharpen a file?

NEXT

Can a file really get you out of prison?

Glossary

Sho
p
for
File
s
The following terms refer either to how a file’s teeth are
spaced, the way they were cut, or whether or not they have
been cut at all.

Abrasive

This term indicates a rough surface that will remove

material from another surface when they are rubbed
together.

An example of a commonly encountered abrasive is the

rough side of a sponge, which can be used to wear away
stubborn pieces of food from a plate when washing up.

Chisel cut

As you might expect, this term describes how the file’s

teeth were cut. This type of file will have had its teeth cut
by a series of chisel strikes, either by hand, or by machine.

Coarseness

This describes how rough or smooth a file is. Coarse files

have teeth that are spaced further apart and remove material
quickly from a workpiece but leave a rough finish.
Smooth files have teeth that are close together. They work
much more slowly, but leave a more polished finish.

Deburring

This is the process of removing unwanted slivers from the

edge of a piece of material that have been created through
cutting, drilling or a similar process.

Diameter

The widest possible measurement of a circle through its

central point. Chainsaw files are usually measured by
diameter so that they can be matched to the right size of
chainsaw blade.

Draw Stroke

Pulling the file back towards you. Usually, a file will not be
in contact with your workpiece on the draw stroke, unless
you are draw filing.
See: What is draw filing?

Edge
The corner between two faces on a file, which may or may
not be cut with teeth.
See: What are the basic parts of a file?

Etched cut

This type of file has its teeth etched into it. This means it
has been dipped into a specially prepared acid that has
corroded a tooth pattern into its surface. This process is
usually used for re-sharpening files.

Face

The large surface of a file that is usually cut with teeth and
used to wear away material from a workpiece.
See: What are the basic parts of a file?

Finishing

Working a piece of material until it is smooth to the touch.

Foil
The thin, elongated burr that results from sharpening a
knife with a file. The foil is the same thickness as the
cutting edge of the knife and resembles a piece of kitchen
foil.

This can be removed from the edge of the blade simply by

carefully pulling it off. Cutting with the knife with the foil
still attached will result in it coating the edge of the blade
and making it blunt.

Hard metal

A metal with a high score on the Moh’s scale, such as Steel

(5.5), Chromium (8) or Boron (9).
See: What is hardness?

Heel

The part of the file between the tang and the face, where no
teeth are cut.
See: What are the basic parts of a file?

Machinist’s file

A file designed to shape an object through the removal of

material by abrasion.
See: What is a machinists file

Mortise
A rectangular slot cut part way into a piece of wood for
jointing or the installation of a lock mechanism.

Plain

A file made without a tang.

Pneumatic

This term refers to a tool or device that is operated by air,

such as an air file.

Point

The tip of a file. It might be easy to remember this name

because it’s the part of the tool that points towards your
workpiece.

Push stroke
Pushing the file away from you, which will result in the
teeth wearing away material from your workpiece.

Rake

The rake of the file is the angle at which the teeth connect
to its body.

A positive rake means that the teeth point in the same

direction as the motion of the tool. A negative rake means
that they point the opposite way.

Re-cut

Re-cutting is the best way to recycle files that have become

blunt. The file is rehearted (annealed), which softens the
steel enough that it can be worked again.

The old teeth are then ground off, and new ones are cut.
The file then goes back through the heat treating process so
that it can be re-hardened for use.

This is not something a DIYer could usually do at home

and it could be more expensive to send a file away to be
recut than it would be to buy a new file.
For more information, see: How to sharpen a file

Safe

A face or edge that has no teeth cut into it is referred to as

safe.

Safe edges allow the DIYer to rest the tool against one
surface of the workpiece, while filing another, without
damaging the material that the safe edge is resting on. This
is particularly useful when creating square holes.

Saw file

A file designed for sharpening blades or other cutting or

drilling tools.
See: What are saw files?

Stitching
 The process of cutting teeth into a rasp using a triangular
punch.
See: How are files made?

Set

The term ‘set’ refers to files with teeth that do not reach all
the way across its face.

Some files are made in this way to allow an even greater

degree of safety than just leaving the edges safe. This lends
them well to jobs where a great degree of control is needed,
such as trimming a horse’s hoof.

Soft metal

Metals with a low score on the Moh’s scale, such as Lead

(1.5), Gold (2.5), Silver (2.5), Aluminium (2.75) or Copper
(3). The hardness of a fingernail is 2.5.
See: What is hardness

PREVIOUS

Can a file really get you out of prison?

etal Fabrication components

Standard Sections
Metals are produced and supplied in many different forms, as shown in Figure 1.
 Figure 1 - Different Materials/Steels available for Metal Fabrication 1

Figure 2 - Different Materials/Steels available for Metal Fabrication 2

Common Steels used in the

Workshop
 150mm x 6mm FB (Flat Bar)
100 x 6 FB
50 x 6 FB

All flat bars listed above are available in different thickness 3mm/5mm etc.
They are known as low carbon steel (LCS).
Standard sheet steel (mild steel plate) is normally available in 8ft. x 4 ft. (2500mm x 1250mm)
sections 2mm/3mm, 5mm/6mm, 10mm/12mm etc.
Stainless steel and aluminium are available in the same sizes.

RSJ = Rolled Steel Joist

BSUB = British Std. Universal Beam

BSUC = British Std. Universal Column

RSC = Rolled Steel Channel

BSEA = British Std. Equal Angle

BSUA = British Std. Unequal Angle

RST = Rolled Steel Tees

Zed Beams (Z Channel)

Rolled Hollow Section

Round Hollow Section

Table 1 - Common Steels used in the Workshop

Back Marks and Cross Centres

A ‘back mark’ is the distance from the heel of an angle or channel section to the centre of a hole
in a flange.

Figure 4 - Back Marks

A ‘cross centre’ is the distance between two holes in a flange of a Universal column, beam,
rolled steel joist or Tee section.
Figure 5 - Cross Centres

Figure 6 - Pocket Pad Foundation

 Figure 7 - Roof Truss

Castella Beams
This open web beam section is made by cutting the web of a hot rolled joist along a castellated
line. The two halves produced are then welded together to form the section illustrated in Figure
8.
The castella beam is one and a half times the depth of the member from which it was cut, and
therefore suffers less deflection under load. This section is economical for lightly loaded floors
and the openings in the web are convenient for electrical and heating services.
Figure 8 - Castella Beam

Serial Size – Actual Size

When referring to beams, columns, joists and channels the depth/overall distance from flange to
flange is given first followed by the breadth/width of the flange, followed by the mass per metre
and finally the length required.
Figure 9 - Serial Size
Although the serial sizes are always referred to on drawings, the actual size of beams, columns
etc. can vary considerably. BS41 gives dimensions for serial sizes of sections with mass per
metre, actual depth and breadth and thickness of web and flange.
It will be seen that up to seven variations of a serial size is rolled and that the dimensions inside
the flanges are constant, while the thickness of the web and flanges vary, hence the variation in
serial size and actual size.

Methods of Production

Figure 10 - Diagram showing production of the materials in the iron and steel group
(The production of tool steel from the Cementation process is now mainly of historical interest
only.)
Figure 11 - The Basic Oxygen Furnace
Figure 12 - The Electric Arc Furnace

Figure 13 - Blast Furnace

 Group Carbon Content % Some Uses

Name
Wrought Iron Wrought Iron Less than 0.05% Chain for lifting
tackle, crane hooks,
architectural
ironwork.
Dead Mild Steel 0.1 to 0.15 Sheet for pressing out
such shapes as motor-
car body, panels, thin
Plain Carbon Steels wire, rod and drawn
tubes.
Mild Steel 0.15 to 0.3 General purpose,
workshop bars, boiler
plate, girders.
Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 to 0.5 Crankshafts, forgings,
0.5 to 0.8 axles, leaf springs,
cold chisels.
High Carbon Steel 0.8 to 1.0 Coil springs, wood
1.0 to 1.2 chisels, files, drills,
1.2 to 1.4 taps and dies, fine
edge tools.
Grey - Machine castings.
Table 2 - Method of Production

Occupational Hazards
(Note: For further information on Occupational hazards, refer to the Welder on Site…Be
Aware video.)

Noise
A new Statutory Regulation concerning noise at work came into operation on July 1st, 1990.
The full title of this regulation is:

European Communities (Protection of Workers)

(Exposure to Noise) Regulations, 1990.
Under this regulation FAS (The Training and Employment Authority) is required to provide
information to staff, trainees and apprentices on:

 what noise is,

 the type of damage it can cause,
 how it is measured,
  what are the safe limits of exposure?

This section attempts to achieve this objective without going into a lot of unnecessary technical
data.

What is Sound?
If we burst a balloon, we cause a disturbance in the surrounding air which may be likened to the
effect of throwing a stone in a pond. When the ripples caused by the explosion reach our ears
we hear the sound of the balloon burst. It is these ripples travelling through the air that we
generally regard as sound.

The human ear is sensitive to noise at frequencies or ripples between 20 times per second and
20,000 times per second. The unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz). We then speak of the audible
range as frequencies or ripples between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. We do not use the entire range of
frequencies 20-20,000 Hz continuously. A stereo player will emit sound in a range of frequencies
from 40-16,000 Hz, whereas a transistor radio covers the range 200-4,000 Hz. In normal speech
the frequency range is 125-8,000 Hz but 500-3,000 Hz is the most important area. (20 Hz is a
very low bass note, while 20,000 is a very high trebly note).
Loudness is the other factor that is important. We are all aware of it how quiet a whisper is and
how loud a jet aircraft engine is. The loudness of a sound is measured in Decibels and this is
written as dB(A). The quietest sound the average person can hear is assigned a loudness level
of 0 dB(A). The loudest sound we can tolerate without pain is 120 dB(A). Table 3 gives some
examples of the loudness of sounds.

Sound Loudness Typical Environment

Level dB(A)
140 30m from military aircraft at take-off. Intolerable
130 Pneumatic chipping and riveting (operator’s Intolerable
position).
120 Boiler shop (maximum levels). Intolerable
Ship’s engine room (full speed).
110 Automatic punch press (operator’s position) Very noisy
sheet metal shop – hand grinding.
100 Automatic lathe shop. Printing press room. Very noisy
90 Heavy lorries at 6m. Construction site – Very noisy
pneumatic drilling.
80 Kerbside of busy street. Office with tabulating Noisy
machines.
70 Loud radio (in average domestic room). Noisy
60 Restaurant. Department store. Noisy
50 Conversational speech at 1m. General office. Quiet
40 Average suburban area, whispered conversation Quiet
at 2m. Residential area at night.
30
20 Background in TV and recording studios. Very Quiet
10
0 Normal threshold of hearing. Very Quiet
Table 3 - Examples of the Loudness of Some Noises

How Does the Ear Work?

The ear is generally considered to have three main sections, the outer, middle and inner ear (see
Figure 14). The outer ear consists of the external parts of the ear canal. The middle ear
comprises the ear drum and the three bones connecting it to the inner ear. The middle ear can
be damaged by traumatic events such as explosion but may be surgically repaired in some
cases. The inner ear converts the mechanical (ripples) world of sound to the electrical world of
brain. It is the inner part of the ear, called the cochlea, which can be damaged by prolonged
exposure to excessive noise.

Figure 14 - The Ear

How noise damages your hearing, when levels are too high. Excessive noise overstimulates the
cochlea of the ear which translates sound frequencies into impulses which the brain can
interpret. Repeated overstimulation impairs this organ and the damage cannot be repaired.

Effects of too Much Noise

Most of us have had the experience of being temporarily deafened by exposure to loud noise,
whether it is at work, or at a disco. Given a few hours rest, the ear recovers and no permanent
damage is done. When exposure is continuous or repeated, however, a gradual hearing loss
may result. This hearing loss is permanent and irreversible and is known as "Noise Induced
Hearing Loss (NIHL)". It cannot be corrected by surgical or any other means. Even the use of a
hearing aid is generally considered unsatisfactory, because of the nature of the hearing loss.
Safe Exposure Level
Most countries have set a limit of 90 dB(A) for continuous exposure. Ireland adapted this
approach in the Noise Regulations 1975 and 1990. It is permissible to have exposures above 90
dB(A), but if so then the duration of such exposure must be limited such that the total anise dose
equivalent (Leq) remains below 90 dB(A) aver 8 hours. Table 4 shows such equivalent times.

Allowable Exposure Time (per day)

Sound Pressure dB(A)
90 8 hours
93 4 hours
96 2 hours
99 1 hour
102 30 minutes
105 15 minutes
108 7.5 minutes
111 3.75 minutes
114 112 seconds
117 56 seconds
120 28 seconds
123 14 seconds
126 7 seconds
129 3.5 seconds
132 1.75 seconds
135 Less than 1 second
Table 4 - Noise Levels and Exposure Times
(Equivalent to 90 dB(A) for 8 hours)

Protective Clothing and Equipment

Figure 15, Figure 16 and Figure 17 illustrate examples of the use of protective clothing and
equipment.
Figure 15 - Protective Clothing
Name Main use
A. Flame-resistant apron Prevents burning of clothes.
B. Gas welding/cutting goggles Protects eyes from sparks.
C. Gauntlets Prevents skin burn.
D. Safety boots (steel toecap) Prevents crushing of toes.
E. Spats No molten metal down boots.
F. Boilersuit Protects neck and chest.

Figure 16 - Protective Eyewear

Name Use
A. (i) Clear glass Protects tinted lens.
A (ii) Tinted lens Limits glare.
B. Goggle body Stops sparks.
C. Air vent Prevents misting up.
D. Lens holder To change broken lens.
E. Strap adjustor Adjust for size

Figure 17 - Protective Equipment

 Name Use
A. Extractor fan Takes away fumes.
B. Filter mask Dust and fumes.
C. Head shield Prevents skin burn.
D. (i) Renewable clear glass Takes spatter etc.
D. (ii) Renewable tinted Prevents arc eye.
E. Leather cape with sleeves For overhead work.
The filter mask (Figure 17B) is no protection from dangerous gases such as phosgene (which is
formed from degreasing agents such as trichloroethylene) or nitrous fumes (caused when large
areas of plate are heated) or any other poisonous gases. See safety precautions for TAGS and
MAGS.
Note: For more information read Basic Welding and Fabrication.

Figure 18 - List all instances of unsafe practice that you can detect. (Courtesy of “What’s Wrong”
Safety Posters)

Body Protection

Figure 19 - Body Protection

Figure 19 shows a welder fully equipped with protective clothing. The welder's body and clothing
must be protected from radiation and burns caused by flying globules of molten metal. It may be
necessary for a welder to wear an apron, usually of asbestos or thick leather, to protect his trunk
and thighs whilst seated at a bench welding. An apron should also be worn if the welder's
clothing is made of flammable material.
When deep gouging or cutting is carried out using metal-arc processes, the amount of 'spatter' is
considerably greater than that experienced with normal arc welding, and therefore it is necessary
to protect the feet and legs in the same way as the hands and forearms. Suitable leather
leggings and spats are available and should be used to prevent burns to the legs, feet, and
ankles.
Note: For more information read Fundamentals of Fabrication and Welding Engineering.

Source: http://local.ecollege.ie/Content/APPRENTICE/liu/metalfab_notes/Introduction%20to
%20the%20Metal%20Fabrication%20Trade_M1_U1.doc
Web site to visit: http://local.ecollege.ie/
Author of the text: indicated on the source document of the above text
If you are the author of the text above and you not agree to share your knowledge for teaching,
research, scholarship (for fair use as indicated in the United States copyrigh low) please send us
an e-mail and we will remove your text quickly. Fair use is a limitation and exception to the
exclusive right granted by copyright law to the author of a creative work. In United States
copyright law, fair use is a doctrine that permits limited use of copyrighted material without
acquiring permission from the rights holders. Examples of fair use include commentary, search
 engines, criticism, news reporting, research, teaching, library archiving and scholarship. It
provides for the legal, unlicensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another
author's work under a four-factor balancing test. (source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_use)
The information of medicine and health contained in the site are of a general nature and
purpose which is purely informative and for this reason may not replace in any case, the
council of a doctor or a qualified entity legally to the profession.

Metal Fabrication components

The texts are the property of their respective authors and we thank them for giving us the
opportunity to share for free to students, teachers and users of the Web their texts will used only
for illustrative educational and scientific purposes only.
All the information in our site are given for nonprofit educational purposes

METAL FABRICATION COMPONENTS

Topics and Home

Contacts

Term of use, cookies e privacy

Metal Fabrication components

Measuring Calipers:
First of all, keep in mind that the topic under discussion is
“calipers” not the vernier caliper.
Caliper:
The measuring tool with two extended arms or legs which are
generally used to measure or transfer reading of internal and
external diameters of objects, thicknesses of different parts and
point to point distances.
Construction:
Caliper has two legs same like compass and different type is
used for each external and internal measurement.
Extreme end of each leg is its measuring point that called Tip.
Different types of tips are fabricated to cope up various
measurement requirements and to meet different measuring
conditions. The legs are adjustable to open and close position
for a certain range in every caliper.
Parts:
Pivoted Joint/Function joint:
Also called function joint the point where both legs are pivoted
to each other. That junction allows caliper legs to move freely
to open or close position, when required.
Legs:
The functioning part of caliper is its leg.As the length of legs
increases, measuring range of caliper increases too.
Tip:
Lower extreme end of a leg called tip or measuring tip. It is the
main contact point between the caliper and object to be
measured. A different tip design makes different caliper type.
Spring loaded lock screw:
Its main function is to avoid free movement of caliper legs
when measuring. It helps to freeze a measured value and
eliminates error probability.
Only opening and closing of locking screw allows the legs to
move. It helps user to make fine adjustments.
Types:
There are many shapes and tip designs of caliper for different
purposes but mainly four types:
Inside Caliper:
Its measuring tips direction is outward side and opposite to
each other so used for internal measurements.
Outside Caliper:
Its measuring tips are facing each other (inward side) so used
for external measurements as both tips are in same direction.
Divider Caliper:
It is mostly used to transfer the same dimensions from one
object to another object or part. Its other uses are to draw the
parallel lines, circles and divide objects into equal parts. Divider
makes marking through its scriber type tips.
Odd leg caliper:
It has a bent leg on one side and scriber on the end of other
leg, that’s why called odd leg.
This caliper is normally used to make marking of a line at the
desired distance from an object’s edge. It always draws a line
parallel to edge of work piece, because the bent leg slides
along the edge and other leg engraves line on a certain
distance where both legs are adjusted.
 Why it’s called Indirect measuring tool?
Caliper not indicates measured value directly and only can
transfer the value to a measuring instrument or tool like
measuring tape or steel rule.
At very small level, now days some of calipers are provided
own scale to indicate measurement directly.It is mostly used in
medical field like body fat tester caliper and dental caliper
those have graduated bow (scale) with sliding pointer on it, to
show the result locally. So we can say that calipers are not
indirect measuring tools any more but still use of indirect
form is applicable in heavy industry, mechanical workshops for
big parts where tolerances are ±1 mm or greater.
Key Differences Between Ferrous and
Non-Ferrous Metals
By Krystal Nanan
Published: August 26, 2019 | Last updated: January 31, 2022
KEY TAKEAWAYS
In a nutshell, ferrous metals contain iron while non-ferrous metals do not. This minor
difference, however, gives each type of metal distinct characteristics that lend them to
different applications.
Source: Ggw1962/Dreamstime.com
Metals play an essential role in everyday life. From jewelry to building and bridge
construction, metals are considered to be one of the most versatile construction materials
available. However, most people are unaware that metals are available in two general
classifications: ferrous and non-ferrous.

Advertisement
These two types of materials possess different compositions and properties that lend
themselves to different applications.

In this article, we will outline the characteristics that distinguish ferrous from non-ferrous
metals and describe how they are used in various applications.

Advertisement
Ferrous Metals
The word ferrous derives from the Latin word "ferrum," which means iron. Ferrous metals
are, therefore, those that consist mainly of iron (Fe). These metals may also contain one or
more other alloying elements. The use of ferrous metals can be traced back to 1,200 BC,
where the development of iron production ushered in the Iron Age.
The presence of iron gives these materials unique properties that are especially valuable in
the construction industry. One of the most defining characteristics of ferrous metals is their
superior tensile strength and ductility. (Learn more about these characteristics in An In-Depth
Look at Tensile Strength.)

Carbon steel, for example, is one of the most popular ferrous metals and is a staple in the
construction industry. The properties of this material make it ideal for constructing various
structures such as buildings and bridges. Other ferrous metals are used in demanding
applications where strength and durability are paramount, such as shipping containers,
industrial piping, railroad tracks and automobiles.

Advertisement
While ferrous metals are renowned for their strength and ductility, the presence of iron makes
them vulnerable to rusting when exposed to air and moisture. For this reason, some ferrous
metals are alloyed with other elements to increase their corrosion resistance. Stainless steel,
for example, is a ferrous alloy that exhibits resistance to corrosion due to the presence
of chromium. (Discover more in the article Why is Stainless Steel Corrosion Resistant?)

In addition to carbon steel and stainless steel, this metal classification also consists
of wrought iron, cast iron and alloy steel.

Advertisement
Non-ferrous Metals
Non-ferrous metals, as their name implies, are metals that do not contain iron (ferrite). These
types of materials have been in use since the Copper Age (around 5,000 BC),
where copper was first used to make pottery and jewelry.

Modern uses of non-ferrous metals range from roofing and guttering to pipes and electrical
components. Because these metals do not contain iron, they usually exhibit better corrosion
resistance than their ferrous counterparts.

The lack of iron also gives them characteristics that make them suitable for applications
where magnetic properties may be undesirable. Additionally, while non-ferrous metals do not
possess the tensile strengths of ferrous metals, they are renowned for their ability to be easily
shaped into various shapes, a property known as malleability.

Non-ferrous metals are generally more costly due to their scarcity. As a result, there is a
booming industry for recycling scrap components to extract non-ferrous metals. Copper, for
example, is the third most recycled metal in the world.

Some commonly used non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, nickel and
titanium. Precious and rare metals, such as gold, silver, platinum, mercury and tungsten are
also considered to be non-ferrous.

Key Differences Between Ferrous and Non-

Ferrous Metals
While some of the critical differences between ferrous and non-ferrous metals were touched
on earlier, here we will dive deeper into the properties that distinguish these two metals.

1. Magnetism

Iron is a naturally magnetic element, and therefore materials composed of iron will inherit its
magnetic characteristics. Consequently, ferrous metals are magnetic, while non-ferrous
metals are not. This property allows these two categories of metals to be easily identified and
sorted.

Iron’s magnetism is mainly due to its polar molecular construction. The electrons in its
atomic ring are arranged in a non-symmetrical fashion. Therefore, when iron is in proximity
to a magnetic field, the electrons are easily pulled to one side of the atom.

This property is mainly responsible for the attraction between ferrous metals and magnets.
Non-ferrous metals, on the other hand, can only be attracted to a magnetic field if an electric
field runs through them, causing their electrons to become polarized.

Explained another way, the electrons in an atom tend to act like tiny magnets (north and
south pole). In non-ferrous metals, the electrons align themselves in pairs, whose “tiny
magnets” point in opposite directions, causing them to cancel out each other’s magnetic
properties. In iron atoms, the magnetic poles of the electrons point in the same direction,
giving them a net magnetic effect.

Because iron has intrinsic magnetic properties on a molecular level, its electrons can be easily
aligned in the direction of the flow of a magnetic field. This, in turn, creates an attraction
between the iron and the magnetic field.

The magnetic property of ferrous metals makes them ideal for motor and electrical
applications.

2. Oxidation

Oxidation is the process where an atom loses electrons. Due to iron’s polarity, it is likely to
lose electrons to other polar molecules, such as water. This occurs at the anode, where iron
reacts with water and oxygen to form hydrated iron (III) oxide, commonly known as rust.
Figure 1. Ferrous surface reacting with air and moisture to cause rusting and
degradation.

Since non-ferrous metals do not contain iron, they do not rust in the same way as their ferrous
counterparts. Non-ferrous metals such as copper, zinc and titanium react with water and
oxygen to form oxide layers that adhere firmly to the surface of the metal and act as
impervious barriers. (Learn how this process works in How Metallic Coatings Protect Metals
from Corrosion.)

Unlike hydrated iron (III) oxide, which is weak and flaky, zinc oxide and copper oxide are
durable and protect the underlying substrate from further corrosive processes. The corrosion-
resistant nature of non-ferrous metals makes them ideal for use in highly corrosive
environments. Copper pipes, for example, are commonly used to transport corrosive
chemicals and sewage.
Figure 2. Zinc surface reacting with air and moisture to create a protective zinc
carbonate layer.

It is important to note, however, that not all ferrous metals oxidize to develop rust. Stainless
steel, for example, is alloyed with chromium, which allows it to generate a stable, protective
chromium oxide layer.

3. Tensile Strength

Another feature that distinguishes ferrous from non-ferrous metals is their tensile strength.
Ferrous metals, due to the presence of iron, usually have capacities that far surpass non-
ferrous metals. Steel, for example, is considered to be one of the strongest construction
materials. In addition to high tensile strength, steel possesses a high level of ductility, i.e., it is
able to undergo significant deflections without undergoing permanent deformation.

While there are also some high-strength non-ferrous metals, few of these materials are
capable of resisting the same forces as iron alloys. Additionally, while titanium has strength
properties that are on par with steel, it is also significantly more expensive.

Therefore, titanium is not typically used as a building material. (Learn about the effects of
corrosion on this non-ferrous metal in 5 Things to Know and Understand About Titanium
Corrosion.)

Offset or
Young's Yield Ultimate
Modulus Strength Strength
Element (GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Lead 16 12
Tin 47 9-14 15-200
Aluminum 70 15-20 40-50
Gold 79 100
Silver 83 170
Zinc
105 110-200
(wrought)
Silicon 107 5000-9000
Titanium 120 100-225 240-370
Copper 130 117 210
Nickel 170 14-35 140-195
Tantalum 186 180 200
Iron 211 80-100 350
Tungsten 411 550 550-620
Table 1. Tensile strengths of various metals. Notice how the majority of non-ferrous
metals possess tensile strengths that are inferior to iron.

What We've Learned

Understanding the differences between ferrous and non-ferrous metals is essential for
ensuring that the most appropriate material is used in the intended application.
While the presence of iron distinguishes these two types of metals, this seemingly minor
variation gives ferrous and non-ferrous metals very distinctive properties and characteristics.

Related Terms

 Ferrous
 Ferrous Alloy
 Ferrous Metal
 Non-ferrous Metal
 Stainless Steel

 Tensile Strength
 Malleability
 Ferrous Sulfate
 Pearlite
 Metallography

Share This Article

Advertisement
Written by Krystal Nanan | Civil Engineer
Krystal is a civil engineer and project manager with an MSc in Construction Engineering and
Management. Her experience includes the project management of major infrastructure
projects, construction supervision, and the design of various infrastructure elements including
roadway, pavement, traffic safety elements and drainage. Krystal is also a published author
with the Transportation Research Board in Washington, D.C.
Read Krystal Nanan's bio
Tags

Chemical Compound Corrosion Corrosion Prevention Substance Corrosion Prevention

Substance Characteristics Corrosive Process Corrosive Substance Corrosive Substance
Characteristic Element Metallic and Ceramic Coatings Metals Physical Property Scientific
Properties Substances Materials Selection
Related Articles

CORROSION PREVENTION

Why is Stainless Steel Corrosion Resistant?

PROCEDURES

6 Tests to Measure a Material's Strength

CORROSION

Effect of Corrosion on a Material's Tensile Strength and Ductility

COATINGS

5 Most Common Types of Metal Coatings that Everyone Should Know About

Don't miss the latest corrosion content from Corrosionpedia!

Subscribe to our newsletter to get expert advice and top insights on corrosion science,
mitigation and prevention. We create world-leading educational content about corrosion and
how to preserve the integrity of the world’s infrastructure and assets.
 Email Address

Newsletter Options(Required)
Best of Corrosionpedia (bi-weekly)
Industry Offers (monthly)
Webinars (monthly)
Sign up

Advertisement

Jobs For YouBY Amply

Fire Alarm Inspector (entry level)Johnson ControlsSeattle

Senior Compiler Engineer – Technical LeadNVIDIARedmond$216,000 -

$414,000 a year Accounting Coordinator (Company Store

Coordinator)Nestlé Purina Pet CareCrete$37,000 - $53,000 a year

Principal Software Engineer (Prisma Access)Palo Alto NetworksSanta

 Clara Senior Director, Supply Chain Innovation Scouting

and Development, EuropeJohnson & Johnson Family Of CompaniesGermany

Search More Roles

Latest Articles

An Expert Guide To Accurate Cathodic Protection Measurements

By: John Bollinger

Leveraging AI for Enhanced Corrosion Control in Oil Pipelines

By: Faysal Fayez Eliyan, PhD | Assistant Professor

Corrosion Jobs: How to Become a Corrosion Technician in 2023

By: Corrosionpedia Staff

The 6 Corrosive Components That Can Be Found in Crude Oil

By: Raghvendra Gopal | Founder & Director, Materials Info Consultancy Private Limited

Advertisement
Advertisement
the oxygen jet or flame can not reach the metal as it is covered by a solid

Weld Testing Methods

oxide la

& Welding Test Types

(with PDF)
Last Updated On July 5, 2023 by Sandeep Kumar

1. Welding Visual Testing & Visua...

Pause

Unmute

Loaded: 100.00%

Remaining Time -0:43

Captions

Fullscreen

2.

1.
Training on NDT Testing for Welding- Top-5 NDT methods
3:41

2. Now Playing
Welding Visual Testing & Visual Inspection

3.
Weld Testing Methods: Non-Destructive and Destructive Techniques
for Optimal Results
 Destructive Testing of
5:45

Welds | Detail Study

BY PRASAD ·
Share

As the name implies, destructive testing of welds is done by

taking samples or by damaging the weld. When it is difficult to
determine the issue or when it is required a more accurate
assessment of the welds, destructing testing of welds is done.

Welding defects reduce the strength of the joint and could lead
to structural failures if we do not pay attention to this regard.
The following types of destructing testing of welds could identify.

 Macro Etch Test

 Fillet Weld Break Test
 Transvers Tension Test
 Guided Bend Test
 Free Bend Test
 Back Bend Test
The requirement of carrying out destructive testing as strength
assessment and evaluation properties is decided based
importance of the work and as per the information gathered
during welding inspection.
Let’s discuss each type of destructive test in detail.

Macro Etch Test – Destructive Testing

of Welds
This method is also called the Acid Etch Testing.

The appearance of the weld is tested by applying a chemical to

the weld sample taken for the weld joint. The summary o this test
is as follows.

 Take a small sample from the weld joint.

 The sample will be polished to access the section
 Then it will be etched using mild acid.
 This will provide a clear visual of the internal structure of the
weld
 By using this test the following can be examined.
 Depth of penetration
 Lack of fusion
 Inadequate root penetration
 Internal porosity
 Cracking at the fusion line

Since these types of welding tests provide any information, they

can be used more frequently to assess the quality of a weld.

Fillet Weld Break Test

This is a kind of assessment of the weld strength. Since the
strength of a weld depends on many parameters, an overall
assessment of all these parameters can be done with a fillet weld
break test.

We have to take samples of welds to do this test as this is a non-

distractive testing type of welds.

This test can be summarized as follows.

 Braking of sample fillet weld on one side is done.

 The sample is loaded from the unloaded side in the transverse
direction of the weld.
 The is increases until the fillet weld fails.
 Then the failed sample will be examined to identify the
discontinuities in the weld and the length of such
discontinuities.
 This test is commonly used with Macro Etch Test to get more
information.
 The following can be detected from these types of destructive
testing of welds.
 Lack of fusion
 Internal porosity
 Slag inclusion

Transvers Tension Test

Mostly the welding will be designed for the tensile properties.
Therefore the following factors are required to be assessed.

 Weld metal
 Tensile strength of the base metal
 The bond between the weld and base metal
 heat affected zone
The tensile properties or the tensile capacity of the weld are
obtained by stressing the specimen until its failure.

 The maximum load it took during the stressing is called the

tensile strength/force.
 Then these values can be compared with the design
requirements.
 The tensile test is one of the best tests to determine the
strength of the weld.
Guided Bend Test
This test is a measure of the ductility and the soundness of the
weld joints.

Bending of the sample will be done as per the specified radius.

Some of the following aspects can be highlighted as relevant to
this test.

 Generally, this test will be done transversely to the welding

axis.
 This is the test most commonly used type of destructive
testing of welds employed to find the welding performance
and welding procedure.
 Inner fusion defects can be evaluated from these tests.
Free Bend Test
This is a type of free bending test that is used to evaluate the
performance of weld.

This test is used to judge the ductility and metal deposits of weld
joints.

Mostly the free bend test is not required as destructive testing of

welds when a guided weld test is done.

Some of the Related Articles on Steel

Structures Design are as Follows
 Single Angle Design for Tension as per EC3
 Bolt Connection Design Using Eurocode 3
 Single Angle Section Design Worked Example
 Steel Column Design EC3 Worked Example
 Steel Column Design using Eurocode 3
 Steel Beam Design Worked Example [Universal Beam]
 Lateral Torsional Buckling [Theory and Calculation]
 Steel Beam Design as per BS 5950
 Classification of UB Section as per BS 5950
Tags: destructive testing of weldsweld testingwelding
4.
Welding porosity 9 different types with pictures
4:40

5.
Guide for AWS CWI Welding Inspector Part A Examination
2:58

6.
Guide for AWS-CWI Welding Inspector Part-B Practical Examination
4:09

7.
Welding Defects types & RTFI animation
4:16

8.
Types of Welds
1:59
9.
Play Video

WELD TESTING
Weld testing is a critical and important step in ensuring the quality of welds.
There are many different types of weld tests, each with its own objective &
testing requirements.

Some common weld tests include Visual Inspection, Bend Testing,

tension test, visual inspection, and radiography testing. Welders must be
able to produce high-quality welds that meet the requirements specified by
the customer or code (E.g., AWS D1.1/ ASME Section IX).

To ensure that welds meet these requirements, they must be tested. Weld
testing is a way to evaluate the quality of a weld and identify any defects
that may exist.

There are many different types of weld tests (destructive Tests & Non-
Destructive Tests) as explained in this post, each with its own objectives.
Some common weld tests include Bend tests, tensile tests, visual
inspection, penetrant testing, and radiography testing. Each of these tests
has its own advantages and disadvantages.

WHY DO WE NEED A WELDING

TEST?
Welding is an important process in manufacturing and construction. It is
used to join two or more metal parts together. Welding is a special process
(as per ISO 9001) that makes it necessary to make sure that the welder is
capable of doing the job correctly.

That is why we need a welding test. The welding test will evaluate the
welder’s skills and abilities. It will also help to ensure the safety of the
welder and the people around him. A welding test is essential for ensuring
the quality of welds and preventing accidents.

Another purpose of Weld Testing is to ensure that the welds meet the
requirements for mechanical and technological properties for their intended
use.

For this, samples cut from the welding joint are subjected to various tests
(e.g. bend test, corrosion test, hardness test, or RT) to verify and ensure
the weld integrity.

WELD TESTING METHODS

Weld testing methods are necessary to ensure the quality of a weld. There
are a variety of weld testing methods, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages.

Weld Testing methods can be classified into two main types:

1. Destructive Testing- Fracture test, Bend Test, Macro test, Tensile

Test, etc.
2. Non-Destructive Testing- Visual Testing, Penetrant Testing,
Radiography Testing, etc.

The most common weld testing methods are manual visual inspection,
radiography, ultrasonic testing, magnetic particle inspection, and liquid
penetrant inspection.
WHAT IS A DESTRUCTIVE TEST?
Destructive Testing is a type of testing which involves the deliberate
destruction of a weld for weld testing. Destructive testing is used to
evaluate the strength, soundness and reliability of a welding joint. There
are several types of destructive tests, including:

1. Tensile testing,

2. Fracture toughness testing,

3. Impact Test
4. Bend Test

5. Macro Test
6. Hardness testing
7. Nick Break Test

8. Fracture Test, etc. to name a few types.

All these destructive tests are used to evaluate the strength and reliability
of welds by subjecting them to weld testing. Welds are usually subjected to
mechanical loading to see how they respond.

NDT is another type of welding test method that is used to evaluate the
soundness, integrity, and reliability of components. NDT stands for Non-
Destructive Testing. NDT involves inspecting components without
damaging them.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
As the world strives to become more environmentally friendly, Non-
Destructive Testing (NDT) has become an increasingly important part of
many industries. NDT allows products and components to be inspected
without causing damage, which means they can be reused or recycled.

There are a variety of NDT techniques, each with its own strengths and
weaknesses. Some of the most common techniques include:

1. Visual Inspection,

2. Penetrant Testing
3. Ultrasound Testing,
4. Radiography Testing,
 5. Magnetic Particle Inspection.
6. Eddy Current Testing
7. Magnetic Flux leakage Testing

8. Leak Test
Welding is a process that can create some of the strongest bonds in
metalworking. However, welding can also cause defects in the weld joint
that may weaken the structure.

Non Destructive Testing (NDT) allows welders to detect these defects and
fix them before they cause any problems. NDT can also be used to inspect
welds for quality control purposes.

TYPES OF DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

FOR WELD TESTING
Destructive testing is a type of testing that is used to determine the quality
of a weld. There are many different types of destructive testing, but some of
the most common are fracture mechanics testing, impact testing, and
hardness testing.

Fracture mechanics testing is used to determine the strength and

toughness of a weld. Impact testing is used to see how well a weld
withstands impact loading. And hardness testing is used to measure the
hardness of a weld.

See also Types of Gears

1. BEND TEST FOR WELD TESTING

Bend testing is a common welding inspection method that is used to verify
weld quality. The bend test is performed by bending the welded part around
a specified notch or radius.
The weld should not fail and the metal should not crack under the stress
during bending for an acceptable bend test result.

What is the Bend Test in welds, & the Types of Bend Test?

The bend test is specified in ASME section 9 and AWS D1.1 for welder
testing & weld testing for performance & procedure qualification.

2. TENSILE TEST FOR WELD TESTING

Welding is the process of joining two or more pieces of metal by heating
the pieces to their welding temperature and then bringing them into contact
with each other. The welded joint must have the same strength as the base
metal. In order to ensure that the welded joint has the same strength as the
base metal, a tensile test must be performed on the welded joint.

What is the Tensile test procedure, types of equipment and Lab

report?

The tensile test is performed by pulling on the welded joint until it fails
under tension. The amount of force required to pull the welded joint apart is
called the breaking strength or ultimate strength. The breaking strength is
measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or megapascals (MPa) or N/mm2.

The tensile test can be performed in two ways for testing welds:
 1. Transverse Tensile Test and
2. Longitudinal Tensile Test (all weld tensile tests).
3. WELD MACRO TEST FOR WELD
TESTING
The welding macro test is a test to measure the quality of weldment by
observing its weld penetration, welding zone, HAZ & microstructure against
the presence of welding discontinuities. The test is performed by etching
and polishing the weldment to reveal its microstructure.

The quality of weldment can be determined from the microstructure, such

as the size and shape of the grains, the presence of defects, and the
degree of separation between grains is checked & reported.

4. CHARPY IMPACT TEST FOR WELD

TESTING
A Charpy impact test is a welding test used to determine the toughness of
a welded joint. The test is performed by striking the weld with a falling
pendulum and measuring the amount of energy required to break the weld.
The energy required to make the fracture is called the “Charpy V-notch”
toughness or energy. The Charpy impact test is used to determine the
toughness of a welded joint and to compare the toughness of different
welding processes.

5. NICK-BREAK TEST FOR WELD

TESTING
This test is applied to a welded butt joint in a plate or pipe to check weld
soundness. The typical specimen dimensions for plate and pipe.

Read more: Nick Break Test in depth.

It is not necessary to remove the weld reinforcement. The sample is braced

as shown in the Below figure and ruptured by giving one or more sudden
heavy blows with a hammer at the point of the nick or the notch as
indicated.

The rate of applying the force is not critical, because it has no effect on the
appearance of the fractured surface.
The surface of the fracture is examined for the presence of internal defects,
such as lack of fusion, slag inclusions, and porosity. This test can be
conveniently carried out in shops and at Sites for quick assessment of weld
quality, since no elaborate equipment is necessary, and the interpretation is
relatively simple.

6. FREE-BEND TEST FOR WELD

TESTING
Free Bend Test measures the ductility of the weld metal in a butt joint in a
plate or pipe in terms of elongation percentage. The thickness of the
specimen is the same as that of the plate or the pipe, the width is 1.5times
the thickness and the length is anywhere between 150 mm for 6 mm t and
450 mm for 50 mm “t”. The length is not mandatory.

What is Bend Test in welds, & Types of Bend Test

The weld is dressed to the plate level by filing, grinding, or machining,

bearing in mind that the tool marks should be lengthwise to the specimen. It
is important that the line between the weld metal and the base metal is
distinctly visible, and if necessary the surface of the specimen should be
etched with a suitable reagent.

See also ASTM A108 Steel Welding Guide

Two gauge lines are lightly marked on the specimen. The distance between
the gauge lines should be 3 mm less than the width of the weld.
7. FILLET-WELD-BREAK TEST FOR
WELD TESTING
This test is similar to the nick-break test and is meant to test the weld
soundness. The test specimen, as shown in below figure consists of two
plates making a tee joint and a fillet weld laid on the outer side of the joint.

The base metal, weld metal, and welding parameters must be strict as
prescribed in the welding procedure being qualified. Tack welds at the ends
of the joints should be avoided as they make it difficult to rupture the
specimen. The manner of positioning the specimen and the direction of
force is also shown in the above figure.

The forces may be applied by means of a testing machine, a press or

hammer blows. The fractured surfaces are examined for internal defects
such as porosity, incomplete root penetration, and slag inclusions.

8. HARDNESS TEST FOR WELD

TESTING
The term, hardness of a metal, cannot be precisely defined and has many
meanings. In general, hardness usually implies resistance to deformation,
and in the case of metals, it is a measure of their resistance to plastic or
permanent deformation.
The harder a metal is, the more it resists scratching, wear, penetration,
machining, and mechanical cutting.

Tensile strength also increases with hardness. The hardness of the base
metal and weld-metal of a welded joint is affected by chemical composition,
the metallurgical effects of welding, cold working of the metal, heat
treatment, and several other factors.

Limitations have to be placed on the hardness of the heat-affected zone

and weld-metal, because if they are too hard, they will not have sufficient
ductility for the service conditions and their corrosion resistance may also
be impaired.

There are nearly 30 methods of Hardness Testing or Hardness

Measurement, but the most widely used are:

1. Brinell hardness
2. Vickers hardness
3. Rockwell hardness.
9. DROP-WEIGHT TEST FOR WELD
TESTING
This test is designed to measure fracture initiation characteristics of
structural materials heavier than 18 mm.

The specimen dimensions vary according to plate thickness. For 25.4 mm

t, length and width are 355 and 90 mm; for 19 mm t, the corresponding
dimensions are 127 and 51 mm. A weld bead, 63.5 mm long and 12.5 mm
wide, is deposited on the tension surface of the specimen using a special
hard-facing electrode.
It is fixed by punch marks at A, B and C. Actually two beads are laid, one
from A to C and the other from B to C as indicated in the figure, so that the
end craters meet at point C. The weld bead which is a brittle material is
called the crack-starter weld. A notch is made at the center of the bead
length and is placed at right angles to the weld bead and parallel to the
specimen.

The notch dimensions are shown in Fig. 13.35. It is important that the notch
is present only in the weld deposit and that the cutting tool (abrasive disc,
hacksaw, etc.) does not touch the plate surface.

The specimen is mounted on an anvil provided with a stop block. The

impact load is applied by dropping weight. A machine design suggested by
ASTM permits the use of various weights and various drop heights
according to the strength level of the metal.

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

FOR WELD TESTING
Non-Destructive Testing, or NDT, is a process of inspecting and
evaluating a weld without causing damage. There are many different types
of NDT, but the most common are visual inspection, radiography,
ultrasonic, and magnetic particle testing.

Visual inspection is simply looking at the weld to see if it meets the

requirements. Radiography uses X-rays to image the weld and check for
any defects. Ultrasonic uses sound waves to detect discontinuities in the
weld. Magnetic particle testing uses a magnetic field and ferrous particles
to identify cracks and other defects.

All of these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages. For
example, radiography can detect very small defects, but it can be
expensive and time-consuming. Ultrasonic is relatively cheap and fast, but
it can only detect discontinuities that are a certain size or larger.

1. PENETRANT TESTING (PT)

Liquid Penetrant Testing (DP Test) is a nondestructive testing (NDT)
method that uses a penetrant liquid to detect discontinuities in a weldment.
The penetrant is forced into the weldment by capillary action and drawn out
by the action of a developer. Any discontinuities in the weldment will allow
the penetrant to seep through and be drawn out by the developer, causing
a visible indication on the surface of the weldment.

See also How to Weld in Subzero Temperatures Without Damaging Your Tools
& Welds

Liquid Penetrant Testing (DP Test)

There are two types of penetrants: water-soluble and solvent-based.

Water-soluble penetrants are less aggressive than solvent-based

penetrants and are less likely to cause damage to the weldment. Solvent-
based penetrants, however, are more aggressive and can cause damage
to the weldment if not properly removed.

2. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING (MT

or MPI)
Magnetic particle testing (MPT), or magnetic particle inspection (MPI), is
a type of non-destructive testing (NDT) that is used to inspect & locate
surface & subsurface imperfections in ferromagnetic materials.
The principle behind the technique is that a magnetic field will cause
magnetic particles to cluster around discontinuities in the material. MPT
can be used to detect cracks, seams, laps, voids, and other defects in
ferromagnetic materials.

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) principle, techniques, types,

advantages, limitations and standards

The most common application of MPT is in the welding industry. Welders

use MPT to inspect welds for defects before releasing them for use. MPT is
also used to inspect welds that have been repaired.

3. ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method that
uses sound waves to examine the internal structure of a material. UT can
be used to detect discontinuities, such as cracks or porosity, in both welds
and base materials.

There are two main types of ultrasonic testing:

1. pulse-echo and
2. through-transmission.
In pulse-echo testing, a burst of sound waves is sent into the material, and
the reflected waves are detected by a receiver.
The time between the sending of the burst and the reception of the
reflected waves can be used to calculate the distance to the discontinuity.

In through-transmission testing, a probe is inserted into the material and

ultrasound is transmitted through it. The reflected ultrasound is then
detected by another probe on the other side of the material.

4. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING (RT)

Radiographic testing, also known as RT or X-ray, is a common method
of inspecting welds for defects.

A radiograph is a picture of the weld that is created by radiation passing

through the weld and striking a film on the other side. By looking at the
characteristics of the image on the film, inspectors can identify any defects
in the weld.
One advantage of radiographic testing is that it can be used to inspect both
surface and subsurface defects. Additionally, it can be used to inspect both
joints and welds themselves. However, radiographic testing is expensive
and time-consuming, so it is not always practical for use in every situation.

5. VISUAL TESTING (VT)

Visual Testing is a method of inspecting welds and weldments for defects.
The technique uses the human eye to examine welds for
discontinuities, Lack of Fusion, porosity, slag inclusions, and
other Welding defects.

Visual inspection is often used as the primary method of inspection for

welds that are not readily accessible or that are too large to be tested by
other methods.

What is Visual Testing or VT?

Visual testing is typically performed by a welder who is qualified to inspect

welds. The inspector examines the weld visually and looks for any signs of
defects. Defects that are found can be repaired before the welding process
is finished or the part is put into service.

6. ELECTROMAGNETIC EDDY CURRENT

TESTING
An eddy current test is a non-destructive test (NDT) that uses the
principle of electromagnetism to detect flaws in metal objects.

A coil of wire is placed around the object to be tested and an electric

current is passed through the coil. This creates a magnetic field which
causes currents to flow through the metal object in a circular pattern (eddy
currents).
If there are any flaws in the metal, they will disrupt the flow of these eddy
currents and this will be detectable by changes in the magnetic field.

Eddy current testing is often used to inspect welds for defects. The weld
itself can be tested or the surrounding area may be tested if there is any
doubt about the quality of the weld. The test can be used to detect cracks,
porosity, lack of fusion, and other flaws.

Similar Posts:
1. How to Use Fillet Weld Gauges?
2. Non Destructive Testing-Examination (NDT/NDE)
3. Porosity in welding causes, remedies
CategoriesBPVC ASME Code knowledge, Destructive Testing, Failure
Analysis, Non-destructive Testing, Welding Design, Welding Inspection
Lack of Fusion in Welding-Causes-Remedies
6G Welding Position Test
Sandeep Kumar
Material Welding is run by highly experienced welding engineers, welding trainers &
ASNT NDT Level III bloggers. We strive to provide most accurate and practical
knowledge in welding, metallurgy, NDT and Engineering domains.

...
Search
Search

Filiform corrosion- Causes, Prevention & Signs

Crevice Corrosion: Types, Causes, and Prevention Methods

 

Passivation of Stainless Steel: Techniques, Procedures, and Standards

Understanding Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking: Causes, Prevention,

and Inspection


Galvanic Corrosion- A to Z you need to Know
MaterialWelding.com is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC
Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a
means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to
Amazon.com.
 YouTube
 LinkedIn
 Facebook
 Pinterest

 Material Welding: about us

 Privacy Policy
 Contact Us
Copyright © 2023 !www.materialwelding.com!

yer as shown in the below picture. Weld Testing Methods: Destructive &
Non-Destructive
Ramakant Sharma February 23 2021
The weld test methods listed below are greatly specialized, requiring skill
and aptitude. These tests check the skill of the welding mechanic along
with the quality of the weld metal and the strength of the welded joint for
each variety of the metal used in industries.
Why do we need a welding test?
An error in the welding process may damage weld metals significantly
resulting in the loss of strength, durability, and failure of the structure.
These welding testing methods like visuals inspection and others are an
assurance that products are secure for the intended use.
They ensure to meet the set standards for smooth sailing without many
errors and possible extra expenses.
Physical Weld Testing Methods
These types of welding tests can broadly be divided into two types.
✓ Destructive testing
✓ Non-destructive testing (NDT)
These tests may detect defects commonly not visible to the naked eye.
Destructive Tests
The tensile and bending tests are destructive as the test specimens are
loaded until they give out, to gain the desired information.
These destructive tests fall into two categories
✓ Test based on the workshop
✓ Laboratory tests like chemical, corrosive, microscopic, and macroscopic
glasses use.
Non Destructive Tests (NDT)
The aim of these tests is the examination of the weld without imparting any
damage. These may include x-rays, hydrostatic tests, etc, and are also
termed NDE or nondestructive examination and NDI or nondestructive
inspection.
Nondestructive Testing (NDT) Types
Types of Destructive Testing Physical Weld
1. Acid Etch Test
This physical weld testing is employed to ascertain the soundness of the
weld. The acid attacks the edge of the defects in base metal or weld metal
and identifies the weld defects. In the condition of the defect, the boundary
becomes accentuated between base and weld metals and can define the
defect clearly which is otherwise not visible to the naked eye. This test is
performed along the cross-section of the weld joint.
The acid solutions used here are hydrochloric acid, ammonium persulfate,
nitric acid, or iodine, and potassium iodide for the etching of carbon and low
alloy steel.
2. Guided Bend Test
These guided bend tests are used to determine the quality of the weld
metal at the root and face of the welded joint. They also judge the fusion
and degree of penetration to the base metal along with the efficiency of the
weld. The testing of this type can be done in a jig. The required specimens
for testing are machined from the already welded plates, the thickness of
these specimens should be within the capacity of our jig for bending. The
specimen for testing is placed upon the supports of the die which is the
lower part of the jig. The hydraulic jack’s plunger forced the specimen into it
and assured the shape of the die seen.
The requirement of this test is fulfilled by bending the specimens at 180
degrees and is now accepted as passable. No, a crack more than 3.2mm in
any dimension should be visible on the surface. Face bend tests are made
in the jig while facing the weld in tension means outside of the bend. Now
the root bend test is made in the jig with the face of the weld in tension as
on the outside of the bend. The guided bend tests are shown in the figure.
Notes:
✓ T-Test plate thickness
✓ A hardened roll may be utilized on shoulders if needed
✓ Specific dimension for 3/7 of the plate
✓ Every shown dimension is in inches.
3. Free Bend Test
This physical weld-free bend testing approach is designed to judge the
ductility of the metal deposited in a weld joint. The specimen for this testing
is procured by machining from the welded plate with the weld that came
across as shown in A, figure.
Time to round each corner of the specimen lengthwise in a radius not
exceeding 1/10 of the specimen’s thickness. Tool marks if any expected
along the length of the specimen. Two scribed lines are put down on the
face 1.6mm in from the edge of the weld. Now measure the distance
between two lines in inches and record it as the initial distance X. The test
specimen ends are bent through angles of approximately 30 degrees,
these bends are about 1/3 of the length from each end. The weld point is
located centrally to ascertain that all bending occurs in the weld.
The test sample bent, in the beginning, is placed in a machine that is
capable of exerting a big compressive force and bent continually until a
crack is more than 1/16 inches in any dimension seen on the face of the
weld. In the condition of no crack, bending may be continued till the sample
is 1/4 inches thick or under may be possible to test in a vise. The heavy
plate is usually tested in bending jigs or a press.
You may use a power compression press or vise when doing the free bend
test, it is better to machine the upper as well as the lower plate of the
bending devices to present surfaces parallel to the ends of the test sample.
This exercise will prevent the slipping and snapping of the specimen out of
the testing equipment when it is bending.
Free bend test of the welded metal.
Once the bend test is concluded after bending the test specimen, the
distance between the scribed lines is measured in inches and recorded as
distance Y. To calculate the percentage of elongation, subtract the figure X
from Y distance, divide it by Xor initial distance and multiply by 100.
Usually, the requirement for passing this test is minimum elongation by
15% and no crack bigger than 1/16 inches in any dimension happens on
the face of the weld.
This free bend test is substituted mainly by the guided bend test whenever
we find the testing equipment at our disposal Backbend test.
4. Back Bend Test
This is a physical weld testing designed to ascertain the quality of the weld
metal and the extent of penetration into the root of Y of the butt joint after
welding. The sample or specimen used for testing is similar to the free
bend test except they are bent with the root of the weld towards the tension
side, or outside. The tested specimens need to bend 90 degrees without
breaking away. This physical test is broadly replaced with a guided bend
test.
5. Nick Break Test
This break test has been devised to detect in weld metal of the welded butt
joint any internal defects like slag inclusions, poor fusion, gas pockets,
oxidized metal, and burnt metal. Procure the sample from the welded joint
by either machining or cutting by oxy-acetylene torch. Every edge of the
joint is given a slot by a saw cut through the center. The prepared piece of
the specimen is bridged across the two steel blocks. Now stuck the sample
with a heavy hammer until the section of the weld between slots gets
fractured.
The metal which is exposed needs to be completely fused and free from
slag inclusions. Gas pockets if any should never be more than 1.6mm
across the higher dimension, The number of gas pockets should not
exceed 6.
To judge the soundness of the fillet welds another break test method is
employed which is called as Fillet Weld Break Test. Here the force is
applied with the press, hammer blow, and testing machine pressure applied
to the apex of the V-shaped specimen until the fillet weld breaks away.
Now examine the surface of the fracture for the soundness of the welding.
6. Tensile Strength Test
The tensile strength test is designed to test the strength of the welded joint.
A segment of the, to be tested, the welded plate is placed the weld midway
in the jaws of the testing machine. The width and thickness of the test
sample are measured before the testing. To calculate the area in square
inches multiply this before testing, and calculated by multiplying these 2
figures as in the formula of Figure.
The specimen for the tensile physical weld strength test is now mounted on
a machine that will exert enough pulling force to break the sample. The
machine for testing may be portable or stationary type. A portable testing
machine working on a hydraulic principle that is enough to pull and bend
the specimen is shown in Figure.
While testing is being performed on this machine the load in the pound is
visible on the gauge. The stationary-type machine shows the load applied
on the balancing beam. In every case, the load is recorded at the point of
breaking. The specimens broken by the tensile strength test are shown in
Figure.
Tensile strength and bend testing portable machine.
The tensile strength has defined stress in pounds per square inch. It is
calculated once dividing the break load of the specimen by the initial cross-
sectional area of the test piece. The acceptable norms for the tensile
strength of the welds are that the specimen shall pull not less than 90% of
the base metal tensile strength.
The shearing strength of longitudinal and transverse fillet welds is
assessed by the tensile stress of the test samples. The width of the test
sample is measured in inches. The test sample is ruptured under the
tensile load, and the maximum load in pounds is marked. The shearing
strength is determined by dividing the maximum load by the length of the
fillet weld that had ruptured. It is marked as a pound per linear inch. The
shearing strength in pounds/inch can be obtained by dividing the shear
strength in pounds / linear inch by the average throat dimension of the weld
in inches. The specimens are made wider than the requirement and
machined to the required size.
Non Destructive Tests
1. Hydrostatic Test
This type of physical testing by the non-destructive test is performed to
check the welding quality in a closed container such as tanks and pressure
vessels. The testing is performed by filling the vessel with water and
exerting a pressure more than the working pressure of the vessel. Large
tanks are filled with water sometimes, without any pressure to ascertain the
possible leakage due to defective welds. Sometimes we can do the testing
for leakage with the help of oil where steam went out of the vessel and get
visible as seepage of oil.
2. Magnetic Particle Test
This inspection method or physical weld testing method is employed on
welds and articles made of magnetic alloy steels. This test is used only for
ferromagnetic materials where deposited material is also ferromagnetic. A
robust magnetic field is created in the test piece by means of high-
amperage electric currents.

The field where the leakage is felt is set up by any breach that intercepts
the fields in the testing part. The poles are locally produced by the
occurrence of leakage fields. The generated poles attract and keep the
hold on magnetic particles placed on the surface for the designated
purpose. The defect or discontinuity pattern, shown by these particles over
the surface of the part is an indicator of the defect.
3. X-Ray Testing
This physical weld testing radiographic method reveals the presence and
nature of the internal defects in a sample of the weld, like cracks,
blowholes, slag, and improper fusion zones. We keep an x-ray tube on one
side of the sample welded plate and an x-ray film specially designed
sensitive emulsion on the other side. In the case of the developed defects
in the metal plate, it shows up as dark spots and bands. These defects can
be interpreted by an operator experienced in these inspection methods.
The x-ray inspection here is showing porosity and deep root penetration as
shown in Figure.

4. Gamma-Ray Test
This radiographic physical weld testing & inspection method is similar to an
x-ray method except that these gamma rays emerge from a capsule of
radium sulfate instead of a tube in the x-ray.
The feature of the short wavelength of gamma rays finds it perfect for
penetrations of larger thickness sections. The time required for exposure is
longer than the x-ray because of a slower rate of gamma rays production.
X-ray testing is most often used in radiographic inspections, but portability
is the unique feature of the gamma rays.
5. Fluorescent Penetrant Dye Test
This fluorescent penetration physical weld non-destructive test is designed
to locate the leaks, cracks, pores, and discontinuity in the materials. It is a
choice of test for non-magnetic materials like magnesium, aluminum, and
austenitic steel to locate any leak in every type of weld. The dye is water
washable and highly fluorescent with exceptional penetration qualities.
The dye is applied over the surface to be tested by brushing, spraying, and
dipping. The excess material is removed by wiping and rinsing, with a
water-soaked cloth. The developer may be dry or wet applied over the
surface after properly cleaning it. The penetrant treated with the developer
shows brilliant fluorescent indicators under black light.
Advantages of the Dye Test Method
✓ Economical with a low cost
✓ Easy process and its interpretation
✓ Not much training required
✓ Used for ferrous and nonferrous metals
Disadvantages of this Physical Method
✓ May skip the problem under the surface
✓ Does not work on a porous surface
Types of Dye
Type A – This type of dye emits visible light once viewed using a black
light.
Type B – The bright color dye can be examined by a regular light and used
easily in the field.
6. Hardness Test
The ability of the substance to thwart the indentation of localized shift is
defined as hardness. We can simply say resistance to wear, abrasion, and
indentation. This non-destructive test is commonly used in laboratories, but
not usually in the field. The test of hardness is used as a means of
controlling the properties of the materials as the particular hardness is
achieved for that particular application.
The test is used to determine the hardness of the weld metal. Examine the
weld joint carefully to locate the hard area and decide the effect of welding
heat on the baseline properties of the base metal drawn.
Hardness Test Equipment
File Test
The file test determines the comparative hardness in a very simple method.
We run a file under manual pressure over the sample to be tested. We can
record information on whether the metal tested is harder or softer than the
file and whether other metals have been delineated with the same
treatment.
Hardness Testing Pieces of Equipment
There is a big range of hardness testing machines and each of the
machines is designed for that particular function in a given situation.
Moreover, machines of more than one type can be designed for a given
metal and obtained hardness can be correlated satisfactorily. Two common
types of machines used for metal hardness are:
✓ The Brinell hardness tester.
✓ The Rockwell hardness tester
Brinell Hardness Tester
In this procedure, the sample remains minted on the anvil of the machine
and applies a load of 6620 pounds (3003 kg) is against a hard steel ball
that remained in contact with the surface of the sample to be tested. The
steel ball is 10.2 mm in diameter and the load is meant to remain in contact
for 1/2 minute. Now release the pressure and measure the depth of the
depression made by the ball on the sample and note the depth. The
diameter of the depression is more important than the depression to
calculate the hardness by Brinell hardness. The charts of Brinell hardness
numbers can be prepared for a range of diameters of various impressions,
These charts are employed to determine Brinell numbers.
The Brinnell hardness number is calculated by the following formula.
Here are the details
HB – Brinell hardness number
D – Ball diameter in mm
d – Diameter of the recovered indentation in mm
P – Load applied in kg
Rockwell Hardness Tester
The principle of testing here is the same as that of the Brinell tester. The
difference from the Brinell tester is that here less load is needed to impress
on a smaller ball /cone-shaped diamond. The indentation depth can be
measured with a dial attached to the machine. The hardness here is
expressed arbitrarily as Rockwell numbers. These numbers are prefixed
with a letter such as “B” or “C” to demonstrate the size of the ball used, the
load for impression, and the scale used in the specific test.
Others tests available are the Vicker diamond pyramid and stereoscope.
7. Magnaflux Physical Weld Test
This is a rapid non-destructive physical weld test to localize the defect at or
near the surface of the steel metal and magnetic alloys by employing
means of correct magnetization with ferromagnetic particle application.
Basic Principle of Magnaflux Test
In general, saying the magnaflux inspection may be likely to use a
magnifying glass as a physical weld test method. Here instead of using
glass, the magnetic field and ferromagnetic material are employed. The
method is based on two principles:
✓ A magnetic field is produced when an electric current has flowed through
a metal.
✓ The minute poles are formed on the surface where the magnetic fields
are broken or distorted.
When this ferromagnetic stuff is brought into the vicinity of the magnetized
part, they by nature attract strongly towards these poles and hold there
firmly and form a visible indication.
8. Electromagnetic Eddy Current Testing
Magnetic particle testing for surface defects of ferrous metals.
This electromagnetic nondestructive test is based on the principle that an
electric current always flows in a conductor subject to changing magnetic
fields. This test is useful to check welds in nonmagnetic and magnetic
materials and is a very useful tool in testing fillets, bars, tubes, and welded
pipes. The frequency may vary from 50Hz to 1MHz according to the type,
and thickness of material current methods. The former happens to test
when the permeability of the material is a deciding factor and the latter
where electrical conductivity is the element of consideration.
The testing here involves the induction of the electric current like Eddy or
Foucault currents in the test piece and recording the changes that
happened in those currents or any physical differences in the test metal
piece. These tests can not only detect discontinuity in test metal pieces but
can measure the dimensions and resistivity. The resistivity is proportional
to the chemical properties, heat treatment, crystal orientation, and
hardness and these can be judged indirectly. These electromagnetic test
methods are classified as magneto-inductive & Eddy current methods.
The method to produce the Eddy current in a test specimen is to make the
test specimen the core of an alternating current induction coil. The two
ways can measure changes that occur in the magnitude and dispersal of
these currents. The first is to measure the resistive component of the
impedance of the secondary coil and the second is to measure the
inductive component of the impedance of the secondary coil. The types of
equipment have been designed to measure either resistive or inductive
impedance components individually or simultaneously for both.
The Eddy current can be induced in the testing specimen by alternating
electromagnetic transformer action. This current is electrical in nature with
all its properties. To generate Eddy current, the test sample piece must be
an electrical conductor brought into the fields of a coil carrying alternating
current. The coil may encircle the sample in the form of a probe and in case
of tubular shape, wound to fit inside the pipe or tube. This current in the
metal test piece may set up its own magnetic fields to oppose the original
magnetic fields. The impedance of the secondary coil coupled to the first in
close proximity to the test sample is forced by the presence of the eddy
current to change. The second coulis is often used as a convenience,
sensing, or pick-up coil. The path of this eddy current may show distortion
in case of any discontinuity. The eddy current may divert or crowd in the
case of discontinuity or defects. The change can be measured and it is an
indication of defects/ differences in chemical, physical, and metallurgical
structure.
9. Acoustic Emission Testing
The acoustic method is to strike the weld and determines the quality by the
tone.
This physical weld test acts as a supplement to other nondestructive tests.
They have applied this testing during the proof, recurrent testing, service,
and fabrication work. This test comprises the detection of acoustic signals
generated as a result of plastic deformation or any crack formation while
loading. These signals are wide spectrum with ambient noise from many
other sources. The transducer, if strategically placed on the structure, is
activated by incoming signals. Ambient sound can be reduced considerably
by adding filters. The source of significant signals is marked based on
arrival time at different transducers.
10. Ferrite Testing
Effects of Ferrite Content
The austenitic stainless steel weld deposits have the natural to develop
small fissures even under circumstances of minimal restraint. These
fissures are seen generally transverse to the weld fusion line in the weld
passes on reheating to near the melting point. These cracks are injurious
defects and are difficult to tolerate. The effects of these fissures on weld
performance are less clear as these micro-fissures are quickly covered by
a tough austenitic matrix. These fissured weld metals performed
satisfactorily under very severe conditions. A tendency to form large
fissures goes hand in hand with larger crack formations. It is always
desirable to avoid fissure-sensitive weld metals.
A small fraction of magnetic delta ferrite phase in nonmagnetic weld
deposits leads to the prevention of both cracking and fissuring at the
centerline. The excessive delta ferrite, however, can have adverse effects
on weld metal properties. The more the delta ferrite, the less will be ductility
and toughness. More exposure to severe temperatures makes the metal
brittle. and hampers the quality.
Portable indicators of ferrite are designed for onsite use. Ferrite content in
weld deposits is indicated in percent ferrite and may be bracketed between
2 values. This will offer sufficient control in applications where the minimum
ferrite content/ ferrite range is specified.

Related Articles
Nondestructive Testing