Duct Construction

2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment
Chapter 19
(DUCT CONSTRUCTION)
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ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate
+966535473011 l [email protected] l MEP Engineering l LinkedIn l ©
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 4
2. BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................. 4
3. PRESSURE CLASSIFICATIONS ................................................................................................... 4
4. DUCT CLEANING ........................................................................................................................... 5
5. HVAC SYSTEM LEAKAGE............................................................................................................. 6
5.1. General ......................................................................................................................... 6
5.2. System Sealing ............................................................................................................. 7
5.3. Sealants ........................................................................................................................ 7
5.3.1. General ............................................................................................................ 7
5.3.2. Sheet Metal Ductwork ...................................................................................... 7
5.3.3. Rigid Fiberglass Ductwork ............................................................................... 8
5.3.4. Flexible Duct .................................................................................................... 8
5.4. Leakage Testing............................................................................................................ 8
5.4.1. Scope ............................................................................................................... 8
5.4.2. Procedures ....................................................................................................... 9
5.4.3. Acceptance Criteria ........................................................................................ 10
5.4.4. Leakage Class ............................................................................................... 10
5.4.5. Calculating Test Section Allowable Leakage ................................................. 12
5.5. Responsibilities ........................................................................................................... 12
6. AIR-HANDLING UNIT LEAKAGE ................................................................................................. 13
7. RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL DUCT CONSTRUCTION ................................................... 13
7.1. Terminology ................................................................................................................ 13
7.1.1. Air duct ........................................................................................................... 13
7.1.2. Air connector .................................................................................................. 13
7.1.3. Class 0 ........................................................................................................... 13
7.1.4. Class 1 ........................................................................................................... 13
7.1.5. Flexible air connector ..................................................................................... 13
7.1.6. Flexible air duct .............................................................................................. 14
7.1.7. Flexible duct ................................................................................................... 14
7.2. Buildings and Spaces ................................................................................................. 14
7.2.1. General .......................................................................................................... 14
7.2.2. NFPA 90A Materials ...................................................................................... 14
7.2.3. NFPA 90B Materials ...................................................................................... 16
7.3. Round, Flat Oval, and Rectangular Ducts .................................................................. 16
7.3.1. Round Ducts .................................................................................................. 16
7.3.2. Flat Oval Ducts............................................................................................... 16
7.3.3. Rectangular Ducts ......................................................................................... 17
7.3.4. Nonferrous Ducts ........................................................................................... 17
7.4. Fibrous Glass Ducts .................................................................................................... 17
7.5. Phenolic Ducts ............................................................................................................ 18
7.6. Flexible Ducts.............................................................................................................. 18
7.6.1. General .......................................................................................................... 18
7.6.2. Flexible Air Connectors .................................................................................. 18
7.7. Hangers and Supports ................................................................................................ 19
7.8. Installation ................................................................................................................... 19
7.9. Plenums and Apparatus Casings................................................................................ 20
7.10. Acoustical Treatment .................................................................................................. 21
8. INDUSTRIAL DUCT CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................................ 21
8.1. General ....................................................................................................................... 21
8.2. Materials ...................................................................................................................... 22
8.3. Round Ducts ............................................................................................................... 22
8.4. Rectangular Ducts....................................................................................................... 22
8.5. Construction Details .................................................................................................... 23
8.6. Hangers ....................................................................................................................... 23
9. ANTIMICROBIAL-TREATED DUCTS ........................................................................................... 23
10. DUCT CONSTRUCTION FOR GREASE- AND MOISTURE-LADEN VAPORS .......................... 24
10.1. Factory-Built Grease Duct Systems ............................................................................ 24
10.2. Site-Built Grease Duct Systems.................................................................................. 24

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10.3. Duct Systems for Moisture-Laden Air ......................................................................... 24
11. RIGID PLASTIC DUCTS ............................................................................................................... 25
12. AIR DISPERSION SYSTEMS ....................................................................................................... 25
12.1. General ....................................................................................................................... 25
12.2. Dispersion Types ........................................................................................................ 26
12.2.1. Linear Vent Outlets ...................................................................................... 26
12.2.2. Orifice and Nozzle Outlets ........................................................................... 27
12.2.3. Porous-Duct-Surface Air Distribution System .............................................. 27
13. UNDERGROUND DUCTS ............................................................................................................ 28
14. DUCTS OUTSIDE BUILDINGS .................................................................................................... 29
15. SEISMIC QUALIFICATION ........................................................................................................... 29
16. SHEET METAL WELDING ........................................................................................................... 29
17. THERMAL INSULATION .............................................................................................................. 29
18. SPECIFICATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 29
NOTE: All information or details that are mentioned here in this document have already
been extracted from the 2020 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment.

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1. INTRODUCTION
- This chapter covers construction of HVAC and exhaust duct systems for residential,
commercial, and industrial applications.
2. BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS
- Figure 1 shows relationships between laws, ordinances, codes, and standards that can affect
design and construction of HVAC duct systems (note that it may not list all applicable
regulations and standards for a specific locality).
- Typically, local building ordinances invoke NFPA Standards 90A and 90B or some variation
thereof along with one or more of the national codes (see Figure 1) for HVAC duct system
construction and installation.
IMPORTANT
- Because safety codes, energy codes, and standards are developed independently, the
most recent edition of a code or standard may not have been adopted by a local jurisdiction.
- HVAC designers must know which codes apply to their designs. If a provision conflicts
with the design intent, the designer should resolve the issue with local building officials.
- New or different construction methods can be accommodated by the provisions for

equivalency incorporated into codes. codes.
- Local jurisdictions may also include amendments and additions to various sections of a
referenced building code.
3. PRESSURE CLASSIFICATIONS
- Duct construction static pressure classifications typically used on contract drawings and
specifications are summarized by Table 1.
- The classifications are from SMACNA (2005) for sheet metal ductwork, and NAIMA (2002a)
for fibrous glass duct board.
- Negative pressure flat oval duct systems can be designed by using +10 in. of water sheet
gages with the negative-pressure rectangular duct reinforcement members mechanically
attached or welded to the duct.

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- The most common flexible air ducts and air connectors are listed up to 10 in. of water
maximum positive-pressure ratings and anywhere from 0.5 to 2.0 in. of water negative-pressure
ratings, but there are listed flexible ducts with pressures as high as 16 in. of water and as low
as –12 in. of water.
- Air conveyed by a duct adds both static pressure and velocity pressure loads on the duct’s
structure.
- The load from static pressure differential across the duct wall normally dominates and the
mean static pressure is generally used for duct pressure classification.
- Turbulent airflow adds relatively low but rapidly pulsating loading on the duct wall.
- Duct design is based on total pressure calculations as discussed in Chapter 21 of the 2017
ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. From these calculations, the designer should specify
the static pressure classification of the various duct sections in the system.
- All modes of operation must be considered, especially in systems used for smoke
management and those with fire dampers that must close when the system is running.
4. DUCT CLEANING
- Ducts can collect dirt and moisture, which can contribute to microbial growth.
- Design, construct, and maintain ducts and attached HVAC system components to
minimize the opportunity for growth and dissemination of microorganisms.
- As described by NIH (2015), recommended control measures to reduce duct contamination

include (1) locating air intakes away from contaminant sources, (2) providing and maintaining
proper air filtration, (3) sealing ductwork during construction to prevent debris from entering, (4)
inspecting new ductwork for oil or debris prior to system start-up and cleaning if needed, and
(5) implementing good housekeeping in occupied spaces.
- Owners should routinely inspect ducts for cleanliness. If cleaning is needed,

contaminant sources should be identified and controlled before cleaning is performed.
- NADCA (2013) and NAIMA (2002b) provide specific information and procedures for cleaning
ducts.
- Fabric duct systems should be cleaned (washed) in accordance with manufacturer’s

instructions.
- To minimize air leakage after duct sections are opened or disconnected, attention should
be given to properly closing, connecting, and resealing them (see the section on HVAC
System Leakage).
- Also, any duct insulation removed must be replaced, and vapour barriers (if used) must
be resealed.

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5. HVAC SYSTEM LEAKAGE
5.1. General
- For the purposes of this chapter, ductwork includes straight duct, flexible duct, sheet metal
and rigid fiberglass plenums, and fittings (e.g., elbows, transitions, tees, wyes) for distribution
and extraction of air. It does not include duct-mounted components (e.g., terminal units,
access doors/panels, attenuators, coils, fire/ smoke dampers, balancing and control
dampers).
- A system consists of the supply air handler, return fan, exhaust fan, plenums, and all ductwork
that connects the air handler to the conditioned space.
- The system also includes duct-mounted components where leaks through joints or
penetrations can occur. However, leakage from the occupied space into a return air plenum is
not included.
- Commentary: Return air plenums are part of the air path from the conditioned space back to
the air handler. Therefore, they are part of the system. As described in the examples that follow
in this section, the thermal effects of unintended leakage directly from the supply system into
the return plenum must be accounted for differently than if the supply system leaked directly to
the conditioned space. UMC (2018) does not allow plenum return systems for health care
facilities.
- HVAC system air leakage increases building energy consumption. It also reduces the
system’s ability to control and deliver intended flows and pressures, and to manage the
extraction and dilution of contaminants.
- Also, leakage can cause noise problems, drafts in the conditioned space, and dirt and dust
deposits on the duct exterior.
- Leakage energy impacts depend on building and system type.
- For small buildings with single-zone air distribution systems served by equipment such as
packaged rooftop cooling units and furnaces (e.g., houses, commercial buildings with floor area
less than 25,000 ft2), 75 to 95% of the HVAC site energy is used for space heating and cooling
and the impacts are mostly on the thermal side.
- For large buildings with central multi-zone air distribution systems served by equipment such
as central chillers and boilers (e.g., mid- and high-rise offices, supermarkets and retail stores
with a floor area of 25,000 ft2 or more), 20 to 80% of HVAC site energy is used by fans and the
impacts are also on fan power.
- All these effects are strongly influenced by the location of leaks relative to conditioned
space.
- If supply air leaks to an unconditioned attic or crawlspace, or to the outdoors, the lost
heating or cooling must be replaced. In this case, heating or cooling fluid flows or temperature
differences must increase, or the system must run longer to meet the load. If, instead, supply
air leaks to a ceiling return plenum adjacent to conditioned spaces, the fan must run faster or
longer, and the largest impact may be on fan power. The heat associated with this added fan
power also creates an additional cooling load.
- The effects of return leakage can also be significant. For example, leaks from a hot attic into
a return duct heat the return air, which in turn reduces system cooling capacity. Because the
relationship between fan power and airflow is somewhere between a quadratic and cubic
function depending on the system type, an increase in airflow to provide the desired
service and compensate for system leakage means that fan energy consumption
increases significantly.

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5.2. System Sealing
- It is recommended that all ductwork and plenum transverse joints, longitudinal seams,
and duct penetrations, including damper shafts, be sealed. Longitudinal seams are
joints in the direction of airflow. Transverse joints are connections of two duct sections,
with the connections oriented perpendicular to airflow.
- Openings for rotating shafts, wires, and pipes or tubes should be sealed with bushings
or other devices that minimize air leakage but that do not interfere with shaft rotation or
prevent thermal expansion.
- Sealing that meets these requirements is in compliance with ASHRAE Standards 90.1-
2016 and 189.1-2017, the International Mechanical Code® (IMC 2018), the International
Energy Conservation Code® (IECC 2018), the International Residential Code® (IRC 2018),
and the Uniform Mechanical Code® (UMC 2018).
- Spiral lock seams need not be sealed.
- Sealing that would void product listings, such as for fire/smoke dampers, is not
recommended. However, low-leakage duct mounted components, including terminal
units, reheat coils, and access doors, should be specified so that the combined HVAC
system air leakage will not exceed criteria set by the designer, ASHRAE Handbook,
standards, and codes.
- For example, some manufacturers of UL-listed and –labeled fire/smoke dampers allow
sealing and gasketing of breakaway duct/sleeve connections; all can provide sealed
non-breakaway duct/sleeve connections.
5.3. Sealants
5.3.1. General
- All tape, mastic, rolled mastic sealants, aerosol/spray applied sealants, gaskets, and
non-metallic mechanical fasteners should:
• Be used in compliance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

• Be tested to UL Standard 723 (ASTM Standard E84) and have a flame spread index equal to
or less than 25 and a smoke developed index equal to or less than 50.
• Maintain their airtightness over the service life of the component to which they are applied.
5.3.2. Sheet Metal Ductwork
- All joints, longitudinal and transverse seams, and connections in sheet metal ductwork
should be securely fastened and sealed with welds, gaskets, tapes, mastics, mastic-plus
embedded- fabric systems, rolled mastic sealants, or aerosol sealants.
- Sealants should be (1) UL listed, labelled, and used in accordance with their listing; and
(2) tested for durability using the accelerated aging procedure in ASTM Standard E2342.
- Sherman (2005) recommended that the time-to-failure acceptance criterion should be at

least 60 days, because this time period delineated which tapes failed early using
accelerated aging compared to tapes that lasted much longer.
- Tapes should be used only on joints between parallel surfaces, or on right-angle flat
joints. If mastic or tape is used to seal openings greater than 1/4 in., the combination of
mastic or either mesh or tape should be used.
- Heat-sensitive and heat-activated tapes, which are designed specifically to seal fibrous
glass duct board, should not be used as a sealant on metal ducts.

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- Cloth-backed, rubber-adhesive duct tape should not be used, regardless of UL
designation, unless such tape is used in combination with mastic and draw bands or it
has been approved by the authority having jurisdiction for use without mastic.
- For exterior applications, mastics should be tested using ASTM Standard C732 artificial
weathering tests and show no signs of visible degradation (e.g., washout, slump,
cracking, loss of adhesion) after being exposed to artificial weathering.
- Commentary: Apart from UL Standard 723, there is no UL standard for sealant performance
when it is applied to sheet metal ductwork. It is recommended that a standard be developed for
sheet metal applications and it should include or refer to a durability test.
5.3.3. Rigid Fiberglass Ductwork
- Rigid fiberglass duct-board should be sealed following the NAIMA (2002a) standard
using materials listed and labelled to the UL Standard 181A standard.
- There are three closure and air sealing systems for fiberglass duct board.
- The first two use tapes (marked “181A-P” or “181A-H”).
- The third system is a fiberglass mesh and mastic system (marked “181A-M”).
- In the latter case, a layer of mastic is applied to the joint, a strip of fiberglass mesh is
embedded into the mastic, and then a finish coat of mastic is applied over the mesh.
5.3.4. Flexible Duct
- Tapes and mastics used to close flexible air ducts and air connectors should be listed
and labeled to UL Standard 181B, Part 1 or Part 2; be marked “181B-FX” or “181B-M,”
respectively; and be used in accordance with their listing.
- Mechanical fasteners for use with nonmetallic flexible air ducts and air connectors
should be either stainless steel worm-drive gear clamps or nonmetallic straps listed and
labeled to UL Standard 181B, Part 3, and be marked “181B-C.”
- Nonmetallic fasteners should have a minimum tensile strength rating of 150 lbf and be
suitable for continuous use at the maximum temperature to which they will be exposed.
- When nonmetallic fasteners are used, beaded fittings are required, and the maximum
duct positive operating pressure should be limited to 6 in. of water.
- Commentary: Sherman (2005) showed that some nonmetallic flexible duct core-to-collar
clamps have unacceptable high-temperature performance. Most of the standard nylon straps
failed before the two-year test period was completed. Sherman concluded that UL Standard
181B testing of these clamps does not adequately address this issue, and recommended that
straps be rated for continuous use at 200°F. A more flexible requirement is that they be suitable
for continuous use at the maximum temperature to which they will be exposed. A new test
method for determining the durability of clamping systems should be developed to test the
actual failure modes found in the field. Such a test could be incorporated in UL testing or be a
separate ASTM (or equivalent ANSI) test method.
5.4. Leakage Testing
5.4.1. Scope
- It is recommended that supply air (both upstream and downstream of the VAV box
primary air inlet damper, when used), return air, and independent exhaust air systems
be tested for air leakage at operating conditions to verify (1) good workmanship, and (2)

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the use of low-leakage components as required to not exceed the maximum allowable
system air leakage.
- An independent exhaust air system comprises air discharged from a space to the
outdoors by a system not coupled to supply or return air systems.
- Testing these particular systems is important because of the potentially significant

energy impacts.
- As a minimum, 25% of the system, based on duct surface area, should be tested and
another 25% if any of the initial sections fail.
- If any section of the second 25% fails, the entire system should be tested. Sections
should be selected randomly by the owner’s representative. These leakage tests should
be conducted by an independent party responsible to the owner’s representative after
the system sections to be tested are fully assembled but before the installation of
insulation and concealment of ductwork.
- To ensure that a system passes its air leakage test at operating conditions, ductwork
sections should be leak tested by pressurization during construction.
- To supplement these construction-phase tests, leakage of duct-mounted components

should be determined by specification and certified leakage data provided with
equipment submittals.
- Leakage of air-handling units should be determined by specification and verification

leakage tests.
5.4.2. Procedures
- Test procedures based on ductwork pressurization should comply with industry

practice (e.g., AABC 2002, Chapter 5; ASHRAE Standard 126-2016: Section 7; EUROVENT
2/2 1996; SMACNA 2012: Sections 4, 6, and 7).
- Leakage test procedures currently used by industry focus on determining component

airtightness (e.g., for supply air ductwork located upstream of terminal box inlet dampers).
- Airtightness alone, however, is insufficient to determine leak-age airflows. It is important to

also then estimate system pressures during operation to fully determine these flows.
- Determining the location of every leak and the pressure difference across individual
leaks is practically impossible for most systems, and such an approach can lead to
significant uncertainty and error.
- To eliminate the uncertainty associated with estimating pressure differences across

leaks, ASHRAE Standard 215-2018 provides a method of test for determining leakage
airflows and fractional leakage during system operation (either for the whole system or
for selected parts).
- Flows into and out of the section being tested are measured at a repeatable reference
operating condition: the only variable is leakage flow. It can be used for both new and existing
buildings, but is currently limited to single-duct supply and independent exhaust air systems.
- The method outlined in this standard does not replace ductwork pressurization leakage
testing.

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5.4.3. Acceptance Criteria
- To enable proper accounting of leakage-related impacts on fan energy use and space
conditioning loads, the design engineer should establish the maximum allowable system
leakage for each fan system as a percentage of fan airflow at a reference system
operating condition.
- Recommended test pressures and maximum system leakage fractions are shown in
Table 2.
5.4.4. Leakage Class
- Leakage class, as specified by ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2016, can be translated to

fractional (%) leakage using Equation (1) or Table 3.

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- For example, for a leakage class of 4 cfm per in. of water0.65 per 100 ft2 of duct surface area
with a pressure difference of 3 in. of water and an inlet flow of 2 cfm/ft2 of duct surface area,
the fractional leakage is 4.1%. For a pressure difference of 6 in. of water, the fractional leakage
is 6.4%.

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5.4.5. Calculating Test Section Allowable Leakage
- Calculating Test Section Allowable Leakage. Determine from the drawings the airflow and
duct surface area in each section and then calculate the allowable leakage (See Example 1).
- If an entire system or section of ductwork is not to be tested, determine the allowed

leakage in the test section. To do this, determine the surface area of the test section, and divide
that by the total surface area of the entire section. Multiply this test section leakage percentage
by the section airflow to determine the test section leakage airflow.
- Example 1. A system consists of three sections, with airflow and surface areas as summarized
in Table 4. Determine the allowable leakage for a 5000 ft2 surface area section of Section 1
identified by the owner’s representative. Branch 3 is located outdoors.
- Solution. Table 5 summarizes the calculations. By test, the 5000 ft2 test section cannot exceed
700 cfm at 4.0 in. of water
5.5. Responsibilities
- (Refer to definitions of terms ductwork and system found at beginning of HVAC System
Leakage section.)
- The engineer should: -

• Specify HVAC system components, duct-mounted equipment, accessories, sealants, and
sealing procedures that together can meet the system airtightness design objective.
• Specify leakage test standard.
• Specify allowable system leakage percentage.
• Select a test pressure that does not exceed the pressure class rating of the ductwork.
• Review or verify that the system meets the leakage specification.
- The building owner or owner’s representative should: -

• Select sections for test once the contractor reports that at least three sections are fully
assembled and ready for testing.
- The sheet metal contractor should: -

• Separate duct sections from each other as required so the test apparatus capacity is not
exceeded.
• Provide connections for the test apparatus.
• Take corrective action where required to seal ductwork.
- The test contractor should: -

• Measure and record results of duct leakage tests.
• Report test results.

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6. AIR-HANDLING UNIT LEAKAGE
- Custom-designed air-handling units (AHUs) should be leak tested after the AHU is
reassembled on site with all penetrations (e.g., for controls, electrical, and piping) in
place and sealed.
- Leakage tests should be conducted by the AHU manufacturer in accordance with

ASHRAE Standard 126-2016, Section 7, at design operating pressures (positive and
negative) specified by the design engineer, and be witnessed by a representative of the
owner.
- AHUs should be shipped with blank-offs and a round flanged opening for the flow
meter/blower leakage test unit. It is recommended that packaged AHUs also be leak
tested.
- The casing leakage for AHUs should not exceed 1% of design airflow at the specified
design pressure.
7. RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL DUCT CONSTRUCTION
7.1. Terminology
- Construction materials for non-metallic rigid and flexible ducts are listed in UL Standard
181.
7.1.1. Air duct
- A rigid or flexible duct that passes all applicable UL Standard 181 tests. These tests
include surface burning characteristics (ASTM Standard E84), flame penetration, burning,
corrosion, mold growth and humidity, temperature, puncture, static load, impact, erosion,
pressure, collapse, tension, torsion, bending, and leakage.
- Flexible air ducts are identified with a square or rectangular listing mark indicating the product
is a Class 0 or Class 1 air duct.
7.1.2. Air connector
- A flexible duct tested to 13 of the 16 required UL Standard 181 tests.
- Flame penetration, impact, and puncture testing are not required for air connector approval.
- Flexible air connectors are identified with a round listing mark indicating the product is a Class
0 or Class 1 air connector.
7.1.3. Class 0
- Air duct or air connector having a flame spread index and smoke developed index of zero
determined in accordance with UL Standard 723 (ASTM Standard E84).
7.1.4. Class 1
- Air duct or air connector having a flame spread index not over 25, without evidence of
continued progressive combustion, and a smoke developed index of not over 50, determined
in accordance with UL Standard 723 (ASTM Standard E84).
7.1.5. Flexible air connector

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- See air connector.
7.1.6. Flexible air duct
- See air duct.

7.1.7. Flexible duct
- A flexible air duct or flexible air connector.
7.2. Buildings and Spaces
7.2.1. General
- Typically, codes (IMC, IRC, UMC, IAPMO) and local ordinances invoke NFPA Standards
90A and 90B or some variation thereof.
- NFPA Standard 90A covers the following buildings and spaces:
• Buildings of combustible construction (Types III, IV and IV; for definition of construction types,
see IBC [2015], Chapter 6) over three stories in height, regardless of volume.
• Spaces over 25,000 ft3 in volume.
- Buildings and spaces not covered by other applicable NFPA standards spaces:
• One- and two-story dwellings.

• Spaces not exceeding 25,000 ft3 in volume in any occupancy.
7.2.2. NFPA 90A Materials
- Ducts must be constructed of steel, aluminium, copper, concrete, masonry, clay tile, or
Class 0 or Class 1 flexible air duct tested in accordance with UL Standard 181 and
installed in conformance with the conditions of their listing.
- Flexible ducts must not be used as vertical ducts serving more than two adjacent stories
in height and must not penetrate fire-resistance-rated assemblies or construction.
- Steel and aluminium construction must comply with SMACNA Duct Construction
Standards—Metal and Flexible (2005).
- Refer to Tables 6A, 6B, and 6C for the relationship between gage and nominal/ minimum
thickness for galvanized steel, uncoated steel, and stainless steel sheet thickness.
- For galvanized ducts, a G60 (Z180) coating (ASTM Standard A653) is commonly used for
dry indoor applications because the small amount of corrosion that may occur causes
only discoloration in 20 to 30 years.
- For outdoor exposures or wet indoor applications, the galvanized duct coating should
be G90 (Z270) minimum.
- The average years to first rust for G90 (Z275) coating located outdoors depends on the
environment:
• 3 to 7 years for severe industrial.

• 15 to 20 for rural.
• 7 to 10 for Atlantic coast marine.
• 12 for suburban.
• 10 for urban (Stratton 2000).

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7.2.3. NFPA 90B Materials
- Supply ducts must be made of the following materials:
• Galvanized steel or aluminium having a minimum thickness per the standard/code

having jurisdiction (NFPA 90B [2018: Table 4.1.1.1]; IMC [2018: 603.4], IRC [2018: Table
M1601.1.1]; UMC [2018: Article 602.1]).
• Class 0 or Class 1 rigid or flexible air duct tested in accordance with UL 181 and installed
in conformance with the conditions of their listing.
• Rigid or flexible ducts must not be used as a vertical duct that is more than two stories
in height and must not penetrate fire-resistance-rated assemblies or construction.
• Return ducts governed by NFPA 90B (2018) must be constructed of metal, 1 in. nominal
wood boards, or other material provided that the material is not more flammable than 1
in. wood boards.
• Return ductwork under the jurisdiction of a code is commonly constructed in

accordance with SMACNA (2005).
• For galvanized ducts, a G60 (Z180) coating is recommended (ASTM Standard A653).
- Commentary.
• UMC (2018) and IAPMO (2018) do not have steel duct construction requirements for single-
dwelling units.
• For spaces not exceeding 25,000 ft3 in volume (light commercial), it is recommended
that duct systems be G60 (Z180) minimum galvanized steel, aluminium, or stainless steel
in compliance with SMACNA (2005) or flexible duct in compliance with UL 181.
7.3. Round, Flat Oval, and Rectangular Ducts
7.3.1. Round Ducts
- Round ducts are inherently strong and rigid, and are generally the most efficient and
economical ducts for air systems.
- The dominant factor in round duct construction is the material’s ability to withstand the
physical abuse of installation and negative pressure requirements.
- SMACNA (2005) lists construction requirements as a function of static pressure, type of seam
(spiral or longitudinal), and diameter.
- Proprietary joint systems are available from several manufacturers.
7.3.2. Flat Oval Ducts
- SMACNA (2005) also lists flat oval duct construction requirements.
- Seams and transverse joints are generally the same as those allowed for round ducts.
However, proprietary joint systems are available from several manufacturers.
- Flat oval positive- and negative-pressure ducts should meet the functional requirements
of Section 3.3 of SMACNA (2005).

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- Hanger designs and installation details for rectangular ducts generally also apply to flat
oval ducts.
7.3.3. Rectangular Ducts
- HVAC Duct Construction Standards— Metal and Flexible (SMACNA 2005) lists
construction requirements for rectangular steel ducts and includes combinations of
duct thicknesses, reinforcement, and maximum distance between reinforcements.
- Transverse joints (e.g., standing drive slips, pocket locks, and companion angles) and,
when necessary, intermediate structural members and tie rods are designed to reinforce
the duct system.
- Proprietary joint systems are available from several manufacturers.
- Rectangular Industrial Duct Construction Standards (SMACNA 2004) gives pressures up

to ±150 in. water.
- Fittings must be reinforced similarly to sections of straight duct. On size change fittings,
the greater fitting dimension determines material thickness. Where fitting curvature or internal
member attachments provide equivalent rigidity, such features may be credited as
reinforcement.
7.3.4. Nonferrous Ducts
- SMACNA (2005) lists construction requirements for rectangular (±3 in. of water) and
round (±2 in. of water) aluminium ducts.
- Round Industrial Duct Construction Standards (SMACNA 1999) gives construction

requirements for round aluminium duct systems for pressures up to ±30 in. water.
7.4. Fibrous Glass Ducts
- Fibrous glass ducts are a composite of rigid fiberglass and a factory- applied facing (typically
aluminium or reinforced aluminium), which serves as a finish and vapour retarder.
- Fibrous glass ducts must be constructed from UL Class 1 air duct material in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions and meet the requirements of UL Standard 181 for
rigid air ducts.
- Fibrous glass duct is available in molded round sections or in board form for fabrication into
rectangular or polygonal shapes.
- Duct systems of round and rectangular fibrous glass are generally limited to 2400 fpm and
±2 in. water.
- Molded round ducts are available in higher pressure ratings.
- Fibrous Glass Duct Construction Standards (NAIMA 2002a; SMACNA 2003) and
manufacturers’ installation instructions give details on fibrous glass duct construction.
- SMACNA (2003) also covers duct and fitting fabrication, closure, reinforcement, and
installation, including installation of duct-mounted HVAC appurtenances (e.g., volume
dampers, turning vanes, register and grille connections, diffuser connections, access
doors, fire damper connections, electric heaters).
- AIA (2006) includes guidelines for using fibrous glass ducts in health care facilities.

17
7.5. Phenolic Ducts
- A phenolic duct system comprises phenolic panels, fabrication methods, coupling

systems, and accessories to produce pre-insulated rectangular ductwork in sections up
to 13 ft long.
- Phenolic panels are 7/8 in. thickness and 1 3/16 in. thickness (SMACNA 2015).
- Phenolic ducts must be UL Class1 and meet the requirements of UL Standard 181 for
rigid air ducts.
- Phenolic panels comprise a fiber-free rigid thermoset phenolic insulation core faced with
silver aluminium foil on one side and plain silver aluminium foil on the other.
- In addition, there are several transverse joint systems available to suit different installation
and project specification requirements. They include panel fastener systems, aluminium grip
type flange systems, and a four-bolt system.
7.6. Flexible Ducts
7.6.1. General
- Flexible ducts are categorized by their UL listing as either air duct or air connector (see the
section on Definitions).
- Air ducts and air connectors may be metallic or non-metallic and are listed and labeled
as Class 0 or Class 1 by UL Standard 181.
- These ducts must be installed per the conditions of their listing and the manufacturer’s
installation instructions provided.
- The maximum allowed temperature inside flexible ducts (air ducts and air connectors)
is 250°F per their listing and NFPA 90A and 90B requirements.
- Commentary:
• The IMC (2018), IRC (2018), and UMC (2018) require installation instructions on or within
the package or there must be specific directions referring to the manufacturer’s web site
for instructions.
• Generally, minimum instructions are provided on or inside the package, with reference
to the website for more detailed instructions. Also see the section on Installation.
7.6.2. Flexible Air Connectors
- Air connectors are limited-use flexible ducts that can be used in lieu of air ducts in NFPA
90A and 90B buildings provided that they comply with the following limitations:
• Length does not exceed 14 ft.
• Connecting multiple sections of flexible air connectors using sheet metal couplings to
obtain a total air connector run greater than that allowed by code is not allowed.
• The flexible air connector does not pass through any wall, partition, or enclosure of a
vertical shaft having a fire resistance rating of 1 h or more.
• The flexible air connector does not pass through floors.

18
Commentary:
• Uniform Mechanical Code (UMC 2018) limits flexible air ducts and flexible air connectors
to no longer than 5 ft in length for non-residential systems and does not allow their use
in lieu of rigid elbows or fittings, except when connected to terminal devices.
• In addition to NFPA 90A (2018) and 90B (2018), the International Mechanical Code (IMC
2018) also limits flexible air connectors to 14 ft in length.
• For commercial systems, Chapter 21 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals

recommends flexible ducts be limited to 6 ft maximum, fully stretched.
7.7. Hangers and Supports
- SMACNA (2005) covers HVAC system hangers for rectangular, round, and flat oval
ducts. When special analysis is required for larger ducts, loads, or other hanger
configurations, AISC and AISI design manuals should be consulted.
- To hang or support fibrous glass ducts, the methods detailed by NAIMA (2002a) and
SMACNA (2003) are recommended.
- Flexible air ducts and flexible air connectors should be supported at intervals not
exceeding 4 ft when installed horizontal and 6 ft when installed as vertical risers.
- Flexible duct supports should be minimum 1 1/2 in. wide and of sufficient rigidity to
maintain this width to prevent any restriction of the internal duct diameter when the
weight of the supported section rests on the hanger.
- Cloth hangers should not be used.
7.8. Installation
- Sheet metal ducts must be installed in accordance with HVAC Duct Construction
Standards—Metal and Flexible (SMACNA 2005).
- Fibrous glass ducts must be installed in accordance with the industry fibrous glass duct
construction standards (NAIMA 2002a; SMACNA 2003).
- Flexible ducts must be installed in accordance with Flexible Duct Performance and
Installation Standards (ADC 2010), and as follows:
1. Owner’s representative should review flexible duct markings to verify that the flexible
duct is (1) a UL listed “Air Duct” or “Air Connector,” and (2) installed per applicable code
limitations.
2. Flexible air ducts and flexible air connectors should be installed fully extended with
minimal compression. Excess length should not be allowed for future relocation of VAV
boxes, registers, or other system components.
3. Install flexible ducts so that bends equal or exceed one duct diameter bend radius based
on the inside duct diameter. Ducts should not be bent across sharp corners such as
pipes, wires, posts, joists, or trusses.
4. For recommended flexible air duct and flexible air connector spacing, refer to the section
on Hangers and Supports.
5. The maximum sag between horizontal duct supports should be 1/2 in. per ft.

19
6. Tape and mastic used for sealing flexible duct to metal fittings should be listed and
labeled to UL Standard 181B. For details, consult the HVAC System Leakage, Sealants
sections “General” and “Flexible Duct.”
7. Do not install flexible duct upstream of VAV boxes. Instead, use rigid ducts in these
locations as described by Taylor (2015).
8. When installing flexible air ducts and flexible air connectors in inaccessible spaces, the
use of metal worm-gear clamps is recommended. Non-metallic fasteners (plastic straps)
are not recommended.
9. Do not penetrate non-metallic flexible duct inner core with sheet metal screws unless
the flexible duct manufacturer’s installation instructions specifically allow the use of
screws as part of the closure method.
10. When installing flexible air ducts and flexible air connectors in inaccessible spaces,
attention should be given to the ability to clean the flexible duct (see the section on Duct
Cleaning).
11. For insulated ducts, the outer vapor barrier should be pulled back over the core and
fitting and secured using two wraps of UL 181B-FX tape. A clamp may be used in place
of or in combination with the tape.
12. Fittings used in combination with flexible air ducts and air connectors should have a 2
in. minimum rigid attaching collar with a bead.
13. Flexible duct inner cores should be installed at least 1 in. onto the fitting and past the
bead prior to taping and application of the mechanical fastener past the bead. Beaded
fittings are not required when metal worm-gear clamps are used.
7.9. Plenums and Apparatus Casings
- SMACNA (2005) shows details on field-fabricated plenum and apparatus casings.
- Sheet metal thickness and reinforcement for plenum and casing pressure outside the
range of –3 to 10 in. of water can be based on Rectangular Industrial Duct Construction
Standards (SMACNA 2004).
- Carefully analyze plenums and apparatus casings on the discharge side of a fan for
maximum operating pressure in relation to the construction detail being specified. On the fan’s
suction side, plenums and apparatus casings are normally constructed to withstand negative
air pressure at least equal to the total upstream static pressure loss. Accidentally stopping
intake airflow can apply a negative pressure as great as the fan shutoff pressure. Conditions
such as malfunctioning dampers or clogged louvers, filters, or coils can collapse a normally
adequate casing.
- To protect large casing walls or roofs from damage, it is more economical to provide fan
safety interlocks, such as damper end switches or pressure limit switches, than to use
heavier sheet metal construction.
- Apparatus casings can perform two acoustical functions. If the fan is completely enclosed
within the casing, fan noise transmission through the fan room to adjacent areas is reduced
substantially.
- An acoustically lined casing also reduces airborne noise in connecting ductwork.
- Acoustical treatment may consist of a single metal wall with a field-applied acoustical liner or
thermal insulation, or a double- walled panel with an acoustical liner and a perforated metal
inner liner.

20
- Double-walled casings are marketed by many manufacturers, who publish data on structural,
acoustical, and thermal performance and also prepare custom designs.
7.10. Acoustical Treatment
- Metal ducts are frequently lined with acoustically absorbent materials to reduce noise.
Although many materials are acoustically absorbent, duct liners must also be resistant to
erosion and fire and have properties compatible with the ductwork fabrication and erection
process.
- For higher-velocity ducts, double-walled construction using a perforated metal inner liner is
frequently specified.
- Chapter 49 of the 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications addresses design

considerations, including external lagging.
- ASTM Standard C423 covers laboratory testing of duct liner materials to determine their sound
absorption coefficients.
- ASTM Standard E477 covers acoustical insertion loss of duct liner materials.
- Designers should review all the tests in ASTM Standard C1071. A wide range of
performance attributes (e.g., vapor adsorption and resistance to erosion, temperature,
bacteria, and fungi) is covered.
- Health and safety precautions are addressed, and manufacturers’ certifications of

compliance are also covered.
- AIA (2006) includes guidelines for using duct liner in hospital and health care facilities.
- Rectangular duct liners should be secured by mechanical fasteners and installed in

accordance with HVAC Duct Construction Standards— Metal and Flexible (SMACNA
2005).
- Adhesives should be Type I, in conformance to ASTM Standard C916, and should be

applied to the duct, with at least 90% coverage of mating surfaces.
- Good workmanship prevents delamination of the liner and possible blockage of coils,
dampers, flow sensors, or terminal devices.
- Rough edges should be sealed to prevent airborne fibers and erosion of lining.
- Avoid uneven edge alignment at butted joints to minimize unnecessary resistance to

airflow (Swim 1978).
- Rectangular metal ducts are susceptible to rumble from flexure in the duct walls during
start-up and shutdown. For a system that must switch on and off frequently (for energy
conservation) while buildings are occupied, duct construction that reduces
objectionable noise should be specified.
8. INDUSTRIAL DUCT CONSTRUCTION
8.1. General
- NFPA Standard 91 is widely used for design, construction, installation, and maintenance of
duct systems conveying particulates and removing flammable vapors (including paint-spraying
residue), and corrosive fumes.

21
- Industrial duct systems are generally classified as follows:
• Class 1 covers non-particulate applications, including makeup air, general ventilation, and
gaseous emission control.
• Class 2 is imposed on moderately abrasive particulate in light concentration, such as that
produced by buffing and polishing, woodworking, and grain handling.
• Class 3 consists of highly abrasive material in low concentration, such as that produced from
abrasive cleaning, dryers and kilns, boiler breeching, and sand handling.
• Class 4 is composed of highly abrasive particulates in high concentration, including materials
conveying high concentrations of particulates listed under Class 3.
• Class 5 covers corrosive applications such as acid fumes.
- For contaminant abrasiveness ratings, see SMACNA’s (1999, 2004) round or rectangular
industrial duct construction standards.
- See Chapters 15 to 34 of the 2019 ASHRAE.
8.2. Materials
- Galvanized steel, uncoated carbon steel, or aluminium are most frequently used for
industrial air handling.
- Aluminium ducts are not used for conveying abrasive materials; when temperatures
exceed 400°F, galvanized steel is not recommended.
- Duct material for handling corrosive gases, vapors, or mists must be selected carefully.
- For the application of metals and use of protective coatings in corrosive environments,
consult Accepted Industry Practice for Industrial Duct Construction (SMACNA 2008a), the
Pollution Engineering Practice Handbook (Cheremisinoff and Young 1975), and publications of
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) and ASM International.
8.3. Round Ducts
- SMACNA (1999) provides information on selecting material thickness and reinforcement

members for spiral and non-spiral industrial ducts.
- Spiral-seam ducts are only for industrial duct Class 1 and 2 applications.
- The tables in this standard are as follows:
- Class (Industrial Duct).
• Steel: Classes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
• Aluminium: Class 1 only.
• Stainless steel: Classes 1 and 5.
• Pressure classes for steels and aluminium. –30 to +50 in. of water, in increments of 2 in. of
water.
• Duct diameter for steels and aluminium. 4 to 96 in., in increments of 2 in. Equations are provided
for calculating construction requirements for diameters over 96 in.
8.4. Rectangular Ducts
- Rectangular Industrial Duct Construction Standards (SMACNA 2004) is available for

selecting hot-rolled steel, galvanized steel, or stainless steel thickness and reinforcement

22
members for industrial ducts. The data in this standard give the duct construction for any
pressure class and panel width.
- The designer selects a combination of panel thickness, reinforcement, and reinforcement

member spacing to limit the deflection of the duct panel to a design maximum.
- Any shape of transverse joint or intermediate reinforcement member that meets the minimum
requirement of both section modulus and moment of inertia may be selected.
- The SMACNA data, which may also be used for designing apparatus casings, limit the
combined stress in either the panel or structural member to 24,000 psi and the maximum
allowable deflection of the reinforcement members to 1/360 of the duct width.
8.5. Construction Details
- Recommended manuals for other construction details are Industrial Ventilation:
• A Manual of Recommended Practice (ACGIH 2013).

• NFPA Standard 91.
• Accepted Industry Practice for Industrial Duct Construction (SMACNA 2008a).
- For industrial duct Classes 2, 3, and 4, transverse reinforcing of ducts subject to

negative pressure below –3 in. of water should be welded to the duct wall rather than
relying on mechanical fasteners to transfer the static load.
8.6. Hangers
- The Steel Construction Manual (AISC 2011) and the Cold- Formed Steel Design Manual
(AISI 2008) give design information for industrial duct hangers and supports.
- SMACNA standards for round and rectangular industrial ducts (SMACNA 1999, 2004)
and manufacturers’ schedules include duct design information for supporting ducts at
intervals of up to 35 ft.
9. ANTIMICROBIAL-TREATED DUCTS
- Antimicrobial-treated ducts are coated (as a pre-coating or after fabrication) with a substance
that inhibits the growth of bacteria, mold, and fungi (including mildew).
- Antimicrobial-treated galvanized steel, stainless steel, and aluminium ducts can be used
when the service temperature of the antimicrobial compound is not exceeded.
- Prefabricated coatings allow metal to be pressed, drawn, bent, and roll-formed without
coating loss.
- Imperfections in metal ducts, such as spot welds and welded joints, can be repaired with
a touch-up paint of the antimicrobial compound.
- Fabrics can be made inherently antimicrobial by combining the antimicrobial chemistry

into the polymer fibers of the product.
- Glass fiber duct liners can be made resistant to bacterial and fungal growth using a
biocide that protects the airstream surface from microbial growth.
- All antimicrobial coatings or touch-up paints should be EPA-registered antimicrobial

compounds, tested per ASTM Standard E84, survive minimum and maximum service
temperature limits, and comply with NFPA Standards 90A and 90B.

23
- Coatings should have flame spread/smoke developed ratings not exceeding 25/50, and
meet local building code requirements.
10. DUCT CONSTRUCTION FOR GREASE- AND MOISTURE-LADEN VAPORS
10.1. Factory-Built Grease Duct Systems
- Manufactured grease duct systems are made in accordance with UL Standard 1978 and
are UL or ETL listed.
- These systems are also classified in accordance with UL Standard 2221 for clearance to
combustibles.
- Factory-built grease duct systems must be assembled in accordance with

manufacturers’ recommended instructions but are not required to be welded.
- Component assembly is by bands/ sleeves, and the systems are watertight.
- The gages for metal ducts used in these systems are considerably lighter than for
welded site fabricated grease ducts, and there may be substantial installation savings
because components are assembled with tools instead of welding.
- System segments classified for clearance to combustibles are typically provided as a metal
inner and outer shell, with insulation or an air gap in the annular space.
10.2. Site-Built Grease Duct Systems
- Installation and construction of ducts for removing smoke or grease-laden vapours from
cooking equipment should be in accordance with NFPA Standard 96.
- Kitchen exhaust ducts that conform to NFPA Standard 96 must (1) be constructed from
carbon steel with a minimum thickness of 0.054 in. (16 gage) or stainless steel sheet with
a minimum thickness of 0.043 in. (18 gage); (2) have all longitudinal seams and
transverse joints continuously welded; and (3) be installed without dips or traps that
may collect residues, except where traps with continuous or automatic removal of
residue are provided.
- Test ports should not be installed in grease-rated ductwork, except for temporary
measuring test holes, which are sealed by welding before equipment use. Because fires
may occur in these systems (producing temperatures in excess of 2000°F), provisions
are necessary for expansion in accordance with the following table.
- Ducts that must have a fire resistance rating are usually encased in materials with
appropriate thermal and durability ratings.
10.3. Duct Systems for Moisture-Laden Air
- Ducts that convey moisture-laden air must have construction specifications that
properly account for corrosion resistance, drainage, and waterproofing of joints and
seams.

24
- No nationally recognized standards exist for applications in areas such as kitchens,
swimming pools, shower rooms, and steam cleaning or wash-down chambers.
- Galvanized steel, stainless steel, aluminium, and plastic materials have been used.
- Wet and dry cycles increase metal corrosion.
- Chemical concentrations affect corrosion rate significantly.
- Chapter 50 of the 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications addresses material

selection for corrosive environments.
- Conventional duct construction standards are frequently modified to require welded or

soldered joints, which are generally more reliable and durable than sealant-filled,
mechanically locked joints.
- The number of transverse joints should be minimized, and longitudinal seams should
not be located on the bottom of the duct.
- Risers should drain and horizontal ducts should pitch in the direction most favourable
for moisture control.
- ACGIH (2013) covers hood design.
11. RIGID PLASTIC DUCTS
- The Thermoplastic Duct (PVC) Construction Manual (SMACNA 1995) covers

thermoplastic (polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, polypropylene, acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene) ducts used in commercial and industrial installations.
- SMACNA’s manual provides comprehensive polyvinyl chloride duct construction details

for positive or negative 2, 4, 6, and 10 in. of water.
- NFPA Standard 91 provides construction details and application limitations for plastic
ducts.
- Model code agencies publish evaluation reports indicating terms of acceptance of

manufactured ducts and other ducts not otherwise covered by industry standards and codes.
- Physical properties, manufacture, construction, installation, and methods of testing for

fiberglass-reinforced thermosetting plastic (FRP) ducts are described in the Thermoset
FRP Duct Construction Manual (SMACNA 1997).
- These ducts are intended for air conveyance in corrosive environments as manufactured by
hand lay-up, spray-up, and filament winding fabrication techniques.
- The term FRP also refers to fiber-reinforced plastic (fibers other than glass).
- Other terms for FRP are reinforced thermoset plastic (RTP) and glass-reinforced plastic
(GRP), which is commonly used in Europe and Australia.
- SMACNA (1997) has construction standards for pressures up to ±30 in. of water,
temperatures up to 180°F, and duct sizes from 4 to 72 in. round and 12 to 96 in.
rectangular.
12. AIR DISPERSION SYSTEMS
12.1. General

25
- Air dispersion systems are designed to both convey and disperse air in the space being
conditioned.
- Diffusion options include linear vents, nozzles, orifices, and porous fabrics.
- There are three typical cross-sectional shapes:
• Semi-circular D-shape.
• Quarter round.
• Cylindrical (most common).
- D-shape and quarter round are normally mounted to a surface (wall or ceiling), whereas
cylindrical are suspended from the ceiling.
- The cross-sectional area is based on the interior air velocity.
- Typically, these systems are made of fabric, but also include sheet metal or plastic film,
including porous and nonporous options.
- UL Standard 2518 is the recognized standard to evaluate fabric air dispersion systems
and their materials for safety and building code requirements.
- Consult the manufacturer for design criteria for selecting air dispersion type [linear
vents, orifices, nozzles, micro perforated (porous weave) fabric], fabric (porous or
nonporous, color, weight, and construction), suspension options (cable or track
options), and installation instructions.
- In design, consider velocities of 1000 to 1600 fpm at static pressures of 0.3 to 1.0 in. of
water to ensure proper airflow performance.
- Excessively turbulent airflow (from metal fittings or fans) or higher inlet velocities can
cause fabric fluttering, excessive noise, premature material failure, and poor air
dispersion.
- Fabric airflow restriction devices are available to help balance static pressures, reduce
turbulence, reduce abrupt inflation, and balance airflow into branch ducts.
12.2. Dispersion Types
12.2.1. Linear Vent Outlets
- Air is delivered through linear vents providing linear air flow.
- This vent typically consists of small openings (0.25 to 1 in. diameter) set in an array that is
long and narrow (Figure 3).
- Airflow typically ranges from 5 to 60 cfm per linear foot of vent at 0.5 in. of water and is
usually installed far enough away from a surface that it is a free-air jet.
- These linear vents normally run the length of the product on both sides.

26
12.2.2. Orifice and Nozzle Outlets
- Air is delivered through orifices or nozzles (Figure 4), providing jet-type air distribution.
- Typical applications are gymnasiums, pools, and manufacturing facilities.
- Nozzles can direct air perpendicularly away from the surface of the duct.
- Adjustable nozzles allow for changing flow direction, rate, and throw.
- Nozzles generally have the least entrainment of long-throw outlets.
- The sizes of orifices and nozzles typically range from 0.5 to 5 in. diameter.
12.2.3. Porous-Duct-Surface Air Distribution System
- Airflow is discharged through a porous weave or micro-perforated fabric (Figure 5), resulting
in air velocities 30 to 80 fpm at the surface of the fabric duct to minimize mixing between supply
and room air.
- This air distribution system is typically used for food processing, cleanrooms, and
laboratories where draft elimination and uniform air distribution are required.

27
- NFPA Standard 90A and IMC requirements for fabric air distribution systems are as
follows:
1. Install systems in entirely exposed locations.

2. Always operate these systems under positive pressure.
3. Do not allow any system component to pass through or penetrate fire-resistance-rated
construction.
4. All systems and components must be listed and labeled in accordance with UL 2518.
13. UNDERGROUND DUCTS
- No comprehensive standards exist for underground air duct construction.
- Coated steel, asbestos cement, plastic, tile, concrete, reinforced fiberglass, and other
materials have been used.
- Underground duct and fittings should always be round and have a minimum thickness
as listed in SMACNA (2005), although greater thickness may be needed for individual
applications.
- Specifications for construction and installation of underground ducts should account

for the following: water tables, ground surface flooding, the need for drainage piping
beneath ductwork, temporary or permanent anchorage to resist flotation, frost heave,
backfill loading, vehicular traffic load, corrosion, cathodic protection, heat loss or gain,
building entry, bacterial organisms, degree of water- and airtightness, inspection or
testing before backfill, and code compliance.
- Chapter 12 has information on cathodic protection of direct buried conduits.
- Residential installations may also be subject to the requirements in NFPA Standard 90B.
- Commercial systems also normally require compliance with NFPA Standard 90A.

28
14. DUCTS OUTSIDE BUILDINGS
- Exposed ducts and their sealant/joining systems must be evaluated for the following:
• Waterproofing.
• Resistance to external loads (wind, snow, and ice).
• Degradation from corrosion, ultraviolet radiation, or thermal cycles.
• Heat transfer, solar reflectance, and thermal emittance.
• Susceptibility to physical damage.
• Hazards at air inlets and discharges.
• Maintenance needs.
- In addition, supports must be custom-designed for rooftop, wall mounted, and bridge or
ground-based applications. Specific requirements must also be met for insulated and
uninsulated ducts.
15. SEISMIC QUALIFICATION
- Seismic analysis of duct systems may be required by building codes or federal

regulations.
- Provisions for seismic analysis are given by the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA 2009).
- Ducts, duct hangers, fans, fan supports, and other duct-mounted equipment are
generally evaluated independently.
- Chapter 56 of the 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications gives design details.

SMACNA (2008b) provides guidelines for seismic restraints of mechanical systems and
gives bracing details for ducts, pipes, and conduits that apply to the model building
codes and ASCE Standard 7.
- FEMA (2013a, 2013b, 2014) has three fully illustrated guides that show equipment
installers how to attach mechanical and electrical equipment or ducts and pipes to a
building to minimize earthquake damage.
16. SHEET METAL WELDING
- AWS (2012) covers sheet metal arc welding and braze welding procedures.
- It also addresses the qualification of welders and welding operators, workmanship, and
the inspection of production welds.
17. THERMAL INSULATION
- Insulation materials for ducts, plenums, and apparatus casings are covered in Chapter
23 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.
- Codes generally limit factory-insulated ducts to UL Standard 181, Class 0 or 1.

Commercial and Industrial Insulation Standards (MICA 2014) gives insulation details.
- ASTM Standard C1290 gives specifications for fibrous glass blanket external insulation
for ducts.
18. SPECIFICATIONS
- Master specifications for duct construction and most other elements in building
construction are produced and regularly updated by several organizations.

29
- Two examples are MASTERSPEC by the American Institute of Architects (AIA) and
SPECTEXT® by the Construction Sciences Research Foundation (CSRF).
- Master Format™ (CSI 2014) is the organization standard for specifications.
- These documents are model project specifications that require editing to customize each
application for a project.
- It is the design engineer’ responsibility to create clear construction specifications.

30

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2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

2. BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS

- New or different construction methods can be accommodated by the provisions for

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

- As described by NIH (2015), recommended control measures to reduce duct contamination

- Owners should routinely inspect ducts for cleanliness. If cleaning is needed,

- Fabric duct systems should be cleaned (washed) in accordance with manufacturer’s

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

- Leakage energy impacts depend on building and system type.

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

- Spiral lock seams need not be sealed.

• Be used in compliance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

5.3.2. Sheet Metal Ductwork

- Sherman (2005) recommended that the time-to-failure acceptance criterion should be at

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

5.3.3. Rigid Fiberglass Ductwork

- The first two use tapes (marked “181A-P” or “181A-H”).

5.3.4. Flexible Duct

5.4. Leakage Testing

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

- Testing these particular systems is important because of the potentially significant

- To supplement these construction-phase tests, leakage of duct-mounted components

- Leakage of air-handling units should be determined by specification and verification

- Test procedures based on ductwork pressurization should comply with industry

- Leakage test procedures currently used by industry focus on determining component

- Airtightness alone, however, is insufficient to determine leak-age airflows. It is important to

- To eliminate the uncertainty associated with estimating pressure differences across

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

5.4.4. Leakage Class

- Leakage class, as specified by ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2016, can be translated to

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

- If an entire system or section of ductwork is not to be tested, determine the allowed

- The engineer should: -

- The building owner or owner’s representative should: -

- The sheet metal contractor should: -

- The test contractor should: -

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

- Leakage tests should be conducted by the AHU manufacturer in accordance with

7. RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL DUCT CONSTRUCTION

7.1.1. Air duct

7.1.2. Air connector

- A flexible duct tested to 13 of the 16 required UL Standard 181 tests.

7.1.5. Flexible air connector

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

7.1.6. Flexible air duct

- See air duct.

- A flexible air duct or flexible air connector.

7.2. Buildings and Spaces

- NFPA Standard 90A covers the following buildings and spaces:

• One- and two-story dwellings.

7.2.2. NFPA 90A Materials

• 3 to 7 years for severe industrial.

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

- Supply ducts must be made of the following materials:

• Galvanized steel or aluminium having a minimum thickness per the standard/code

• Return ductwork under the jurisdiction of a code is commonly constructed in