Cycle 1: Transformer Experiments

Prepared by: Dr. Prajof P. and Dr. B. Dastagiri Reddy, Course Instructors for EE213
Cycle 1 focuses on essential transformer experiments that are fundamental to understanding
transformer operations and characteristics. The experiments in this cycle are designed to give
hands-on experience with testing and analysing single-phase and three-phase transformers.
1. Experiment 1: Open Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) Tests on Single-Phase
Transformer
o The OC and SC tests are critical for determining the equivalent circuit
parameters of a single-phase transformer. The OC test measures the core losses
and magnetizing current when the secondary is open, while the SC test evaluates
the copper losses when the transformer is under short-circuit conditions. These
tests enable the predetermination of parameters like efficiency and voltage
regulation.
2. Experiment 2: Sumpner’s Test
o Also known as the back-to-back test, Sumpner’s Test allows for the
simultaneous testing of two identical transformers under load conditions
without needing to actually apply a full load. This test is efficient in determining
the transformer’s performance, particularly its temperature rise and losses,
under operational conditions.
3. Experiment 3: Scott Connection
o The Scott connection is used to convert a three-phase supply into two single-
phase supplies. This experiment demonstrates the practical implementation of
the Scott connection, which is crucial for applications requiring phase
transformation, such as in railway electrification. Understanding this connection
enhances knowledge of multi-phase systems and their conversions.
4. Experiment 4: Open Delta (V-V) Connection
o The open delta or V-V connection is a three-phase transformer connection using
only two transformers. This experiment demonstrates how a transformer can
continue to operate under reduced capacity when one transformer in a delta
configuration fails. The experiment provides insights into the versatility and
robustness of transformer connections.
These experiments collectively build a strong foundation in transformer theory, covering both
single-phase and three-phase systems, and prepare students for more advanced studies in
electrical engineering.
 Transformer Experiment No. 1
Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests on a Single-Phase Transformer
Aim: To conduct the Open Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) tests on a single-phase transformer in order
to determine its equivalent circuit parameters, and to predetermine the transformer's efficiency and voltage
regulation.
Equipment Required:
Equipment Type Range Qty.
(0 – 1) A, AC 01
Ammeter MI
(0 – 5) A, AC 01
(0 – 150) V, AC 01
Voltmeter MI
(0 – 50) V, AC 01
LPF (0-250) V, 1 A 01
Wattmeter
UPF 50 V, 5 A 01
Single Phase Transformer - 500 VA, 115/230 V 01

Auto Transformer - 3 kVA, (0-270) V 01

Circuit Diagram:
OC Test
– V, (0-1) A, LPF
Woc
(0-1) A
B LV HV
M L
A
Ioc C V
SUPPLY
1- ɸ AC

V Voc
E
(0-150) V

1- ɸ Auto Tranformer 115 V 230 V

Fig. 1.1. Open circuit test circuit diagram of the single-phase transformer.
SC Test
– V, (0-5) A, UPF
Wsc
(0-5) A
B HV LV
M L
A
C V
Isc
SUPPLY
1- ɸ AC

V Vsc
E
(0-50) V

230 V 115 V
1- ɸ Auto Tranformer

Fig. 1.2. Short circuit test circuit diagram of the single-phase transformer.

Procedure for OC Test:

1. Connect the single-phase transformer, load, wattmeter, voltmeter, and ammeter as illustrated in Fig.
1.1. Ensure all connections are secure and correct.
2. Keep the secondary (high voltage) side of the transformer open and set the autotransformer to its
zero-output position.
3. Switch on the power supply. Gradually increase the output of the autotransformer in regular steps,
supplying the rated voltage to the primary side of the transformer.
 4. At each voltage step, record the readings from the ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter until the rated
voltage is reached.
5. Plot a graph of the core loss (Woc) against the applied voltage (Voc). An example of the expected
graph is shown in Fig. 1.3(a).
6. Calculate the OC test parameters of the transformer using the formula provided below or from the
theory learnt from the class.
Procedure for SC Test:
1. Connect the single-phase transformer, load, wattmeter, voltmeter, and ammeter as shown in the
Fig. 1.2. Ensure all components are connected correctly and securely.
2. Short-circuit the secondary (low-voltage) side of the transformer and set the autotransformer to its
zero-output position.
3. Switch on the power supply. Gradually increase the autotransformer output voltage in regular steps
until the rated current flows through the primary winding, and consequently through the secondary
winding.
4. At each step of the voltage increase, record the readings from the ammeter, voltmeter, and
wattmeter until the rated current is achieved.
5. Plot a graph of the copper loss (Wsc) against the short circuit current (Isc). A sample of the expected
graph is illustrated in Fig. 1.3(b).
6. Use the provided formula or based on the theory learnt from the class, calculate the SC test
parameters of the transformer.
Procedure for Predetermination of Efficiency and Voltage Regulation:
1. Using the data obtained from the OC and SC tests, predetermine the efficiency of the single-phase
transformer under rated voltage conditions. Evaluate the efficiency for different load fractions for
0.6, 0.8, and unity power factor (PF). Record the calculated efficiencies in Table 1.3.
2. Draw a graph showing percentage efficiency versus percentage load at different load PF. Refer to
Fig. 1.3(c) for an example of the expected graph.
7. Similarly, use the OC & SC test data to predetermine the percentage voltage regulation (%Vreg) of
the transformer under the specified PF and full load conditions as outlined in Table 1.4.
8. Draw a graph of %Vreg versus PF. Refer to Fig. 1.3(d) for an example of the expected graph.
Precautions:
1. Double-check all connections to avoid any loose connections that could affect the accuracy of the
experiment or pose safety risks.
2. Always switch off the power supply before making or adjusting any connections to prevent electric
shock or damage to the equipment.
3. Never touch bare conductors or exposed wiring to reduce the risk of electric shock.
4. Take care to avoid parallax errors when reading measurements to ensure precise and accurate data
collection.
5. Before applying any formulas, ensure you understand their derivation and application. Avoid using
them blindly, as you will never understand the objectives of this experiment.
Calculations:
Computation of parameters from OC Test:
• No load power factor, cos ϕ0 = Woc / (Voc * Ioc)
• Loss component of exciting current, IL = Ioc * cos ϕ0
• Magnetising component of exciting current, IM = Ioc * sin ϕ0
• Core loss resistance seen from LV side, R0 = Voc / IL
• Magnetising reactance seen from LV side, XM = Voc / IM
 Computation of parameters from SC Test:
• Equivalent impedance seen from HV side, ZEq = VSC / ISC
• Equivalent series resistance seen from HV side, REq = WSC / ISC²

• 2 − 𝑅2
Equivalent leakage reactance seen from HV side, XEq=√𝑍𝑠𝑐 𝐸𝑞

Predetermination of Efficiency:
𝑥 ∗ 𝐾𝑉𝐴 ∗ 𝐶𝑜𝑠⌀
% 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ∗ 100
𝑥 ∗ 𝐾𝑉𝐴 ∗ 𝐶𝑜𝑠⌀ + 𝑥 2 ∗ 𝑊𝑠𝑐 + 𝑊𝑜𝑐
Where x is the load factor,
x = 1 for full load
= .7 for 3/4th load
= . for half load
= . for 1/4th load
Cosø is the assumed operating power factor of the load.
Predetermination of Voltage Regulation:
𝑅𝐸𝑞 ∗𝐶𝑜𝑠ø±𝑋𝐸𝑞 ∗𝑆𝑖𝑛ø
%Vreg= 𝑥 ∗ 𝐼𝑠𝑐 ∗ ( 𝑉𝑠𝑐
) ∗ 100

+ is for the lagging power factor (PF)

- is for the leading power factor PF
Other Formulas:
• Maximum Efficiency occurs at load Xmax = [WO / WSC]1/2
• Magnitude at max η at UPF & at .8 PF =
• Full load voltage regulation at UPF & Zero PF =
• Power factor angle for max voltage regulation = ϴn = tan−1 (XEq / REq)
• Power factor angle for max regulation = cos (XEq / REq)
• Power factor angle for max voltage regulation = ϴ0 = tan−1 (REq / XEq)
Tabulation:

Table 1.1. Tabulation for Open Circuit Test

SI. RMS value of Primary RMS value of Primary Input Power,
No. Voltage, Voc [in V] Current, Ioc [in A] Woc [W]
1 30

2 60
3 90
4 115
Table 1.2. Tabulation for Short Circuit Test
SI. RMS value of Primary RMS value of Primary Input Power,
No. Voltage, Vsc [V] Current, Isc [A] Wsc [W]
1
2
3
4
 Table 1.3. Tabulation for Predetermination of Efficiency
Sl. Power Cu Losses Total Losses
Load Factor, O/P Power 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
No factor W T = Wcu+Woc % Efficiency = ∗ 100
. Cosø
‘x’ Wcu = x2 *Wsc (W) V*I*Cosø (W) 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝑊𝑇
(in W)
0.6

1 .
0.8

0.6

2 0.8 0.5

1.0

0.6

3 0.8
0.75

1.0

0.6

0.8 1
4

1.0

Table 1.4. Tabulation for Predetermination of Voltage Regulation

Load Factor Voltage Regulation (%Vreg)
PF, Cosø
‘x’ Lag Lead
0.2
0.4
0.6
1
0.8
1

Expected Graphs:

Woc Wsc
(W) (W)

Voc Isc (A)

(V)
(a) (b)

c
d

Fig. 1.3. Expected graphs of (a). Woc vs Ioc (b). Wsc vs Isc (c) % Efficiency vs load (d) %Vreg vs PF.

Conclusions and inferences:

 Transformer Experiment No. 2
Sumpner’s Test
Aim: To conduct the Sumpner’s test on a single-phase transformer in order to determine its equivalent
circuit parameters, and to predetermine the transformer's efficiency and voltage regulation.
Equipment Required:
Equipment Type Range Qty.
(0 – 2) A, AC 01
Ammeter MI
(0 – 10) A, AC 01
(0 – 300) V, AC 01
Voltmeter MI
(0 – 50) V, AC 01
LPF 0-300 V, 2 A 01
Wattmeter
UPF 0-50 V, 5 A 01
Single
Single Phase Transformer 1 kVA, 230/230 V 02
Phase
Single
Auto Transformer 3 kVA, (0-270) V 02
Phase
Circuit Diagram:
WP
IP M L
A
DPST AT-1 B
15A 0-2A V SPST
C
V
300V, 2A
230V, 50Hz, 1-ɸ E LPF P S 0-600V S P
AC Supply V VP
0-300V LV HV HV Tr-2 LV
Tr-1

C WS
Is M
L
B A
0-10A V
C
AT-2 E 50V, 10A
V VS
UPF
0-50V
C
Fig. 2.1. Circuit configuration for Sumpner’s Test.

Req,LV Xeq,LV
L
O
VLV, RMS=230V R0 Xm E A LV
D

Fig. 2.2. Equivalent circuit of the transformer seen from LV side.

Procedure for Sumpner’s Test:

1. Connect the single-phase transformers, wattmeters, voltmeters, ammeters and SPST switch as
illustrated in Fig. 2.1. Ensure all connections are secure and correct.
2. Keep the SPST switch open. Gradually increase the output voltage of Autotransformer I (AT-1) until
the primary voltmeter (VP) reads the rated primary voltage.
 3. If the secondaries are connected with the correct polarity (as shown in Fig. 2.1), the voltmeter across
the SPST switch should read zero. If the voltmeter does not read zero, reverse the connections of one
of the secondary windings.
4. Once the voltmeter across the SPST switch reads zero, close the SPST switch to connect the circuit
at the secondary side.
5. Gradually increase the output voltage of Autotransformer II (AT-2) until the rated current flows
through the secondary windings.
6. Once the setup is complete, carefully note down the readings of all the meters in the circuit in Table
1.1.
7. Calculate the equivalent circuit parameters of the transformer using the formula provided below or
from the theory learnt from the class. Draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer seen from LV
side (as shown in Fig. 2.2).
Procedure for Predetermination of Efficiency and Voltage Regulation:
1. Using the data obtained from the Sumpner’s tests, predetermine the efficiency of the single-phase
transformer under rated voltage conditions. Evaluate the efficiency for different load fractions for
0.6 and unity power factor (PF). Record the calculated efficiencies in Table 1.2.
2. Draw a graph showing percentage efficiency versus percentage load at different load PF. Refer to
Fig. 2.3(a) for an example of the expected graph.
8. Similarly, predetermine the percentage voltage regulation (%Vreg) of the transformer under the
specified PF and full load conditions as outlined in Table 1.3.
9. Draw a graph of %Vreg versus PF. Refer to Fig. 2.3(b) for an example of the expected graph.
Precautions:
1. Double-check all connections to avoid any loose connections that could affect the accuracy of the
experiment or pose safety risks.
2. Always switch off the power supply before making or adjusting any connections to prevent electric
shock or damage to the equipment.
3. Never touch bare conductors or exposed wiring to reduce the risk of electric shock.
4. Take care to avoid parallax errors when reading measurements to ensure precise and accurate data
collection.
5. Before applying any formulas, ensure you understand their derivation and application. Avoid using
them blindly, as you will never understand the objectives of this experiment.
Calculations:
Computation of parameters from Sumpner’s Test for each transformer:
• No load voltage, Voc = Vp
• No load current, Ioc = IP/2
• Core loss, W0c = WP / 2
• No load power factor, cos ϕ0 = Woc / (Voc * Ioc)
• Loss component of exciting current, IL = Io * cos ϕ0
• Magnetising component of exciting current, IM = Io * sin ϕ0
• Core loss resistance seen from LV side, R0 = Vp / IL
• Magnetising reactance seen from LV side, XM = Vp / IM
• Full load copper loss, WSC = WS / 2
• Voltage applied to secondary of one transformer, Vsc = Vs/2
• Short circuit current, ISC = Is
 • Equivalent impedance seen from HV side, ZEq,HV = VSC / ISC
• Equivalent series resistance seen from HV side, REq, HV = WSC / ISC²

• 2 − 𝑅2
Equivalent leakage reactance seen from HV side, XEq,HV =√𝑍𝑠𝑐 𝐸𝑞

Predetermination of Efficiency:
𝑥 ∗ 𝐾𝑉𝐴 ∗ 𝐶𝑜𝑠⌀
% 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ∗ 100
𝑥 ∗ 𝐾𝑉𝐴 ∗ 𝐶𝑜𝑠⌀ + 𝑥 2 ∗ 𝑊𝑠𝑐 + 𝑊𝑜𝑐
Where x is the load factor,
x = 1 for full load
= 0.75 for 3/4th load
= 0.5 for half load
= 0.25 for 1/4th load
Cosø is the assumed operating power factor of the load.
Predetermination of Voltage Regulation:
𝑅𝐸𝑞 ∗𝐶𝑜𝑠ø±𝑋𝐸𝑞 ∗𝑆𝑖𝑛ø
%Vreg= 𝑥 ∗ 𝐼𝑠𝑐 ∗ ( 𝑉𝑠𝑐
) ∗ 100

+ is for the lagging power factor (PF)

- is for the leading power factor (PF)
Tabulation:

Table 1.1. Tabulation for Sumpner’s Test

RMS value RMS value of RMS value of HV side
RMS value of LV side
of LV HV side HV side Power, Ws
LV side Voltage, Power,
Current, Ip voltage, Vs [V] Current, Is [A] [W]
Vp [in V] Wp [W]
[in A]

Table 1.2. Tabulation for Predetermination of Efficiency

Sl. Power Cu Losses Total Losses
Load Factor, O/P Power 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
No factor W T = Wcu+Woc % Efficiency = ∗ 100
. Cosø
‘x’ Wcu = x2 *Wsc (W) V*I*Cosø (W) 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝑊𝑇
(in W)
0.6
1 0.25
1

0.6
2 0.5
1.0

0.6
3
0.75
1.0

0.6
1
4
1.0

Table 1.3. Tabulation for Predetermination of Voltage Regulation

Load Factor Voltage Regulation (%Vreg)
PF, Cosø
‘x’ Lag Lead
0.2
0.4
0.6
1
0.8
1
Expected Graphs:

(b)
(a)

Fig. 2.3. Expected graphs (a) % Efficiency vs load and (b) %Vreg vs PF.

Conclusions and inferences:

 Transformer Experiment No. 3
Scott Connection of Transformers
Aim: To perform the Scott connection of transformers to convert a 3-phase power supply into two single-
phase supply voltages.
Equipment Required:
Equipment Type Rating Qty.

AC voltmeter MI 0-300 V 2

AC Ammeter MI 0-10A 5

Single phase transformer - 230/115 V, 500 VA 2

SPDT Switch - 400V, 20A 1

Single phase Lamp load - 230V, 0-500W 2

Circuit Diagram:
TEASER
TRANSFORMER 0-10 A MI

100 % A
1
A
Is1
2
SPDT 86.66 %
3 phase auto transformer

0-10 A MI V 0-300 V MI LAMP LOAD

TPST 10A Vs1 L1 L2 L3
230/115 V
A A
415 V 50Hz 3 phase ac

B1 E1 500 VA
I1
10A V VP
B 0-10 A MI
B2
supply

E2 A C D B
10A 0-300 V MI I2 230/115 V
C B3 50 %
500 VA
0-10 A MI
N N E3 A
I3 MAIN TRANSFORMER
0-300 V MI
V

Vs2 L1
0-10 A MI
L2
A
LAMP LOAD
Is2 L3

Fig. 3.1. Circuit configuration for Scott Connection.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as illustrated in Fig. 3.1. Ensure that all connections are secure and correct.
Note: two identical single-phase transformers are used for this experiment, with one having taps at
86.66% and 100%.
2. Set the variac (three phase auto transformer) to its minimum position and ensure that all loads are
switched off (loads are connected to LV side of the transformers).
3. Set the SPDT switch to Position 1 (100% turn).
4. Gradually increase the output voltage of the variac in steps until input voltmeter Vp reads:
VP = 230 3 V .
5. At each intermediate step, observe and record the voltages at the secondary terminals (i.e., at load
terminals).
6. Return the variac to the zero position.
7. Change the SPDT switch from Position 1 to Position 2.
8. Gradually increase the output voltage of the variac in steps until input voltmeter Vp reads:
VP = 230 3 V .
9. Again, observe and record the voltages at the secondary terminals at each intermediate step.
10. After reaching the rated voltage, switch on the lamp load in steps.
 11. When SPDT is in position 2, observe the ammeter readings (I1, I2, I3 , Is1 and Is2) as you increase the
load, ensuring the readings do not exceed the rated LV side current of the transformer. Observe
what happens if the loads on LV side are same and different.
12. After completing the observations, turn off the loads.
13. Gradually bring the variac voltage back to the zero position and switch OFF the supply.
Precautions:
1. Double-check all connections to avoid any loose connections that could affect the accuracy of the
experiment or pose safety risks.
2. Always switch off the power supply before making or adjusting any connections to prevent electric
shock or damage to the equipment.
3. Never touch bare conductors or exposed wiring to reduce the risk of electric shock.
4. Take care to avoid parallax errors when reading measurements to ensure precise and accurate data
collection.
5. Before applying any formulas, ensure you understand their derivation and application. Avoid using
them blindly, as you will never understand the objectives of this experiment
Tabulation:

Table 3.1. Tabulation for Scott connection when SPDT is in position 1

𝑽𝒔𝟏
Sl.No 𝑽𝒑 (𝑽) 𝑽𝒔𝟏 (𝑽) 𝑽𝒔𝟐 (𝑽)
𝑽𝒔𝟐
1. 100
2. 200
3. 300
4. 230√3
Table 3.2. Voltage tabulation for Scott connection when SPDT is in position 2
𝑽𝒔𝟏
Sl.No 𝑽𝒑 (𝑽) 𝑽𝒔𝟏 (𝑽) 𝑽𝒔𝟐 (𝑽)
𝑽𝒔𝟐
1. 100
2. 200
3. 300
4. 230√3
Table 3.3. Current tabulation for Scott connection when SPDT is in position 2
𝑰𝒔𝟏
Sl.No 𝑰𝟏 (𝑨) 𝑰𝟐 (𝑨) 𝑰𝟑 (𝑨) 𝑰𝒔𝟏 (𝑨) 𝑰𝒔𝟐 (𝑨)
𝑰𝒔𝟐
1 ~1
2 ~0.5

Calculations:
• Note: Show the calculations to theoretically determine Vs1 and Vs2, when Vp = 230√3 V for both positions 1
& 2. That is:

• For position 1:

VP
A= =
3

A
VS 2 = =
2

A 3
VS 1 =  =
2 2
 • For position 2:
VP
A= =
3

A
VS 2 = =
2

A
VS 1 = =
2

Conclusions and inferences:

 Transformer Experiment No. 4.
Open Delta Connection of Transformer
Aim: To study the concept and operation of the open delta (V-V) connection in a three-phase
transformer using three single-phase transformers.
Equipment required:
Name of Equipment Ratings Quantity
AC voltmeter (MI) 0-300VAC 1
AC Ammeter (MI) 0-5A AC 3
AC Ammeter (MI) 0-10A AC 1
Wattmeter 300V,10A, UPF 2
3 Phase Lamp Load 1
SPST switch 2
Single phase transformer 230/230V, 2 kVA 3
3-ϕ Autotransformer 0-400V, 5kVA 1
Procedure:
1. Connect the Circuit as shown in Fig. 4.1.
Closed Delta (or Δ- Δ)
2. Ensure all loads are switched off before proceeding.
3. Keep the SPST switches S1 closed and S2 open and start varying input voltage.
4. Close SPST switch S1 and keep S2 open. Gradually vary the input voltage.
5. Monitor the voltmeter connected across S2. If the voltmeter reads zero, the connections are
correct; otherwise, swap the connections of any one of the secondary windings. Once the
voltage across S2 is zero, close S2.
6. Increase the primary side line-to-line voltage to 200V.
7. Begin switching on the lamp loads in a balanced manner, ensuring that all phase current
ammeters read the same value (e.g., I1 = I2 = I3 = 2.3A).
8. Note down the readings from all voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters, and record them in
Table 4.1.
9. Switch off all lamp loads and reduce the autotransformer output voltage to zero.
Open Delta (or V-V)
10. Open both SPST switches S1 and S2.
11. Increase the primary side line-to-line voltage to 200V.
12. Begin switching on the lamp loads such that I1 = I3 = 2.3A and I2=0A. That is, the VA rating per
transformer is same as in closed delta case.
13. Again, note down all voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter readings, and tabulate them in Table
4.1.
14. Switch OFF all the lamp loads and make the autotransformer output voltage to zero.

Observation Table:
Table 4.1. Tabulation for open delta of transformer experiment
Input RMS Input RMS Total
Case Voltage, VL Current, IL I1 (A) I2 (A) I3 (A) W1 (W) W2 (W) Power
(in V) (in A) (W)
Closed Delta
Open
Delta
 Fig. 4.1. Circuit configuration for open delta of transformer experiment
Circuit Diagram:
Precautions:
1. Double-check all connections to avoid any loose connections that could affect the accuracy of
the experiment or pose safety risks.
2. Always switch off the power supply before making or adjusting any connections to prevent
electric shock or damage to the equipment.
3. Never touch bare conductors or exposed wiring to reduce the risk of electric shock.
4. Take care to avoid parallax errors when reading measurements to ensure precise and accurate
data collection.
5. Before applying any formulas, ensure you understand their derivation and application. Avoid
using them blindly, as you will never understand the objectives of this experiment
Calculations:
• Closed Delta (or Δ- Δ)
Line voltage, or phase voltage across a transformer = VL
Phase current through the transformer = IP
Total operating VA rating = 3*VL* IP
Phase current through load = IRΔ = IP
Load resistance = RLΔ = VL/ IRΔ = VL/IP

Total power consumed by the load, WΔ-Δ = 3  I R2  RL = 3  I P  VL

• Open Delta (or V-V)

Line voltage, or phase voltage across a transformer = VL
Phase current through the transformer = IP
Total operating VA rating = 2*VL* IP
Phase current through load = IRV = IP/√3
Load resistance = RLV = VL/ IRV = √3*VL/IP

Total power consumed by the load, Wv-v = 3  I RV

2
 RLV = 3  I P  VL

If the above load is delivered using a normal Δ-Δ, then total operating VA = _______ VA
W−
= 3
WV −V

• From Table 4.1, compute:

W
Power Ratio = − =
WV −V

Conclusions and inferences: