CHAPTER 1 REVIEWER

THE MORAL AGENT

What does "culture" mean? There are several definitions of culture. "The father of
sociology, Emile Durkheim, asserted that culture has the power over individuals to
create beliefs, such as belief in God. Durkheim added that with more people holding the
same beliefs, social order is also strengthened (LITTLE AND MCGIVERN, 2016).

Meanwhile, the father of cultural anthropology, Edward Tylor, stated that in general,
culture is the way of life of a group of people that "includes their knowledge" belief, art,
morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits by a man as a member of
society" (Tylor, 1974, 1981).

WHAT IS CULTURE?
ANS: Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human
experiences.

HOW DOES CULTURE AFFECT HUMAN BEHAVIOR?

Since human beings are naturally social creatures, we as people, are also naturally
drawn to participate in culture. People want to belong, to be accepted by peers.

IN A MEMORABLE PASSAGE IN THE REPUBLIC, PLATO WARNED:

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE:

SYMBOLS – can be anything that a group of people find meaningful.

LANGUAGE – is a complex symbol system that enabled human beings to communicate

either verbally or through writing. ILOCANO, BISAYA, TAGALOG, and several other native
languages were already spoken in pre-colonial Philippines.

BELIEFS – are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an individual or a group of

people.

VALUES – are culturally acceptable standards of behavior. It is what a person considers

important or beneficial in life.
NORM – is an informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit about
what is considered normal or correct/incorrect social behavior.

HOW DOES CULTURE DEFINE MORAL BEHAVIOR?

One of the revered founders of western philosophy – Plato in his famous philosophical
work, The Republic cited three critical elements that jointly influence the human
person’s moral development.

These elements are native traits (or what might call genetic characteristics); early
childhood experience; and one’s cultural surroundings (PEKRARSKY, 1’’).

LESSON 2: CULTURAL RELATIVISM:

Cultural relativism holds that a person's beliefs and practices should be understood in
light of their own culture. Cultural relativists also argue that the norms and values of one
culture should not be compared to the norms and values of another.

WHY CAN'T ALL CULTURAL PRACTICES BE ALWAYS CORRECT?

Cultural practices imply the manifestation of a subculture or culture related to

customary practices. Different ethnic and cultural groups usually have different cultural
practices. Because of the passage of time, cultural practices are not always correct.
When these laws were enacted, they were thought to be the best for all, but many of
them are now discriminatory.

Philosopher and university professor Dr. James Rachels (1941 – 2003), in his book THE
ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY, laid out five claims of cultural relativists as to why
right or wrong is only a matter of cultural standards. These claims are:

Different societies have different moral codes.

The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong.

There is no objective standard considered better than others.

There are no universal moral truths.

The moral code of a particular society has no special status.

It is but one among many.It is arrogant for one culture to judge another culture.

There should be tolerance among cultures.

THE ADVANTAGE AND DANGERS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Rachels identified two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism.
It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard.
It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth.

ON THE OTHER HAND, THE DANGERS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM ARE:

We cannot call out societal practices that promote harm.

We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful practices.

The idea of social progress becomes doubtful.

PEACE EDUCATION – As defined in relation to culture according to UNESCO is a set of

beliefs, values, attitudes, traditions, and modes of behavior and ways of life-based on:

Respect for life

Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms

Rejection of all forms of violence

Adherence to the principles of justice, democracy, tolerance, solidarity, cooperation,

diversity, dialogue and understanding in all levels of society.

THE THREE PHASE TO ACCOMPLISH PEACE:

Cognitive phase which is understanding and being aware to the happenings in the
society.
Affective phase which is being concerned and responsible learning to value peace since
rational beings are species of social interaction.

• Active phase which is taking practical action in which a course that will lead us to what
is good for the benefit of the majority.

TWO TYPES OF PEACE:

Negative Peace- absence of direct/physical violence (both macro and micro)

Direct Violence- war, torture, child and woman abuse.

Positive Peace-presence of conditions of well-being and just relationships:

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, AND ECOLOGICAL

STRUCTURAL VIOLENCE - POVERTY, HUNGER

SOCIO-CULTURAL VIOLENCE- RACISM, SEXISM, RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE

ECOLOGICAL VIOLENCE- POLLUTION, OVER CONSUMPTION

SIX DIMENSIONS AND OPERATIVE VALUES

LESSON 3: UNIVERSAL VALUES

What are the 6 DIMENSIONS AND OPERATIVES VALUES in promoting PEACE (by
ANTONIO LEDESMA)

1) Personal & Family Integrity - Personal values of honesty, discipline, frugality, etc..
Family values fidelity, unity, love of parents and children vs. vicese.g. drugs, gambling,
pomography, etc. need to develop a spirituality: God-centered, with social
concern

2) Human Rights & Democracy - Human rights are universal, inviolable, inalienable- Right
to life, to education, freedom of religion, etc. - Freedom of speech & assembly, right to
vote freely in a genuine democracy - vs. human rights violation vs. vote-buying &
electoral violations - Justice for law and order in accord with Natural Moral Law.

3) Poverty Eradication - for integral human development - provide basic needs for food,
shelter, health, education, etc. - promote social enterprise - Virtue of compassion and
social concern.

4) Intercultural Understanding & Solidarity - for appreciation of other cultures and

religions - vs. discrimination, stereotyping - Interreligious and inter-cultural dialogue.

5) Disarmament & Cessation of Hostilities - for conflict resolution, peace negotiations -

vs. proliferation of firearms- vs. acts of violence against persons, property - active non-
violence as response to injustice.

6) Environmental Protection - protect watershed areas - waste management - vs. illegal

logging, irresponsible mining, etc. air pollution - Stewardship needed.

WHY THERE ARE UNIVERSAL VALUES?

Every society requires common values to bind it together so that its members know
what to expect from one another and have some shared principles to manage their
differences without resorting to violence. This is true for both local and national
communities.

The three universal values shared by all cultures are:

• Caring for the young

• Murder is wrong
• Tell the truth

LESSON 4: THE FILIPINO WAY

Qualities of the Filipino Moral Identity - Filipino values are, for the most part, centered at
maintaining social harmony, motivated primarily by the desire to be accepted within a
group. The main sanction against diverging from these values are the concepts of
Tagalog: hiya, roughly translated as 'a sense of shame', and 'amor propio' or 'self-
esteem'.'

Filipino character are rooted in factors such as:

• The home environment

• The societal environment
• Culture and language
• History
• The educational system
• Religion
• The economic environment
• The political environment
• Mass media and
• Leadership and role models

Strengths of The Filipino Character:

• Pakikipagkapwa-tao. basic sense of justice and fairness....

• Family orientation. source of personal identity, emotional and material support and.
• Joy and Humor. Laughing at ourselves and the mess we are in is an important coping
mechanism....
• Flexibility, adaptability, and creativity. ...
• Hard work and industry.
• Faith and religiosity
• Ability to survive

Weaknesses of the Filipino Character:

• Extreme family centeredness

• Extreme personalism
• Lack of discipline
• Passivity and lack of initiative
• Colonial Mentality
• Kanya-kanya syndrome, talangka mentality
• Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection
LESSON 5: HOW MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPED

What is Moral Character?

MORAL is "concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior or the goodness
and badness of a human character."

CHARACTER is defined as "The mental and moral qualities of an individual."

MORAL CHARACTER refers to the existence (or lack of) virtues such as integrity, courage,
fortitude, honest, and loyalty.

MORAL CHARACTERS AS DISPOSITION

MORAL CHARACTERS are those dispositions or the tendency to act or think in a

particular way for which a person can be held morally responsible. Thus, moral character
traits are rational, informed, stable, and reliable dispositions.

PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON MORAL CHARACTER

CONFUCIAN TRADITIONS

The philosophy of moral development is rooted in ancient views. For Confucian

traditions moral development was attributed as "four beginnings" of the human
personality. These "four beginnings" were considered as seeds of human personality
That will naturally unfold to become human activities. Take note though, that contrary of
Western understanding of personality as a given human condition; personality in
Confucian perception meant- "an achieved state of moral excellence".

However, each of these do not yet capture the concept of self. When the four beginnings
are put together, it may then be perceived in Western understanding as the "pre-self" or
"potential- self".

The four beginnings in Confucian traditions are:

1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen

2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi

3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li

4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi

Jen means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and generosity.

Yi means righteousness and respect of duty, that is, respect your position as guardian
towards nature and humanity.

Li deals with outward behavior such as etiquette, customs, and rituals.

Zhi means wisdom, and this wisdom is a product of practicing Jen, Yi, Li in one's life.

ARISTOTLE & VIRTUE ETHICS

Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequence, and
particular acts. Instead, virtue ethics focus on the quality of the person. Although action
is right or wrong; nor on whether the consequences are good or bad. It is more
concerned with whether the person is acting as a virtuous person should act in the
situation.

What does it mean to be a good person? Aristotle believed that humans have an
essence. He called this essence proper functioning. Where everything has a function and
the thing that performs as intended is called good when it is able to fulfill his function.

The principle of being virtuous is called "Doctrine of The Golden Mean" - the moral
behavior is the one that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (or what he called
vices). When he said "extreme behavior", it meant the act was either excessive or
deficient. For example, in Aristotelian view eating is a human function as demanded by
nature. When a person overeats (gluttony), this behavior is excessive: while a person
who diets too much (starvation) is deficient. Thus, the virtue when eating is temperance
or to eat just the right amount at all times to keep your body nourished healthy.
Temperance is the golden mean between gluttony and starvation.

It is important to note that Aristotle's “Doctrine of the Mean” does not claim that you
behave in moderately at all times; such as when you get angry, you should only ever be
'moderately' angry.

The virtuous man is the kind of man (note: the term 'man' in Aristotle's writing is
equated with person and not just as opposed to woman) who is able to satisfy both
inclinations and rational desires because his or her inclinations and desires are aligned.

The virtuous man wants to do what is good and does it because he/she derives pleasure
from choosing doing what is moral.

But why do we have to be virtuous? The reason, according to virtue ethics, is

Eudaimonia. Generally, eudaimonia can be translated as "happiness", "well-being" or
the "good life" and that this is the goal of human life.

LESSON 6: STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg's Theory

LEVEL I: Pre-conventional Morality

Judgment at this level is solely focused on the self. This line of moral reasoning is
common among children although some adults would also exhibit such behavior. The
child, having no concept about society's conventions on what is right or wrong, would
base its judgement mainly on the external consequences of its actions.

STAGE 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation

This is also called the 'pre-moral' stage where decisions and actions are determined by
immediate physical consequence and not the true moral value.

STAGE 2: Reward Orientation

As children grow older, they begin to see that there is actually room for negotiation
because other people have their own goals to meet and wants that must be satisfied
too.
LEVEL II: Conventional Morality

This level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. Conventional Morality
is to reason in a conventional (something that is generally accepted) manner. It is
accepting the rules and standards of one's group. This means decision and the morality
of his/her actions are based on society's views and expectations. The focus on this level
is the "significant others" or what is also called "Tyranny of the They".

STAGE 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation

At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from people by living up to their
expectations. He/She also now understands the concept of loyalty, trust, and gratitude
as well as become interested in motives and intentions behind a particular decision or
action. For example, children understand and live by the Golden Rule.

STAGE 4: Authority Orientation

By this time, individuals have reached adulthood and they usually consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus at this stage is following the rules,
maintaining law and order, doing one's duty, and respecting authority.

LEVEL III: Post Conventional

This is also known as the 'principle level'. It is marked by a growing realization that
people are unique and are independent part of the society. Therefore, the individual's
own perspective is more significant over what the rest of society thinks and that this
would sometimes lead to disobeying the law to follow personal principles.

STAGE 5: Social contract Orientation

This stage means the individual is aware that much of what is considered to be moral or
good is mainly based on personal beliefs as well as on the social group they belong to
and that only a very few of the known fundamental values are actually universal.

STAGE 6: Ethical-Principle Orientation

At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and the person makes a personal
commitment to uphold universal principles of equal rights and respect. At this stage, an
individual already has a principled conscience; and will follow universal, ethical
principles regardless of what the laws or the rules say. Judgment here is based on
abstract reasoning such as being able to put oneself in other people's shoes.