YALE INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

Session: 2024-2025

Grade: XI
Subject: Physics

Topic: Lecture note on AS syllabus

 Page 1 of 15

Quantity Base Unit

1. Physical quantities and Electric Current (I ) Ampere (A)

units

ㅤ
All units (excluding those above) can be broken down to
1.1. Physical Quantities the base units
Homogeneity can be used to prove equations.
An equation is homogenous if base units on left hand side
are the same as base units on right hand side
All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude
and a unit: ㅤ

ㅤ ‎

Multiples

ㅤ
Multiple Prefix Symbol
10 12 Tera (T )
10 9 Giga (G)
ㅤ
10 6 Mega (M )
ㅤ 10 3 Kilo (k)

Estimating Physical Quantites ㅤ

ㅤ Sub-multiples
ㅤ
ㅤ
Quantity Estimate
Height of an adult human 2m Sub-multiple Prefix Symbol

Mass of an adult human 70 kg 10 −3 Milli (m)

Mass of a car 1000 kg 10 −6 Micro (n)
Power of a lightbulb 60 W 10 −9 Nano (μ)
Speed of sound in air 330 ms−1 10 −12 Pico (p)
Speed of a car on the motorway 30 ms−1
Weight of an apple 1N 1.3. Systematic & Random errors
Density of water 1000 kgm−3
ㅤ
Time taken for a sprinter to run
10 s Systematic errors:
100m
Constant error in one direction; too big or too small
Current in a domestic appliance 13 A
Cannot be eliminated by repeating or averaging
E.M.F of a car battery 12 V If systematic error is small, measurement is accurate
Atmospheric pressure 1.0 × 10 5 P a Accuracy: refers to degree of agreement between
Young’s modulus of a given material Something × 10 11 result of a measurement and true value of quantity.
Random errors:
Random fluctuations or scatter about a true value
1.2. SI Units Can be reduced by repeating and averaging
When random error is small, measurement is precise
Precision: refers to degree of agreement of repeated
ㅤ
Quantity Base Unit measurements of the same quantity (regardless of
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg) whether it is close to true value or not)

Length (l) Meter (m) ㅤ

Time (t) Second (s)
Temperature (T ) Kelvin (K )
ㅤ
 Page 2 of 15

Calculations Involving Errorsㅤ v 2 = u 2 + 2as

(v +v )
s = 12 2 ×t
​ ​

For a quantity x = (5.0 ± 0.2)mm

Kinematics
ㅤ
Absolute uncertainty Δx = ±0.2mm
Δx
Fractional uncertainty = x = 0.04
2.2. Kinematics concepts
​

Percentage uncertainty = Δx x × 100% = 4% ​

‎
ㅤ
Combining errors: Distance: total length moved irrespective of direction
When values added or subtracted, add absolute error Displacement: distance in a certain direction
If p = 2x+y 2x−y
,then Δp = 2Δx+Δy Speed: distance traveled per unit time, no direction
3 or p =
​

3 ​ ​

3 ​

When values multiplied or divided, add % errors Velocity: the rate of change of displacement
When values are powered (e.g. squared), multiply Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity
percentage error with power
If r = 2xy3 , then Δr
r ​ = Δx
x ​ + 3Δy
y ​
2.3. Linear Motion
ㅤ Distance: total length moved irrespective of direction
Displacement: distance in a certain direction
1.4. Scalars and Vectors Speed: distance traveled per unit time, no direction
Velocity: the rate of change of displacement
Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity
ㅤ
Displacement-time graph:
Scalar: has magnitude only, cannot be –ve Gradient = velocity
e.g. speed, energy, power, work, mass, distance
ㅤ
Vector: has magnitude and direction, can be –ve
e.g. displacement, acceleration, force, velocity
momentum, weight, electric field strength

2.4. Non-Linear Motion

Velocity-time graph:

Gradient = acceleration
Area under graph = change in displacement

Uniform acceleration and straight-line motion equations:

v = u + at
A force vector can be split into it’s vertical and horizontal s = ut + 21 at2 = vt − 21 at2
​ ​

components, which are independant on each other.

s = 21 (u + v ) tv 2 = u 2 + 2as
ㅤ
​

Pythagoras theorem (a2 + b2 = c 2 ) and vector Acceleration of free fall = 9.81ms-2

parallelograms can be used to add coplanar vectors.
2.5. Motion of Freefalling Bodies
2. # Kinematics equations
s = ut + 21 at2
​

v = u + at
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Continues
to curve as
Displacement
it
accelerates

Graph
levels off as
it reaches
terminal
velocity

Continues s = ut + 21 at2 and u = 0 ; s = 21 at2 i.e h = 21 gt2

​ ​ ​

to
Velocity
accelerate 2.7. Projectile motion
constantly
Projectile motion: uniform velocity in one direction and
constant acceleration in perpendicular direction

Graph
curves as it
decelerates
and levels
off to
terminal
velocity
Acceleration Straight line

Graph
curves
down to
zero
because the Horizontal motion = constant velocity (speed at which
resultant projectile is thrown)
force Vertical motion = constant acceleration (cause by weight
equals zero of object, constant free fall acceleration)
Curved path – parabolic (y ∝ x2 )

2.6. Determining Acceleration of Free

Fall
A steel ball is held on an electromagnet.
When electromagnet switched off, ball interrupts a beam
of light and a timer started. Component of Velocity
As ball falls, it interrupts a second beam of light & timer Horizontal Vertical
stopped Without air Increases at a constant
Constant
Vertical distance h is plotted against t2 Resistance rate
 Page 4 of 15

Component of Velocity Mass: is a measure of the amount of matter in a body, &

Decreases to Increases to a constant is the property of a body which resists change in motion.
With Air resistance Weight: is the force of gravitational attraction (exerted by
zero value
the Earth) on a body.

2.8. Motion of a Skydiver 3.4. Elastic Collisions

Total momentum conserved
Total kinetic energy is conserved

Example: Two identical spheres collide elastically. Initially, X is

moving with speed v and Y is stationary. What happens after
the collision?

3. Dynamics
3.1. Newton’s laws of motion X stops and Y moves with speed v:
(relative velocity before collision) - (relative velocity after
First law: if a body is at rest it remains at rest or if it is in collisions
motion it moves with a uniform velocity until it is acted on u A ​− u B ​= vB ​− vA
by resultant force or torque
​ ​ ​ ​

Second law: the rate of change of momentum of a body is

proportional to the resultant force and occurs in the 3.5. Inelastic Collisions
direction of force; F = ma
Third law: if a body A exerts a force on a body B , then relative speed of approach > relative speed of separation
body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body A, Total momentum is conserved
forming an action-reaction pair Perfectly inelastic collision: only momentum is conserved,
and the particles stick together after collision (i.e. move
3.2. Momentum with the same velocity)
In inelastic collisions, total energy is conserved but Ek ​
​

Linear momentum: product of mass and velocity may be converted into other forms of energy e.g. heat

p = mv
3.6. Collisions in Two Dimensions
Force: rate of change of momentum

mv − mu
F = t ​
​
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: when
bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains
constant provided no external force acts on the system.

mA u A + mB u B = mA vA + mB vB ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

3.3. Mass and Weight

Mass Weight
Measured in kilograms Measured in Newtons
Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Constant throughout the universe Not constant
W = mg
 Page 5 of 15

Forces on masses in gravitational fields: a region of space

in which a mass experiences an (attractive) force due to
the presence of another mass.
Forces on charge in electric fields: a region of space
where a charge experiences an (attractive or repulsive)
force due to the presence of another charge.
Change in momentum (impulse) affecting each sphere
Upthrust: an upward force exerted by a fluid on a
acts along line of impact
submerged or floating object
Law of conservation of momentum applies along line of
Origin of Upthrust:
impact
Pressure on Bottom Surface > Pressure on Top Surface
Components of velocities of spheres along plane of
∴ Force on Bottom Surface > Force on Top Surface
impact unchanged
⇒ Resultant force upwards
Frictional force: force that arises when two surfaces rub
4. Forces, Density, Pressure Always opposes relative or attempted motion
Always acts along a surface
Value varies up to a maximum value
Force: rate of change of momentum
Viscous forces:
Density: mass per unit of volume of a substance
A force that opposes the motion of an object in a fluid;
Pressure: force per unit area
Only exists when there is motion.
Finding resultant (nose to tail):
Its magnitude increases with the speed of the object
By accurate scale drawing
Centre of gravity: point through which the entire weight of
Using trigonometry
the object may be considered to act
Couple: a pair of forces which produce rotation only
To form a couple:
Equal in magnitude
Parallel but in opposite directions
Separated by a distance dd
Moment of a Force: product of the force and the
perpendicular distance of its line of action to the pivot
ㅤ

ㅤM oment = F orce × ⊥Distance from P ivot

ㅤ
Torque of a Couple: the product of one of the forces of the
couple and the perpendicular distance between the lines
of action of the forces.
ㅤ

T orque = F orce × ⊥Distance between F orces

ㅤ
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Conditions for Equilibrium: Elastic potential energy: this arises in a system of atoms
Resultant force acting on it in any direction equals where there are either attractive or repulsive short-range
zero inter-atomic forces between them.
Resultant torque about any point is zero. Electric potential energy: arises in a system of charges
Principle of Moments: for a body to be in equilibrium, the where there are either attractive or repulsive electric
sum of all the anticlockwise moments about any point forces between them.
must be equal to the sum of all the clockwise moments
about that same point. 5.4. Deriving Gravitational Potential
4.2. Pressure in Fluids Energy

Fluids refer to both liquids and gases

W = F s & w = mg = F
Particles are free to move and have EK ​ ∴ they collide ∴ W = mg.s
with each other and the container. This exerts a small s in direction of force = h above ground
force over a small area causing pressure to form. ∴ W = mgh

Derivation of Pressure in Fluids 5.5. Deriving Kinetic Energy

Volume of water =A×h W = F s & F = ma
Mass of Water == density × volume = ρ × A × h ∴ W = ma.s
Weight of Water == mass × g = ρ × A × h × g v 2 = u 2 + 2as ⟹ as = 1 2
2 (v
​
− u2 )
Pressure = Force
ρ×A×h×g ∴ W = m. 21 (v 2 − u 2 )
Area = AreaF orce​= ​ ​

A
∴ W = 21 mv 2
​ ​

Pressure = ρgh ​

5.6. Internal Energy

5. Work, Energy, Power
Internal energy: sum of the K.E. of molecules due to its
Law of conservation of energy: the total energy of an random motion & the P.E. of the molecules due to the
isolated system cannot change—it is conserved over time. intermolecular forces.
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but can Gases: k.e. > p.e
change form e.g. from g.p.e to k.e Molecules far apart and in continuous motion = k.e
Weak intermolecular forces so very little p.e.
5.2. Work Done Liquids: k.e. ≈ p.e.
Molecules able to slide to past each other = k.e.
Work done by a force: the product of the force and
Intermolecular force present and keep shape = p.e.
displacement in the direction of the force
Solids: k.e. < p.e.
\n W = Fs
Molecules can only vibrate ∴ k.e. very little
Strong intermolecular forces p.e. high
Work done by an expanding gas: the product of the
pressure and the change in volume of gas
5.7. Power and Efficiency
W = P ⋅ δV Power: work done per unit of time

Work Done
P ower = Time Taken ​
​
Condition for formula: temperature of gas is constant
The change in distance of the piston, δx, is very small Deriving it to form P = fv
therefore it is assumed that P remains constant
P = W.d
T ​& W .d. = F s
​

∴ P = Fs
T = F (t)
s
5.3. Gravitational, Elastic and Electric ​ ​
​
∴ P = Fv
Potential Energy
Efficiency: ratio of (useful) output energy of a machine to
Gravitational Potential Energy: arises in a system of the input energy
masses where there are attractive gravitational forces Useful Energy Ouput
between them. The g.p.e of an object is the energy it Efficiency = Total Energy Input ​ × 100
possesses by virtue of its position in a gravitational field.
 Page 7 of 15

Measure diameter of wire using micrometer screw gauge

6. Deformation of Solids Set up arrangement as diagram:

6.1. Compressive and Tensile Forces

Deformation is caused by a force
Tensile force
Act away from each other, object stretched out

Attach weights to end of wire and measure extension

Calculate Young’s Modulus using formula

Compressive force
6.4. Stress, Strain and Young’s Modulus
Act towards each other, object squashed
Stress: force applied per unit cross-sectional area

F
σ= A ​in Nm-2 or Pascals
​

Strain: fractional increase in original length of wire

ε = el ​no units
​

Young’s Modulus: ratio of stress to strain

σ
E= ε ​in Nm-2 or Pascals
​

Stress-Strain Graph:

6.2. Hooke’s Law

A spring produces an extension when a load is attached
According to Hooke’s law, the extension produced is
proportional to the applied force (due to the load) as long
as the elastic limit is not exceeded.

F = ke
Where k is the spring constant; force per unit extension

Calculating effective spring constants:

Gradient = Young’s modulus
Series Parallel
1 1 1
kE ​ = k1 ​ + k2 ​
​ kE = k1 + k2 ​
​ ​ ​ Elastic deformation: when deforming forces removed,
spring returns back to original length
​ ​

Plastic deformation: when deforming forces removed,

6.3. Determining Young’s Modulus spring does not return back to original length
 Page 8 of 15

Power
Strain energy: the potential energy stored in or work done Intensity = Cross Sectional Area ​

by an object when it is deformed elastically I ntensity ∝ Amplitude2

Strain energy = area under force-extension graph

W = 21 kΔL2 ​
7.5. Transverse and Longitudinal waves
Transverse Waves
7. Waves Oscillation of wave particles perpendicular to direction of
propagation
Displacement: distance of a point from its undisturbed Polarization can occur
position E.g. light waves
Amplitude: maximum displacement of particle from
undisturbed position
Period: time taken for one complete oscillation
Frequency: number of oscillations per unit time
1
f= T ​
​
Wavelength: distance from any point on the wave to the
next exactly similar point (e.g. crest to crest)
Wave speed: speed at which the waveform travels in the
direction of the propagation of the wave
Progressive waves transfer energy from one position to
another

Longitudinal Waves
7.2. Deducing Wave Equation Oscillations of wave particle parallel to direction of
Distance propagation
Speed = Time ​

Polarization cannot occur

​
Distance of 1 wavelength is λ and time taken for this is T E.g. sound waves

∴ v = Tλ = λ ( T1 ) ​ ​

f = T1 ​so v = fλ
​

7.3. Phase Difference

Phase difference between two waves is the difference in Polarization: vibration of particles is confined in one
terms of fraction of a cycle or in terms of angles ( A B) direction in the plane normal to direction of propagation
Wave A leads wave B by θ or Wave B lags wave A by θ

7.4. Intensity 7.6. The Doppler Effect

Rate of energy transmitted per unit area perpendicular to
Arises when source of waves moves relative to observer
direction of wave propagation.
Can occur in all types of waves, including sound & light
 Page 9 of 15

Source stationary relative to Observer:

8.1. Principle of Superposition
When two or more waves of the same type meet at a
point, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum of
the individual displacements

8.2. Interference and Coherence

Interference: the formation of points of cancellation and
Source moving towards Observer:
reinforcement where 2 coherent waves pass each other
Coherence: waves having a constant phase difference
Constructive
Phase difference = even λ2 ​

​
Path difference = even λ2 ​

​
Source moving away from Observer:

Change in wavelength leads to change in frequency

Observed frequency (f0 ) is different from actual
​

frequency (fs ​); related by equation:

​

fs v
f0 =
​

v±vs ​
​

​
​

where v is speed of wave & vs ​is speed of source relative to

Destructive
​

observer
Phase difference = odd \frac{\lambda}{2}2λ

​
Path difference = odd \frac{\lambda}{2}2λ​
7.7. Electromagnetic Waves
As electromagnetic wave progresses, wavelength
decreases and frequency increases

All electromagnetic waves:

All travel at the speed of light: 3 ∗ 10 8 ms− 1

Travel in free space (don’t need medium) 8.3. Two-Source Interference
Can transfer energy
Are transverse waves

8. Superposition
 Page 10 of 15

Conditions for Two-Source Interference:

8.5. Stationary Wave Experiments
Meet at a point
Must be of the same type Stretched String:
Must have the same plane of polarization
Demonstrating Two-Source Interference: String either attached to wall or attached to weight
Stationary waves will be produced by the direct and
Water Ripple generators in a tank reflected waves in the string.
Light Double slit interference
Microwaves Two microwave emitters

8.4. Formation of Stationary waves

A stationary wave is formed when two progressive waves
of the same frequency, amplitude and speed, travelling in Microwaves:
opposite directions are superposed.
A microwave emitter placed a distance away from a metal
Node: region of destructive superposition where waves
plate that reflects the emitted wave.
always meet out of phase by π , ∴ displacement = zero
By moving a detector along the path of the wave, the
Antinode: region of constructive superposition where
nodes and antinodes could be detected.
waves meet in phase ∴ particle vibrate with max amp

1 Air Columns:
Neighboring nodes & antinodes separated by 2 λ ​

Between 2 adjacent nodes, particles move in phase and A tuning fork held at the mouth of an open tube projects a
they are out of phase with the next two nodes by π sound wave into the column of air in the tube.
The length can be changed by varying the water level.
Stationary wave at different times: At certain lengths tube, the air column resonates
This is due to the formation of stationary waves by the
incident and reflected sound waves at the water surface.
Node always formed at surface of water
 Page 11 of 15

8.8. Double-Slit Interference

8.6. Stationary and Progressive Waves

Stationary Waves Progressive Waves
Stores energy Transmits energy
Have nodes & antinodes No nodes & antinodes
Amplitude increases from Amplitude constant along
node to antinode length of the wave
ax
Phase change of \piπ at node No phase change λ= D​
​

Where a = split separation

D = distance from slit to screen
8.7. Diffraction x = fringe width
Diffraction: the spreading of waves as they pass through a
narrow slit or near an obstacle 8.9. Diffraction Grating
For diffraction to occur, the size of the gap should be
equal to the wavelength of the wave.

d sin θ = nλ
Where d = distance between successive slits
== reciprocal of number of lines per meter
θ = angle from horizontal equilibrium
n = order number
 Page 12 of 15

λ = wavelength 9.3. Current-P.D. Relationships

Comparing to double-slit to diffraction grating:
Metallic Conductor
Maxima are sharper compared to fringes
Ohmic conductor
Maxima very bright; more slits, more light through
V/I constant

9. Electricity
Electric current: flow of charged particles
Charge at a point. product of the current at that point and
the time for which the current flows,

Q = It

Coulomb: charge flowing per second pass a point at which

the current is one ampere
Charge is quantized: values of charge are not continuous
they are discrete
All charges are multiples of charge of 1e: 1.6x10-19C
Potential Difference: two points are a potential difference
of 1V if the work required to move 1C of charge between
them is 1 joule
Volt: joule per coulomb Filament Lamp
Non-ohmic conductor
W =VQ Volt ↑
V2 Temp. ↑
P = V I ; P = I 2R ; P = R ​

Vibration of ions ↑
Collision of ions with e- ↑
9.2. Current-Carrying Conductors Resistance ↑

Electrons move in a certain direction when p.d. is applied

across a conductor causing current
Deriving a formula for current:

I= Q Thermistor
t ​

Non-ohmic conductor
​
vol. of container = LA t= L
v​ Volt ↑
​

No. of free electrons = nLA Temp. ↑

Total charge = Q = nLAq Released e- ↑
Resistance ↓
nLAq
∴I = L ​
v
I = Anvq
Where L = length of conductor
A = cross-sectional area of conductor
n = no. free electrons per unit volume
q = charge on 1 electron
v = average electron drift velocity
 Page 13 of 15

Voltage across resistor: V = IR

Voltage lost to internal resistance: V = Ir
= IR + Ir
Thus e.m.f.: E
E = I (R + r)
Semi-Conductor Diode
Non-ohmic conductor
Low resistance in one direction and infinite resistance 10.4. Kirchhoff’s 1st Law
in opposite
Sum of currents into a junction
IS EQUAL TO
Sum of currents out of junction.

Kirchhoff’s 1st law is another statement of the law of

conservation of charge

10.5. Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law

Sum of e.m.f.s in a closed circuit
IS EQUAL TO
Sum of potential differences

Kirchhoff’s 2nd law is another statement of the law of

conservation of energy

Ohm’s law: the current in a component is proportional to

the potential difference across it provided physical
10.6. Deriving Effective Resistance in
conditions (e.g. temp) stay constant. Series
From Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law:
10. D.C. Circuits E = ∑ IR
I R = I R1 + I R2 ​
Electromotive Force: the energy converted into electrical
​ ​

Current constant therefore cancel:

energy when 1C of charge passes through the power
R = R1 + R2 ​\n
source
​ ​

10.7. Deriving Effective Resistance in

10.2. Potential Difference and
Parallel
Electromotive Force
From Kirchhoff’s 1st Law:
Potential difference (work done per unit charge)
I = ∑I
energy transformed from electrical to other forms per
unit charge
I = I1 + I2 ​
​ ​

V V V
Electromotive force (work done per unit charge) R = R1 + R2 ​
​

​
​

​
​

energy transformed from other forms to electrical Voltage constant therefore cancel:
1 1 1
R = R1 + R2 ​\n
​

​
​

​
​

10.3. Internal Resistance

10.8. Potential Divider
Internal Resistance: resistance to current flow within the
power source; reduces p.d. when delivering current A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts.
 Page 14 of 15

Usage of a thermistor at R1:

Resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
Can be used in potential divider circuits to monitor and
control temperatures.
Usage of an LDR at R1:
Resistance decreases with increasing light intensity.
Can be used in potential divider circuits to monitor
light intensity.

10.9. Potentiometers
A potentiometer is a continuously variable potential
divider used to compare potential differences Results of the experiment:
Potential difference along the wire is proportional to the Most particles pass straight through
length of the wire Some are scattered appreciably
Can be used to determine the unknown e.m.f. of a cell Very few – 1 in 8,000 – suffered deflections > 90o
This can be done by moving the sliding contact along the Conclusion:
wire until it finds the null point that the galvanometer All mass and charge concentrated in the center of
shows a zero reading; the potentiometer is balanced atom ∴ nucleus is small and very dense
Nucleus is positively charged as α -particles are
Example: E1 is 10 V, distance XY is equal to 1m. The
repelled/deflected
potentiometer is balanced at point T which is 0.4m from X.
Calculate E2
11.2. The Nuclear Atom
Nucleon number: total number of protons and neutrons
Proton/atomic number: total number of protons
Isotope: atoms of the same element with a different
number of neutrons but the same number of protons

11.3. Nuclear Processes

During a nuclear process, nucleon number, proton
number and mass-energy are conserved

E1
= LL21 ​
​ ​ Radioactive process are random and spontaneous
E2 ​
​

​
​

10 1
E2 = 0.4
​
​
​ ​

Random: impossible to predict and each nucleus has the

E2 = 4 V ​
same probability of decaying per unit time
Spontaneous: not affected by external factors such as the
presence of other nuclei, temperature and pressure
11. Nuclear Physics Evidence on a graph:
Random; graph will have fluctuations in count rate
Spontaneous; graph has same shape even at different
11.1. Geiger-Marsden α
temperatures, pressure etc.

Experiment: a beam of α -particles is fired at thin gold foil

11.4. Radiations
 Page 15 of 15

α-particle β -particle γ-ray Proton Neutron

\n β − \n β +
Helium Fast-moving Electro-
Identity
nucleus electron/positron magnetic
\n
Symbol \n 24He \n − 10e \n + 10e
γ
\n
Charge \n + 2 \n − 1 \n + 1
0
Relative
\n 4 \n 1/1840 \n 0
Mass
Slow(106 V of Light(3 × 2 Up & 1 Down 1 Up & 2 Down
Speed Fast(108 ms-1)
ms-1) 108 ms-1) 2 2 1
+1 2
− 1
− 1
=0
+ 3 ​ + 3 ​ − 3 =
​ +3 ​

3 ​

3 ​

Energy Discrete Varying

Few mm of All particles have their corresponding antiparticle
Stopped by Paper Few cm of lead
aluminum A particle and its antiparticle are essentially the same
Ionizing except for their charge
High Low Very Low
power Table of Antiquarks:
Effect of Deflected
Deflected greater Undeflected Antiquark Symbol Charge
Magnetic slightly
Anti-Up u - 2/3
Effect of Attracted
Attracted to Anti-Down + 1/3
Electric to -ve d
+ve -ve Anti-Strange s + 1/3

These antiquarks combine to similarly form respective

11.5. Types of Decays antiprotons and antineutrons

α decay: loses a helium proton

β − decay: neutron turns into a proton and an electron & 11.7. Particle Families
electron antineutrino are emitted
β + decay: proton turns into a neutron and a positron &
electron neutrino are emitted
γ decay: a nucleus changes from a higher energy state to
a lower energy state through the emission of
electromagnetic radiation (photons)

11.6. Fundamental Particles

Fundamental Particle: a particle that cannot be split up
into anything smaller
Electron is a fundamental particle but protons and
neutrons are not
There are other families under Leptons
Protons and neutrons are made up of different
Leptons are a part of elementary particles
combinations of smaller particles called quarks
Table of Quarks:

Quark Symbol Charge

Up u + 2/3+2/3
Down d - 1/3−1/3
Strange s - 1/3−1/3

There are other families under Hadrons too

Quark Models:
Hadrons are a part of composite particles
Proton Neutron