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math fomulas

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8 views5 pages

Isrc 1ST

math fomulas

Uploaded by

aragasimohammadsaif5
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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ISRC

Prepared by Asnor S. Langlang

Cell theory, fundamental scientific theory of biology according to which cells are
held to be the basic units of all living tissues. First proposed by German scientists
Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in 1838, the theory that all plants
and animals are made up of cells marked a great conceptual advance in biology and
resulted in renewed attention to the living processes that go on in cells.
1) All organisms are made of cells.
2) All existing cells are produced by other living cells.
3) The cell is the most basic unit of life.

CELLULAR Biology

Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic cell


- Eukaryotes: true nucleus and membrane (Multicellular)
- Prokaryotes: lacks true nucleus or membrane-bound structure (Bacteria)
Cell membrane
Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane. The cell membrane
separates the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the material inside the
cell, intracellular. It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls passage of
materials into and out of the cell. All materials within a cell must have access to the
cell membrane (the cell's boundary) for the needed exchange.
The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules. Proteins in the cell
membrane provide structural support, form channels for passage of materials, act
as receptor sites, function as carrier molecules, and provide identification markers.

Nucleus and Nucleolus


The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the
control center of the cell. Threads of chromatin in the nucleus contain
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell. The nucleolus is a
dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and is the site of ribosome
formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will function, as well as the basic
structure of that cell.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical
reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the
cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in
the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the cytoplasm, materials move by diffusion, a
physical process that can work only for short distances.

Cytoplasmic organelles
Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm of
the cell. Each type of organelle has a definite structure and a specific role in the
function of the cell. Examples of cytoplasmic organelles are mitochondrion,
ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)


(a) The ER is a winding network of thin membranous sacs found in close association
with the cell nucleus. The smooth and rough endoplasmic reticula are very different
in appearance and function (source: mouse tissue). (b) Rough ER is studded with
numerous ribosomes, which are sites of protein synthesis (source: mouse tissue).
EM × 110,000. (c) Smooth ER synthesizes phospholipids, steroid hormones,
regulates the concentration of cellular Ca++,metabolizes some carbohydrates, and
breaks down certain toxins (source: mouse tissue). (ER)
(a) The ER is a winding network of thin membranous sacs found in close association
with the cell nucleus. The smooth and rough endoplasmic reticula are very different
in appearance and function (source: mouse tissue). (b) Rough ER is studded with
numerous ribosomes, which are sites of protein synthesis (source: mouse tissue).
EM × 110,000. (c) Smooth ER synthesizes phospholipids, steroid hormones,
regulates the concentration of cellular Ca++,metabolizes some carbohydrates, and
breaks down certain toxins (source: mouse tissue).

The Golgi Apparatus


The Golgi apparatus is responsible for sorting, modifying, and shipping off the
products that come from the rough ER, much like a post-office. The Golgi apparatus
looks like stacked flattened discs, almost like stacks of oddly shaped pancakes. Like
the ER, these discs are membranous. The Golgi apparatus has two distinct sides,
each with a different role. One side of the apparatus receives products in vesicles.
These products are sorted through the apparatus, and then they are released from
the opposite side after being repackaged into new vesicles. If the product is to be
exported from the cell, the vesicle migrates to the cell surface and fuses to the cell
membrane, and the cargo is secreted.

Mitochondria
The mitochondria are the energy-conversion factories of the cell. (a) A
mitochondrion is composed of two separate lipid bilayer membranes. Along the
inner membrane are various molecules that work together to produce ATP, the cell’s
major energy currency. (b) An electron micrograph of mitochondria. EM × 236,000.

Peroxisomes

Like lysosomes, a peroxisome is a membrane-bound cellular organelle that contains


mostly enzymes ([link]). Peroxisomes perform a couple of different functions,
including lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification. In contrast to the digestive
enzymes found in lysosomes, the enzymes within peroxisomes serve to transfer
hydrogen atoms from various molecules to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2). In this way, peroxisomes neutralize poisons such as alcohol. In order to
appreciate the importance of peroxisomes, it is necessary to understand the
concept of reactive oxygen species.

The Cytoskeleton

Much like the bony skeleton structurally supports the human body, the cytoskeleton
helps the cells to maintain their structural integrity. The cytoskeleton is a group of
fibrous proteins that provide structural support for cells, but this is only one of the
functions of the cytoskeleton. Cytoskeletal components are also critical for cell
motility, cell reproduction, and transportation of substances within the cell.

Cell Cycle:

- Multicellular organisms depends on cell division for:


1. Development from a fertilized cell
2. Growth
3. Repair
- Most cell division results in daughter cells with identical genetic information,
DNA. The exception is meiosis, a special type of division that can produce
sperm and egg cells.

Phases of the cell cycle:

- Interphase: G1, S & G2


- Mitotic phase (Cytokinesis & Mitosis)
1. Prophase : Early Mitotic spindle
2. Prometaphase : fragmentation of nuclear envelope| kinetochore attaches
to the stister chromatids
3. Metaphase :formation of the metaphase plate
4. Anaphase :pulling of the daughter chromosomes
5. Telophase : Cleavage furrow and nucleolus forming

Binary Fission in Bacteria


Cell Cycle control system – like a clock. It is a sequential event of the cell cycle. The
clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is
received.

- G1 checkpoint seems to be the most important.


- G0 nondividing state.
- Regulatory proteins: Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases(Cdks)

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