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UPPCS
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2g

SPECIAL SHORT NOTES

02
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Environment - Common GS
to
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(Notes Code 1.4)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
Index
CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION OF ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY 3
CHAPTER-2: FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM 9
CHAPTER-3: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS 16
CHAPTER-4: AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 23
CHAPTER-5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION 29
CHAPTER-6: BASICS OF BIODIVERSITY 48
CHAPTER-7: INDIAN BIODIVERSITY DIVERSE LANDSCAPE 53
CHAPTER-8: ACTS AND POLICIES RELATED TO BIODIVERSITY 55
CHAPTER-9: PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA 61
CHAPTER-10: MARINE ORGANISMS 64
CHAPTER-11: PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS 66
CHAPTER-12: NATIONAL PARKS, WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES, RAMSAR
CONVENTION, BIOSPHERE RESERVES 69
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CHAPTER-13: CONSERVATION EFFORTS 73

CHAPTER-14: INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE 79
CHAPTER-15: CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION STRATEGIES 84
CHAPTER-16: OCEAN ACIDIFICATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES 86
CHAPTER-17: CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCES 87
CHAPTER-18: OZONE DEPLETION 94
CHAPTER-19: INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE 97
CHAPTER-20: ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 99
CHAPTER-21: INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS 103
CHAPTER-22: SCHEMES RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT 107

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION OF ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY
1. Ecology: Scientific study of the reciprocal relationship between organisms (including microbes,
plants, animals, man) with their environment; derived from two Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning
home and ‘logos’ meaning study. (UPRO 2014)
• Autoecology: Study of individual organism or individual species.
• Synecology: Study of group of organisms of different species which are associated together as
a unit in form of a community.
• Arne Naess was a Norwegian philosopher who coined the term “deep ecology” in 1972.
(UPPCS M 2014)
Ecology is permanent economy” was the slogan of Chipko Movement which was related to plant
conservation and deforestation. (UPPCS Pre 2012, M 2003, 2007, 2015,)
2. Environment: Everything which affects an organism during its lifetime known as environment;
comprises both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. Natural capital includes all
renewable and non-renewable environmental resources. It includes air, water, land, minerals and
forests. (UPPCS Pre 2012) The environment is defined as the social, cultural and physical
conditions that surround, affect and influence the survival, growth and development of people,
animals or plants. (UPPCS Pre 2020)
3. As defined in the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, “environment includes water, air and land
and the inter-relationship which exists among and between water, air and land, and human beings,
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other living creatures, plants, microorganisms and property.” (UPPCS Pre 2006, 2014, 2021,
UPLDA 2013, UPBEO Pre 2019, UPRO 2021) The environment modified by human activities
is called 'Anthropogenic environment'. (UPPCS Pre 2019)
4. Components of Environment
• Biotic components: green plants, non-green plants, parasites, decomposers and man.
• Abiotic components: Energy, radiation, temperature and heat flow, water, atmospheric gases
and wind, fire, gravity, soil, topography etc. (UPRO 2016)
5. Levels of organizations in ecology: Population
– Community - Ecosystem – Landscape -
Ecosystem (UPPCS Pre 2017)
a. Individual: Individual living being, has
ability to function independently + It may
include plant, animal, bacterium, fungi etc.
b. Population: Community of interbreeding
organisms (same species), occupying a
defined area during a specific time.
c. Community: refers to the populations of
different kinds of organisms living
together and sharing the same habitat.
o Major community: Large-sized,
relatively independent + Depend only on sun’s energy from outside + Independent of
inputs and outputs from adjacent communities + Example is Tropical Evergreen forests.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Minor 1
communities: Dependent on neighboring communities + these are secondary
aggregations within a major community-> not completely independent units as far as
energy concerned + Examples are a mat of lichens on a cow dung pad.
d. Ecosystem: Structural and functional unit of biosphere; consists of community of living
beings and physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them.
It is not a closed system. (UPPCS Pre 2015, M 2014)
The term ecosystem was first used by A.G. Tansley. (UPLDA 2002)
o Components of Ecosystem
§ Abiotic components: Inorganic and non-living parts; consists of components such as
energy, rainfall, temperature, atmosphere, substratum, materials, latitude and altitude.
§ Biotic components: Biotic components are the living things that have a direct or
indirect influence on other organisms in an environment. For example plants, animals,
and microorganisms and their waste materials.
o Primary producers- Autotrophs (self-nourishing): Green plants and certain bacteria;
synthesize carbohydrate by the process of photosynthesis for themselves; supply indirectly
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to other non-producers. Examples include herbaceous and woody plants (in terrestrial
ecosystem); microscopic algae (in aquatic ecosystem). They can be called as primary
system or autotrophs. The production at the autotroph level is said to be primary
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productivity. The secondary productivity refers to the production at the heterotroph level.
(UPPCS Pre 2013,2015, UPRO 2017)
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o Primary productivity is the rate at which energy is converted by photosynthetic and

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chemosynthetic autotrophs to organic substances.

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The total amount of productivity in a
region or system is gross primary productivity. Primary productivity of temperate grassland
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is approx. 500gm per cm2 per year. Primary productivity of temperate forest is approx 1000
gm per cm2 per year. Primary productivity of Tropical forests is approx 2000gm per cm2
02

per year and primary productivity of Tropical savanna is approx 700 gm per cm2 per year.
(UPPCS Pre 2015)
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o The correct sequence of ecosystem in order of decreasing productivity is- Mangroves,

Grasslands, Lakes and Oceans. Despite occupying about 70 percent of the surface, the
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productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion tons. (UPRO 2021)

- Rice field is an example of artificial ecosystem. (UPPCS Pre 2016)
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- Consumers- Heterotrophs: incapable of producing their own food; depend on organic

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food derived from plants, animals.

ü Herbivores: herbivores feed on plants ex Deer, rabbit
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ü Carnivores- consume animals. Ex Lions, Polar Bear

ü Omnivores: consume both plants and animals. Ex pigs, crows
- Decomposers: They break down the remains and other wastes and release simple
inorganic molecules back to environment
ü Scavengers: Consume the soft tissues of dead animals. Ex vultures, raccoons
ü Detritivores: Consume detritus of plants and animal origin. Ex earthworms,
millipedes and dung beetles
ü Saprotrophs: Feed on any remaining organic matter that is left after other
decomposers do their work. It includes fungi, bacteria and single-celled protozoa.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Ecosystem services: 1

e. Biome: large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat. E.g.
Rainforest biome or tundra biome; distinct from habitats because any biome can comprise a
variety of habitats.
f. Biosphere: includes all living organisms on earth, together with the dead organic matter
produced by them. https://t.me/pcsstudies1

6. Ecotone: zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. Examples are mangrove,
grassland, estuary and river bank. (UPPCS Pre 2012)

§ Characteristics: It is a zone of tension (as it has conditions intermediate to bordering

ecosystems) + It could contain species that are entirely different from those found in the
bordering systems+ It can be natural or man-made+ For example, ecotone between an
agricultural field and a forest is a man-made one.
7. Edge Effect: Higher density of organisms and variety of species can be found within an ecotone.
8. Edge Species: Organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone.
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(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
9. Ecocline: It is a zone of gradual but continuous1change from one system to another when there is
no sharp boundary between the two in terms of species composition.

10. Terms related to response to biotic or abiotichttps://t.me/pcsstudies1

factors:
• Ecotope: Smallest ecologically distinct landscape features landscape features in mapping and
classification system.
• Ecological Amplitude: Every species has a specific range within which it can tolerate
ecological changes which is called Ecological amplitude.
• Ecophene: Also known as ecads, these are variation in phenotypes (observable physical
characteristics). For Example, European living in Africa will have different feature (E.g. higher
melanin in skin) than one living in Europe.
• Ecotype: It occur when ecophenes remain in their new environment for too long as a result
morphological changes become genetically fixed. As a result, these morphological changes are
permanent. However, interbreeding among two ecotypes to produce a viable offspring is
possible.
• Ecospecies: Among animal or plant of some species are kept separate environment for a very
long time the adaptations become permanent part of the genes. As a result, both morphological
and genetic variation is now permanent.
• Homeostasis: Maintaining constancy of internal body by physiological like ensuring constant
body temperature (Thermoregulation).
• Ecological Transition: The concept of ‘Ecological Transition’ was first used by John W.
Bennett. He proposed the concept in his book ‘‘The Ecological Transition: Cultural
Anthropology and Human Adaptation”. Ecologically speaking, the transition is expressed in
the growing incorporation of Nature into Culture and by the breakdown of local self-
sufficiency—the ability of the local group to satisfy its needs with existing resources in a
particular geographical range. (UPPCS Pre 2020)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• Niche: Unique functional role of a species1in an ecosystem; all the biological, physical and
chemical factors that a species needs to survive; Types include habitat niche, food niche,
reproductive niche, physical and chemical niche. Joseph Grinnell referred to the “ecological
or environmental niche” as the ultimate distributional unit of “species and subspecies”.
(UPPCS Pre 2005, 2022)
Habitat Niche
A place or part of an ecosystem, occupied by The
a role of an organism within its environment
particular organism. (UPPCS Pre 2019) or ecosystem.
Physical space Function of activity
Reflects living place of an organism Reflects its biotic and abiotic association with
environment in terms of its diet, reproduction
and other activities

11. Aquatic zones: not called biomes, divided into distinct life zones with regions of relatively distinct
plant and animal life; differences due to salinity, levels of dissolved nutrients, water temperature,
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depth of sunlight penetration. Hydrosphere is the largest ecosystem of the Earth. (UPRO 2017)
• Fresh water ecosystem: Classified as lotic (moving water) or lentic (still or stagnant
water). Lotic includes freshwater streams, springs, rivers etc; Lentic water includes pools,
l.c

ponds, bogs and lakes; water on land is continuously cycling; low salt content (always less
ai

than 5ppt). [UPPSC Prelims 2023]

• Marine or Ocean ecosystem: Salt concentration equal to or above that of seawater i.e., 35
m

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ppt, about 90% of which is sodium chloride. It is the most stable ecosystem. (UPPCS Pre
2g

2013,2018)
• Brackish water ecosystems: Salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. Examples include estuaries,
02

salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.

Ø Estuaries: Fresh water from rivers meet ocean water and two mixed by action of tides; highly
productive as compared to adjacent river; coastal bays, river mouths form the estuaries.
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12. Biosphere: Part of earth where life can exist; represent a highly integrated and interacting zone of
ni

atmosphere (air), hydrosphere(water) and lithosphere(land) + Absent at extremes of north and

south poles + Energy required for life within biosphere comes from the sun.
to

13. Important Terms

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• Biotic Potential: Maximum rate at which a population can increase when resources are
unlimited and environmental conditions are ideal.
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• Bionomics: In ecology, bionomics (Greek: bio = life; nomos = law) is the comprehensive study
of an organism and its relation to its environment. Another way of expressing this word is the
term currently referred to as “ecology”. It stresses the value of natural systems which influence
human systems and is not related to the management of life. (UPLDA 2001)
• Carrying Capacity: Maximum number of individuals of a given species that an area’s
resources can sustain indefinitely without significantly depleting those resources.
• Gaia hypothesis: Earth is a complex living entity, with the sustenance of life dependent on
self-regulating interactions among organisms and their inorganic surroundings.
• Ecological Footprint: The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth’s
ecosystems. It’s a standardized measure of demand for natural resource that may be compared

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
with the planet’s 1
ecological capacity to regenerate. It can be defined as the biologically
productive minimum area of land required to provide for everything people need to sustain
their life. It includes fruits, vegetables, wood, fibers, fossil fuel use and also the release of
carbon dioxide. Its unit is Global hectares. (UPPCS Pre 2012, UPRO 2016)
• Six Mass Extinction: Mass extinction refers to a substantial increase in the degree of
extinction or when the Earth loses more than three-quarters of its species in a geologically
short period of time + The sixth, which is ongoing, is referred to as the Anthropocene extinction
+ Researchers have described it as the “most serious environmental problem” since the loss of
species will be permanent.

******

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-2
FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
1. Energy Flow: The flow of energy from producers to top consumers is called energy flow which
is UNIDIRECTIONAL. (UPPCS Pre 2015) The primary source of energy is Solar energy which is
the main driving force. (UPPCS M 2015, UPRO 2016)
Characteristics: Energy always flow from lower (producer) to higher (herbivore,
carnivore) trophic level + It never flows in reverse direction + There is loss or decrease of
some energy in form of unsuable heat at each trophic level. (UP RO 2017, UPPCS Pre 2019,
2023)
2. Trophic level interaction: It is representation of energy flow in an ecosystem; trophic level is the
position it occupies in a food chain.

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3. Food chain: Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms
with repeated eating and being eaten link is called a food chain + It starts with producers and ends
with top carnivores + Example: Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk/Eagle. In a
food chain man is both primary and secondary consumer. (UPPCS Pre 2016, GIC 2010)
I. Grazing food chain: Consumers start food chain utilising plant as their food; For example
o In a terrestrial ecosystem, the grass is eaten by a caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard
and lizard is eaten by a snake
o In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton (primary producers) eaten by zooplanktons
which are eaten by fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans. (UPPCS M 2005)
o Grazing food chain is maximum at Aquatic ecosystem.

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(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1

II. Detritus food chain: Starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals and plant bodies
consumed by microorganisms and then to detritus feeding organism called detrivores + It is
maximum in terrestrial/land. om
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4. Food web: Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web + It represent all possible paths of
energy flow in an ecosystem + It has more than one alternative for food to most of organisms->
2g

increase the chance of survival(Example: Grasses may serve food for rabbit or grasshopper or
cow).
02
c2
ni
to
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5. Ecological Pyramids: Steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic way are referred as
ecological pyramids.
a. Pyramid of numbers
o Pyramid of numbers - Upright: Grasses occupy lowest trophic level-> herbivores->
primary carnivore-> Secondary carnivores-> Top carnivores + In this, with each higher
trophic level, the number of individual decreases. (UPPCS Pre 2019)
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1

o Pyramid of numbers - Inverted: Number of individuals increased from lower level to

higher trophic level + Example: Tree ecosystem

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b. Pyramid of Biomass: Individuals in each trophic level are weighed instead of being
counted i.e, the total dry weight of all organisms at each trophic level at a particular time + It
overcomes size difference problem.
o Upright pyramid: Biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum; the high trophic
level has very less amount of biomass.

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(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Inverted 1 like pond, pyramid of
pyramid: In aquatic ecosystems biomass is inverted
because producers are tiny phytoplanktons that grow and reproduce rapidly. (UPPSC GIC
2010)

c. Pyramid of Energy: It is used to compare the functional roles of trophic levels in an

ecosystem + It represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each
transfer to another trophic level + Always Upward, with large energy base at bottom + The
10 per cent energy law states that there is only 10 per cent of the transfer of energy from one
trophic level to another.
6. Bioaccumulation: It takes place in a single organism over the span of its life, resulting in a higher
concentration in older individuals.
7. Biomagnification: There is increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain
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to another; to biomagnify a pollutant must be long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically

active.

8. Biotic Interaction

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1

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Examples
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• Mutualism : Sea anemone gets attached to the shell of hermit crabs for the benefit of
transport and obtaining new food whilehttps://t.me/pcsstudies1
the anemone provides camouflage and protection
m

utilizing its stinging cells to the hermit crab.

2g

• Competition : An example would be competition between cattle and antelope on western

rangelands.
02

• Parasitism : Tap worm, roundworm, malarial parasite, many bacteria, fungi, and viruses
are common parasites of humans. The parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter from
c2

its host..
• Commensalism : Suckerfish often attaches to a shark. This helps the suckerfish get
ni

protection, a free ride as well as a meal from the leftover of the shark’s meal. The shark
does not, however, get any benefit nor is it adversely affected by this association
to

• Amensalism : The bread mould fungi Penicillium produce penicillin an antibiotic

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substance which inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria. A large tree shades a small
plant, retarding the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large
gi

tree..
• Predation : owls that eat mice, and lions that eat gazelles.
Bio-Geo-Chemical cycle: The cycling of the nutrients in biosphere is called biogeochemical or
nutrient cycle. It involves movement of nutrient elements through various components of an
ecosystem which are interdependent on each other. [U.P.R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2016, U.P.P.C.S.
(Pre) 2021]
a. Nutrient cycling

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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1

- Perfect nutrient cycling: Nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilized; most gaseous
cycles are perfect cycles. Example : Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle
- Imperfect nutrient cycle: Sedimentary cycles are relatively imperfect (some nutrients are
lost from the cycle and get locked into the sediments).
9. Gaseous cycles:
§ Hydrological (Water) cycle: Continuous circulation of water in Earth-atmosphere system
driven by solar energy + Water moves from one reservoir to another by the process of
evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration and
ground water flow. https://t.me/pcsstudies1

§ Carbon cycle: Carbon is present in the atmosphere in form of CO2 + Cycle involves
continuous exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms + Carbon from
atmosphere -> green plants by photosynthesis + Carbon from animals -> Through respiration
and decomposition of dead organic matter, it returns to the atmosphere + It is usually a short
term cycle; also accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter in the peaty layers of marshy
soil in bottom sediments of aquatic systems which take a long time to be released + Ocean is
the second largest carbon sink + CO2 is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphere.
Without it and other GHGs, Earth would be a frozen world.
§ Nitrogen cycle: Elemental form of Nitrogen cannot be used directly by most living
organisms. It needs to be fixed to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates before it is taken by plants.
It occurs in three ways:
- By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae)
- By man using industrial processes (fertilizer factories): It exceeded amount fixed by
natural cycle and has became a pollutant which can disrupt balance of nitrogen lead to
acid rain, eutrophication etc.
- Atmoshperic phenomenon such as thunder and lightning

o Step 1: N2 Fixing ==> Nitrogen → Ammonia or Ammonium Ions

o Step 2: Nitrification ==> Ammonia or Ammonium Ions → Nitrite → Nitrate
o Step 3: Ammonification ==> Dead Matter + Animal Waste (Urea, Uric Acid) → Ammonia or Ammonium
Ions.
§ Most of the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere. Rest is Nitrified (Step 2) to nitrates.
§ Some of the nitrates is available for plants. Rest is Denitrified (Step 4).
o Step 4: Denitrification ==> Nitrate → Nitrogen

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• Oxygen cycle: 1
§ Oxygen-> most vital element on Earth- roughly 21% of the atmosphere.
§ Processes that produce oxygen: Photosynthesis in plants; Sunlight + water vapour =
some oxygen is produced. (UPPCS M 2012)
§ Processes that consume oxygen: Breathing, decomposition, combustion and rusting.
§ Cycling of oxygen
Ø Highly complex process
Ø Oxygen + nitrogen = nitrates
Ø Photosynthesis- oxygen is released as a byproduct
Ø Animals and humans consume oxygen during respiration and release CO2 into
the atmosphere.
Ø This carbon dioxide is then again utilised by plants for photosynthesis and thus
the cycle moves on.
• Sedimentary cycle:
o Phosphorous cycle: Occurs in large amounts in phosphate rocks and enters cycle from
erosion and mining activities + Main storage is earth’s crust and it is available by
weathering and erosion + Phosphates also enters rivers and ocean + After million years
crustal plates rise and expose phosphates on land and the geochemical phase begin again.
§ Excess phosphorous and nitrogen from fertilizer runoff and sewage-> excessive
growth of algae-> Death and decay of these organisms deplete Dissolved oxygen->
Death of acquatic organisms such as shellfish and fish (Dead zones).
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§ Dead zone: It is an area in lakes and oceans where large areas are periodically depleted
of their normal flora and fauna + These zones caused by eutrophication coupled with
other factors including oil spill, dumping toxic chemicals and other human activities.
o Sulphur cycle: Reservoir is in soil and sediments (locked in coal, oil etc) and inorganic
deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) in the form of sulphates, sulphides and organic
Sulphur + It is released through weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and decomposition
of organic matter and is carried to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution.
§ Sulphur enters the atmosphere from several sources like volcanic eruptions, combustion of
fossil fuels, from the surface of the ocean and gases released by decomposition.
§ Atmospheric sulphur dioxide carried back to earth after being dissolved in rainwater as
weak sulphuric acid (acid rain).
§ Sulphur in the form of sulphates is taken up by plants and incorporated through a series of
metabolic processes into sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated in the proteins of
autotroph tissues. It then passes through the grazing food chain.
§ Sulphur bound in a living organism is carried back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes
and seas through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
9. Succession: Universal process of directional change in vegetation on an ecological time scale +
This process continue until a stable, mature community develops.
• First plant to colonize called as pioneer community
• Intermediate stage found in ecological succession is known as Sere or Seral community . The entire
sequence of communities that successively change in a particular area are called ‘Sere’.
(UPPCS Pre 2020)
• Final stage of succession is climax community.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o 1 where no community has existed previously +
Primary succession: It takes place an over
It include rock outcrops, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands
and lava flows, glacial moraines + new site is first colonised by hardy pioneer species such
as microbes, lichens and mosses.
o Secondary succession: Sequential development of biotic communities after complete or
partial destruction of the existing community.
o Autogenic and Allogenic succession: When succession brought by living inhabitants of
that community itself (autogenic succession) + If change brought by outside forces
(allogenic succession)
o Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession: Succession in which green plants in great
quantity (autotrophic succession) + If heterotrophs greater (heterotrophic succession) +
Both of these occur faster in area existing in the middle of the large continent.
o Hydrarch succession and Xerarch succession : Hydrarch succession is a form of plant
succession that starts in a shallow water and eventually culminates in a forest. Xerarch
succession is a form of plant succession, which starts from a very dry place and eventually

o
culminates in the mature forest. om
The correct order of biotic succession is as follows: Nudation → Migration → Ecesis →
Reaction → Stabilization. (UPPCS M 2016)
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-3
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
1. Introduction: Interrelations between organisms and environment on land constitute terrestrial
ecology + Most important limiting factors are moisture and temperature.
The statement ‘Vegetation is the true index of climate’ is associated with Koppen Climate
Classification, a system first published in 1900 and revised in 1918 by Wladimir Peter Koppen.
(UPPCS Pre 2018)
2. Forest Ecosystem: Classified majorly into coniferous forest, temperate forest and tropical forest.
• Coniferous forest (Boreal Forest):
- Region: covers most of inland Canada and Alaska, Sweden, Finland, Russia and northern
parts of Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Japan.
- Climate: Present in cold regions with high rainfall + Strong seasonal climates with long
winters and short summers;
- Flora: Evergreen plant species such as spruce, fir, pine trees;
- Fauna: Animals such as red fox, porcupine, bear etc;
- Soil: Soils characterized by thin podzols, acidic and are mineral deficient;
- Productivity and community stability is lower.
• Temperate deciduous forest: Characterized by moderate climate and broad-leafed deciduous
trees
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- Region: The world’s largest deciduous forests are typically concentrated in North
America, Europe, and parts of Russia, China, and Japan.
- Climate: Fairly uniform precipitation & average rainfall is in range of 30-60 inches
annually.
- Flora: Three levels of plants- Lichens, moss, ferns found on the forest floor; shrubs in
middle and hardwood trees like maple, oak, beech at third level;
- Fauna: Animal life includes Red-crowned crane, Owls, Hawks, Squirrels, Lynx,
Siberian tiger, Otters, Red panda etc
- Soil: Soils are podzolic and fairly deep.
• Temperate Evergreen Forest:
- Region: Parts of world which have Mediterranean type of climate such as Southern
Chile, California, Cape town of Africa and Southern Australia.
- Climate: warm, dry summers and cool, moist winters.
- inhabited by low broad leaf evergreen trees+ fire is hazardous factor + flora like oak,
pine, eucalyptus found here.
- Fauna: Animal Life includes Red-crowned crane, Black bears, Wolves, Leopard, Lynx,
Siberian tiger, Otters, Red panda
• Temperate rain forests:
- Region: The main is along the northwestern coast of North America from northern
California through southern Alaska+ small areas in southern Chile and Australia.
- Climate: Marked seasonality w.r.t temperature and rainfall + do not experience
extreme cold or hot temperatures+ fog contributes 18-30 cm of precipitation every
summer+ average annual precipitation up to 350cm annually.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
- 1 from ground + undergrowth is lush mainly of
Flora: Tallest trees have leaves 15-30 cms
mosses, lichens+ sciophilus plants developed mechanism to utilize low light intensity+
main trees include oaks, beeches, walnut trees, lime trees etc.
- Fauna: Grizzly bears are the common mammals found in Alaska.
• Tropical rain forests:
- Region: Occur near the equator; Found in Central and South America, western and central
Africa, western India, Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.
- Climate: Most diverse and rich communities on earth; temperature and humidity remain
high and uniform; annual rainfall exceeds 200cms and distributed throughout the year.
- Flora: vertically stratified with tall trees covered with vines, epiphytic orchids.
- Soils are red latosols + high rate of leaching-> useless for agri purposes + undergrowth
restricted by lack of sunlight at ground level.
- Fauna: The fauna species encompass okapi, tapir, rhinoceros, spider monkey etc.
• Tropical seasonal forests:
- Region: Found in S.E Asia, Central and south America, northern Australia, western
Africa and tropical islands of pacific as well as in India.
- Climate: Occur in regions where total annual rainfall is very high + segregated into wet
and dry periods.
- Flora: Ferns, lichens, mosses, orchids, and bromeliads etc.
- Fauna: Jaguar, boa constrictor, African gray parrot, keel-billed toucan etc.
• Subtropical rain forests: https://t.me/pcsstudies1

- Region: Occur in Central America, the West Indies, India, Madagascar, mainland
Southeast Asia, and the Philippines.
- Climate: Found in regions of fairly high rainfall but less temperature differences
between winter and summer.
- Flora and Fauna: epiphytes are common;
- Flora: Animal life similar to that of tropical forests; It is home to a number of birds, snakes
and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars and leopards.
3. Forest types in India
(Topic already covered in Indian Geography please refer the booklet) (UPPCS Pre 2015, M 2013;
UP Lower 2013)
Biome: Terrestrial part of biosphere divisible into enormous regions are called as biomes+
Climate is major factor that determines boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants and
animals+ Other most important factors are temperature and precipitation. Cropland is an
example of the anthropogenic biome. (UPPCS Pre 2018)
• Tundra biome: Means a barren land-> environmental conditions are very severe.
§ Distribution: Arctic tundra: Continuous belt below polar ice cap and above tree line in
northern hemisphere; North region of Canada, Alaska, Siberia and island group of Arctic
Ocean+ Alpine tundra: Occurs at high mountains above w.r.t to Arctic mountains found
at all latitudes; shows day and night temperature variations.
• Taiga/Boreal biome:
§ Distribution: It extends in cool temperate continental margin (45-65 degrees) only in
Northern hempishere + The regions include Siberian region of Russia, Northern
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1 It does not extend in Southern Hemisphere
Canada and Scandinavian countries. (Note:
because of absence of land mass beyond this latitude extent).
• Temperate decidious forests (British type climate):
§ Distribution: Extend over Britain, North France, North Germany, Norway,
Tasmania, New Zealand, Southern Chile and Western Canada.
• Tropical rain forest:
§ Distribution: Central and South America, western and central Africa, western India,
Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.
• Savannah:
§ Distribution: West African Sudan, East Africa, South America (Llanos and campos),
Australia (Queensland).
§ Other names: Brazil (Campos) + Venezuela (Llanos).
• Temperate grasslands:
§ Distribution: Found in various regions north and south of the equator including
Argentina, Australia, and central North America.
om
§ Other names: Pampas (Argentina), Prairie (America), Velds (South Africa), Steppe (Asia)
and Downs (Australia).
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• Desert:
§ Distribution: Major hot deserts of the world are located on tropics on western margin of
ai

the continent.
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4. Deforestation: Felling of trees as a result of https://t.me/pcsstudies1

urbanization, industrialization, mining and use of
wood for domestic and other purposes, shifting cultivation.
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02
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to
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• UN REDD Program = It is collaborative initiative of FAO, UNDP and UNEP + Multilateral

body which partners with developing countries by assisting them to develop capacities needed
to meet UNFCCC REDD+ requirements + It has country-based approach that provides
advisory and technical support tailored to national circumstances + Headquarters at Geneva,
Switzerland + 64 partner countries + created in 2008 in response to the UNFCCC decisions on
the Bali Action Plan and REDD at COP-13.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• Introduction to 1 mitigation solution developed
REDD+: Climate change by parties to
UNFCCC + It incentivizes developing countries to keep their forest standing by offering
results-based payments to remove forest carbon emissions.
1. REDD+ in UNFCCC: First negotiated in UNFCC 2005 (COP-11) + In 2013, seven
decisions on REDD+ produced known as “Warsaw Framework on REDD-Plus” + REDD+
goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes role of conservation,
sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks + UNFCCC
rulebook on REDD+ finalized in COP-21 in 2015.
• India’s REDD+ Strategy: Prepared by Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education
(ICFRE), Dehradun + It builds upon existing national circumstances updated in line with
NAPCC, Green India Mission and INDCs + Please Note: ICFRE is an autonomous
organisation or governmental agency under the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India
5. Grassland Ecosystem: Found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year + It is found mainly in
the high Himalayas in India; the rest of India’s grasslands mainly composed of steppes and
savannas.
• Indian Grasslands and Fodder research institute: Located at Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh)
• Central Arid zone research institute: Located at Jodhpur (Rajasthan).
6. Desert ecosystem: Found in regions with less than 25 cm of rainfall + It is also found in hot regions
where there is more rainfall but unevenly distributed in annual cycle.
• Adaptations of Desert plants
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o Conserve water: Leaves are absent or reduced in size, succulent and water soring; even
stem contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis; root system spread over large area.
o Animal adaptations: Fast runners, nocturnal in habit to avoid sun’s heat, conserve water
by excreting urine, long legs to keep body away from hot ground, camel is known as ship
of desert; few species of nocturnal rodents also present.
• Indian Desert- Thar desert (hot): Excessive drought, rainfall is scanty and irregular; relative
humidity of atmosphere is always low + Flora includes trees and shrubs like Acacia
jacquemontii, Acacia nilotica, Calligonum polygonoides+ slender stems and root systems, rain
perennials (visible above ground only during rainy season) + Fauna: Sanctuary for Great
Indian Bustard + Blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara, caracal inhabit open plains, grasslands and
saline depressions + It has nesting ground for Flamingoes and only known population of
Asiatic wild ass.
7. Desertification: Process by which the biological productivity of drylands is reduced due to natural
or manmade factors. It does not mean the expansion of existing deserts; Almost 30% (96.4 million
hectare) of India’s land mass is under desertification.
• UNCCD: One of three conventions finalized in 1992 Earth Summit + Established in 1994 +
Sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to
sustainable land management + Only convention stemming from a direct
recommendation of the Rio conference’s Agenda 21 + India became a signatory to
UNCCD on October 14, 1994, and ratified in 1996 + MoEF&CC is the nodal Ministry
+ Focus areas are improved living condition of people in drylands; maintain and restore soil
productivity; mitigate the effect of drought.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o 1that India hosted an edition of the UNCCD COP;
COP 14 in New Delhi (2019): First time
theme was ‘Restore land, sustain future’ + Key outcomes were:
§ Delhi declaration: Commitment for issues, including gender and health, ecosystem
restoration, taking action on climate change, private sector engagement.
§ Peace Forest initiative: Initiative of South Korea + Aims to use ecological restoration as
a peace-building process; addressing the issue of land degradation in conflict-torn border
areas.
§ Drought Toolbox launched to assess drought risks in their regions.
§ Roadmap for scaling up African-led Great Green wall initiative which aims to
restore 100 million hectares of land and create 100 million green jobs by 2030.
§ International coalition on sand and dust storms: Develop an SDS source base to
improve response to these storms.
§ Initiative of Sustainability, Stability and Security (3S): Launched by 14 African
countries to address migration driven by land degradation.
o COP 15 in Cote d'Ivoire (Western Africa) + Theme: ‘Land. Life. Legacy: From scarcity
to prosperity' + It was built on the findings of the second edition of the Global Land Outlook
o New UNCCD 2018-2030 Strategic framework
§ Most comprehensive global commitment to achieve Land degradation neutrality
(LDN).
§ LDN Target setting program: Global mechanism (GM) and Secretariat on UNCCD
supporting countries in national LDN target setting process.
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§ LDN Fund: Impact investment fund + Resources from public, private and
philanthropic sectors will be used to achieve LDN and land restoration projects
implemented in private sector + officially launched at COP 13 in Ordos, China.
• National initiatives to combat Desertification
o National Afforestation Programme (NAP)” for ecological restoration of degraded
forest areas implemented by National afforestation and Eco-development board (NAEB)
of MoEFCC.
o Multiple schemes like Green India Mission, fund accumulated under CAMPA, Nagar Van
Yojana etc. MoEF&CC promotes tree outside forests for increasing Trees Outside Forest
(TOF).
8. Land Degradation Neutrality: It is a condition where further land degradation (loss of
productivity caused by environmental or human factors) is prevented and already degraded land
can be restored.
• Bonn Challenge: Launched by Government of Germany and IUCN in 2011 + It is a global
goal to bring 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes into restoration by
2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030 + The Challenge exhorts the achievement of their
stated goals through an approach to restoration called forest landscape restoration (FLR) +
India joined the Bonn Challenge in 2015 with a pledge to restore 21 mha of degraded and
deforested land + This was raised to target of 26 mha by 2030 during UNCCD COP 14. India
aims to achieve Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) by the year 2030. LDN represents a
paradigm shift in land management policies and practices. It is a unique approach that counter
balances the expected loss of productive land with the recovery of degraded areas. (UPPCS
Pre 2019)
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
9. Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas:1It is a study recently published by ISRO, reveals
that land degradation and desertification have risen considerably in recent years + Some 97.85
million hectares (29.7%) of India’s total geographical area (TGA) of 328.72 mha underwent land
degradation during 2018-19.
10. About India state of Forest report: Report for assessment of India’s forest and tree cover + Three
categories of forests surveyed – very dense forests (canopy density over 70%), moderately dense
forests (40-70%) and open forests (10-40%) + Scrubs (canopy density less than 10%) are also
surveyed but not categorized as forests.
11. Forest Survey of India (FSI) = Established in 1981 + Premier national organisation under the
Ministry of Environment + It is responsible for assessment and monitoring of the forest resources
of the country regularly. In addition, it is also engaged in providing the services of training,
research and extension
12. Indian State of Forest Report 2021 = ISFR is a biennial (every two years) report on India’s forest
and tree cover prepared by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) + The ISFR 2021 is the 17th edition in
the series since 1987. The last such report was published in 2019 + The ISFR-2021 provides
information on forest cover, tree cover, mangrove cover, growing stock, carbon stock in India’s
om
forests, forest fire monitoring, above ground estimates of biomass using SAR data & climate
change hotspots in Indian forests + It also provides for the first time the forest cover in tiger reserve
areas, tiger corridors and the Gir forest that houses the Asiatic lion + Key findings:
l.c
• New features: First time assessed forest cover in tiger reserves, tiger corridors and the Gir forest were
accounted + Forest cover in tiger corridors increased by 37.15 sq km (0.32%) between 2011-2021;
ai

decreased by 22.6 sq km (0.04%) in tiger reserves.

• Total forest and tree cover of the country is 80.9 million hectare (24.62% of the geographical area of
m

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the country). As compared to the assessment of 2019, there is an increase of 2,261 sq km in the total
2g

forest and tree cover of the country (UPPCS Pre 2018, UPRO 2016, 2017)
• Increase in forest cover has been observed in open forest followed by very dense forest. There is a
decline in the moderately dense forests or “natural forests”
02

• Highest losses found in Kawal (Telangana), Bhadra (Karnataka) and the Sundarbans reserves (West
Bengal).
c2

• Pakke Tiger Reserve (Aru.P)-> highest forest cover of 97%. (VVImp.)

• Top 3 states showing increase in forest cover: Andhra Pradesh > Telangana > Odisha [Northeast
ni

reported the biggest losses in forest cover] (VVImp.)

to

• Area-wise Largest Forest Cover: Madhya Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh > Chhattisgarh > Odisha >
Maharashtra (VVImp.)
nn

• Forest cover as percentage of total geographical area: Mizoram > Arunachal Pradesh > Meghalaya
(VVImp.)
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• The present assessment reveals that 17 states/UT’s have above 33% of the geographical area under
forest cover
• Mangroves: Top three states showing mangrove cover increase - Odisha, Maharashtra and Karnataka
+ Total mangrove cover in the country is 4,992 sq km. An increase of 17 sq Km in mangrove cover has
been observed as compared to the previous assessment of 2019 + Overall Mangrove cover increased
by 0.34% as compared to the previous assessment.
• Bamboo Resources: MP > Arunachal Pradesh > Maharashtra > Odisha > Assam + Total area under
bamboo is decreased + State with highest increase in bamboo bearing area: Mizoram
• Carbon stock: Total carbon stock in India’s forest is estimated to be 7,204 million tones. There is an
increase of 79.4 million tonnes in the carbon stock of country as compared to the last assessment of
2019. The annual increase in the carbon stock is 39.7 million tonnes
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• 1 to forest fires
It also identifies 35.46% of the forest cover as prone
• Climate Change Hotspots - The report has also mapped the climate change hotspots in Indian forests,
based on projections for 2030, 2050 and 2080. It predicted that Himalayan states and UTs (Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh, J&K and Ladakh) will record the maximum increase in temperature and may
experience decrease in rainfall. Extreme rainfall may also increase in the states of the North East.
• New initiative of FSI documented where the ‘Above Ground Biomass’ has been estimated
(This Report is very much important from UPPCS Perspective, so Facts has to be revised)
Miyawaki method: It is a technique pioneered by Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki, that helps build dense,
native forests in a short time. It has revolutionized the concept of urban afforestation by turning backyards
into mini-forests.

******

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-4
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
1. Introduction: Ecosystems consisting of water as main habitat known as aquatic ecosystems.
2. Classification based on salt content
• Fresh water ecosystems: Less than 5ppt + Examples include lakes, ponds, springs and rivers.
• Marine ecosystems: Salt content 35 ppt or above + Examples are seas and open ocean.
Marine ecosystem covers approximately 71% of the earth's surface and contains approximately
97% of the planet's water. (UP Lower 2003, UPPCS Pre 2014)
• Brackish water ecosystem: Salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt + Examples are estuaries, salt
marshes, mangroves etc.
3. Various Zones

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(UPPCS Pre 2022)

4. Aquatic organisms
• Neuston: unattached organisms live at air-water interface; E.g: beetles and backswimmers
• Periphyton: Attached to stems of rooted plants+ live submerged in water; E.g: Sessile algae.
• Plankton: Includes both microscopic plants and animals like crustaceans+ limited
locomotory power-> distribution controlled largely by currents; E.g: Algae and crustaceans.
• Nekton: Swimmers; live under water; large and powerful to overcome water currents; E.g:
All sea animals.
• Benthos: Attached to bottom of water mass. Example: macroalgae, seagrasses, corals,
barnacles, mussels, sea urchins, and sea stars.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1

5. Lentic is standing water system E.g: Pond; Lotic-> Moving water system E.g: River
6. Factors limiting productivity of Aquatic habitats
• Sunlight
om
o Photic zone: Upper layer up to which light penetrates and photosynthesis takes place +
The depth depends on the transparency of water.
o Aphotic zone: Light does not penetrate so plant growth restricted + Only respiratory
l.c
activity takes place + It is also known as profundal zone.
• Dissolved Oxygen: Escapes water body through air-water interface & respiration of organisms
ai

+ When dissolved oxygen falls below 3-5 ppm, many organisms die.
m

• Transparency: SPM such as clay, silt etc. make water turbid-> limits light participation and
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photosynthetic activity.
2g

• Temperature: Water temperatures are less subject to change + The aquatic organisms have
narrow temperature tolerance limit.
02

7. Lake Ecology: Large body of water with huge area and depth + It is born from geological or
geomorphic process + It receive water from surface run-off; ageing occurs as lakes accumulate
c2

mineral and organic matter.

8. Lakes in India
ni

• Artificial lakes are more in number than natural lakes + natural lakes predominantly in
to

Himalayan regions, floodplains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.

• Lakes classified on the basis of salt content: On nutrient content basis they are classified as
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oligotrophic (very low), Mesotrophic (moderate) and Eurotrophic (high rich).

• Removal of nutrients technique: Deep water abstraction + Flushing + algae skimming +
gi

plants to suck nutrients + harvest fish and macrophytes + Sludge removal + Filters for algae
removal.
9. Eutrophication: Response to addition of artificial or natural nutrients such as nitrates and
phosphates through fertilizers, sewage etc. + It results in growth of green algae + Algal bloom
restricts penetration of sunlight + It leads to reduced oxygen levels-> organisms suffocate leads
to degradation of ecosystem and death of organisms.
• Effects of Eutrophication:
o Loss of freshwater lakes: It creates detritus layer in lakes and produces
successively shallower depth of surface water.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o 1restrict penetration of sunlight-> death of aquatic
Death of aquatic plants: Algal bloom->
plants and restrict replenishment of oxygen.
o New species invasion: cause ecosystem competitive by transforming the normal
limiting nutrient to abundant level.
o Loss of coral reefs: Occurs due to decrease in water transparency.
o Affects navigation due to increased turbidity + smell and water treatment problems +
increases biomass of inedible toxic phytoplankton, benthic and epiphytic algae +
unsuitable for aesthetic recreation.
• Mitigation: Restoration and preservation of ecosystems + Create buffer zones for sediments
to collect + Nitrogen testing + Industrial waste treatment and efficiency + reduce livestock
densities + Reduce non-point source
10. Harmful Algal Bloom: When algal bloom produces toxins, it affects marine organisms thus
making it difficult to breathe + Produces diatoms, cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates + Blooms can
occur due to nutrient enrichment and warm waters.
Producing High Biomass (Green Tides) Producing Toxins (Red Tides)
Mechanical disturbance Shellfish poisoning
Shading Direct lethal toxicity
Clogging water and overgrowth Ambush predation
Mucus and foam formation
11. Sea Snot and its Formation: Recently, Turkey’s Sea of Marmara, which connects the Black Sea
to the Aegean Sea, has witnessed the largest outbreak of ‘sea snot' + It is marine mucilage that is
formed when algae are overloaded with nutrients as a result of water pollution combined with the
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effects of climate change + The nutrient overload occurs when algae feast on warm weather caused
by global warming + It has caused mass deaths among fish populations + It looks like a viscous,
brown and foamy substance.
12. National plan for conservation of aquatic ecosystems: Single conservation programme for both
wetlands and lakes + It is a centrally sponsored scheme, currently being implemented by Ministry
of Environment + It seeks to promote better synergy and avoid overlap of administrative functions.
13. Comparison between Lakes and Wetlands
• Lakes: Minimum depth 3 mts (NLCP), origin from multiple sources, small pelagial ratio, low
productivity and biodiversity, oligotrophic status, thermal stratification.
• Wetlands: Minimum depth < 3 mts, origin due to geomorphic processes, large pelagial ratio,
high productivity and biodiversity and no thermal stratification.
14. Estuary ecosystem: Areas where river meets the sea (exhibiting gradient in salinity), resulting
in mixture of fresh river water with salty ocean water, subject to tidal variations.
• Conditions: rising sea level, movement of sand and sandbars, glacial processes and tectonic
processes.
• Characteristics: Free connection with open sea, complete salinity range from 0-35 ppt, filter
for river water, heavily populated, little wave action + It is the biologically most productive
region and receives high amount of nutrients from fresh and marine water.
• Flora: Home to unique animals such as sea turtles and sea lions, sea catfish, saltworts,
eelgrass, salt grasses, cord grasses, sea grass, sedge and bulrush.
• Benefits of Estuarine ecosystems: Commercial fishing + Travel and tourism + Economic and
social benefits + Water purification + Breeding hotspot + Recreational and community benefits
+ Erosion protection + Stores and recycles nutrients.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1 coastlines, taking root in salty sediments, often
15. Mangroves: small tree or shrub that grows along
underwater + It belong to the families Rhizophoraceae, Acanthaceae, Lythraceae, Combretaceae,
and Arecaceae.
• Characteristics: Mostly evergreen forests grow in sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries,
mudflats etc+ Highly productive ecosystems + It protect shoreline from the effect of
cyclones+ Best example of ecotone + Grow below high water level of spring tides + Salt
tolerant trees (halophytes) + Adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged
mud + Produce pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome the respiration problem + Occur
worldwide mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S + Succulent leaves (store fresh water
in leaves), viviparous (Their seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once
germinated, the seedling grows into a propagule).
• Types: Rhizophora (send arching prop roots down into the water), Avicennia (send vertical
“Pneumatophores” up from the mud), Adventitious roots emerge from the main trunk of a
tree above ground level are called stilt roots.
• Largest Mangrove Forest: Sundarbans in West Bengal are the largest mangrove forest
regions in the world + listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site + Home to the Royal Bengal
tiger, Gangetic dolphins and Estuarine crocodiles.
• International Day for conservation of Mangrove: UNESCO celebrates on July 26; raising
awareness about mangrove ecosystems and to promote their sustainable management and
conservation.
• CRZ rules are also protecting mangroves.
• SMART (Special Monitoring and Reporting Tool) monitoring in Sundarbans empowers
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local administration contributing to more effective management of natural resources.

• Gujarat uses direct seed sowing, raised bed plantations and fishbone channel plantations to
restore degraded mangroves + Andhra Pradesh has established Eco-Development committees
and Van Samrakshan Samiti to implement conservation projects in mangrove areas.
• Mangroves for the Future Initiative: initiative by IUCN and UNDP + It promote investment
in coastal ecosystem conservation called the “Mangroves for the Future” + India is part of
this initiative.
16. Coral reefs
• Coral: Colonial organisms made up of individual polyps (tiny animals related to anemones)
+ symbiotic relationship with ‘Zooxanthellae’ microscopic algae which live on coral + use
calcium and carbonate ions from water to form a hard-cup shaped skeleton of calcium
carbonate.
• Symbiotic relationship between Coral and algae
o Zooxanthellae assist coral in nutrient production through photosynthetic activities +
Provide corals with fixed carbon compounds for energy, nutrition and enhance
calcification.
o Corals-> Provide algae a protected environment to live within and steady supply of CO2
for photosynthesis.
• Types of corals
o Black Corals: Black corals (Anthozoa: Antipatharia) can be found growing both in
shallow waters and down to depths of over 26,000 feet (8,000 metres), and some individual

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
corals can live for over 4,000 years + 1
However, the taxonomy of black corals is poorly
known compared to many other anthozoan groups + Many of these corals are branched and
look like feathers, fans or bushes, while others are straight like a whip.
o Hard corals: Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to build hard, white
coral exoskeletons. Hard corals are in a way the engineers of reef ecosystems and
measuring the extent of hard coral is a widely-accepted metric for measuring the condition
of coral reefs.
o Soft corals: Soft corals attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by
their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years.
These growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs.
• Coral reefs: Large underwater structure composed of skeleton of corals + It is built by
coral polyps as they secrete layers of calcium carbonate from under their skin + It grow best in
warm water and prefer shallow range with lots of sunlight for their symbiotic algae.
o Features: Occur in shallow tropical areas + It is one of the most productive ecosystems
with high biological diversity + Corals are generally slow growing colonies of animals
om
while zooxanthellae are fast growing plants + They live in nutrient poor waters + They
high capability to recycle scarce nutrients; extremely high productivity and biodiversity->
Tropical rainforests of the oceans.
l.c
o Temperature
§ The water's temperature should not be less than 20°C.
ai

§ The optimal temperature range for coral reef growth is between 23°C and 25°C.
m

§ A temperature of no more than 35°C should be used.

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§ Corals can only thrive in saline settings with an average salinity of between 27% and
2g

40%.
§ Coral reefs thrive in shallow water less than 50 metres deep. The water depth should
02

not exceed 200m.

o Classification of coral reefs based on location
c2

§ Fringing reefs: Grow near coastline around islands and continents + Separated
from shore by narrow and shallow lagoons + Examples include reefs of Andamans.
ni

§ Barrier reefs: Parallel to coastline separated by deeper, wider lagoons + Can reach
to

water’s surface forming a ‘barrier’ to navigation + E.g: reefs in Nicobar and

Lakshadweep.
nn

§ Atolls: Rings of corals that create protected lagoons and usually located in middle of
sea; circular barrier reefs but without their central land mass + Example is Atolls
gi

of Lakshadweep and Nicobar.

§ Patch reefs: Small, isolated reefs that grow up from open bottom of island platform +
They usually occur between fringing reefs and barrier reefs.
o Important Facts: Great barrier reef is the largest coral reef in the world+ most of the
coral reefs located between Tropic of cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
o Significance
§ Biodiversity protection-> highest productivity, occupy less than 1% of the ocean floor
but home to 25% of marine life (Tropical rainforests of the oceans).
§ Coastal protection: act as a barrier and protect the coastal areas from strong ocean
currents and waves.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
§ 1 of the sea; tourism potential.
Medicinal properties-> medicine chests
§ Others: Provide substrate for mangroves; largest biogenic CaCO3 producer.
17. Coral Bleaching: When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature or
Global Warming, light or nutrients; expel symbiotic algae living on their tissues-> causing them
to turn completely white. (UPPCS Pre 2012, 2015)

18. Initiatives for protection of coral reefs

• Corals included in Schedule-I list of WPA, 1972 by Ministry of Environment.
(UPPCS Pre 2015, 2016, 2019,2020)
• Aichi Target 10: Concerns reducing pressures on coral reefs and other vulnerable
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ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification

• Biorock Technology: Also known as Mineral Accretion Technology, it is a coral reef
restoration technology that utilizes low voltage electricity to improve the health and
growth rates of corals and other marine organisms. The technology works by passing a
small amount of electrical current through electrodes in the water +This results in
calcium carbonate formation. Coral larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow quickly.
• Glowing Glowing Gone Initiative: In partnership with the United Nations
Environment Programme, the Ocean Agency has launched Glowing Glowing Gone, a
creative awareness campaign that draws attention to coral fluorescence due to climate
change.
• Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network report (2021): Operational network of
ICRI with the primary task of reporting on the condition of the world’s coral reefs.
o Between 2009 and 2018, rising ocean temperatures destroyed approximately 14% of the
world's coral reefs.
o Coral bleaching events induced by rising sea surface temperatures have been identified
as the primary cause of coral loss.
o The report concluded that global warming due to climate change, overfishing, coastal
expansion, and deteriorating water quality have put coral reefs under relentless stress.

******
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-5
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such
as air, water and soil. Environmental degradation is either natural or by human beings. (UPPCS Pre
2006) During the mid-80’s decade of twentieth century, Degradation of natural resources, Environment
pollution and Displacement and Rehabilitation of Masses were the negative aspects of development,
discussed at large, but Politics and Development was not such important. (UPPCS Pre 2020)
Pollution caused by humans is called anthropogenic pollution. Anthropogenic pollution gives rise to
nonbiodegradable pollutants which do not get decomposed by organic decomposers or are decomposed
very slowly. (UPPCS Pre 2005)
1. Green Chemistry/Sustainable chemistry: It deals with the design and optimization of processes
and products in order to lower, or remove altogether, the production and use of toxic substances.
2. Water Pollution: It is addition of undesirable substance to water such as organic, inorganic,
biological and others which degrades the quality of water so that it becomes unfit for use.
• Causes of water pollution: Natural causes such as soil erosion, leaching of minerals from
rocks and decaying of organic matter; Community waste water, industrial wastes, excess
fertilizers reach groundwater by leaching, thermal pollution, marine pollution etc.
o Arsenic Pollution: Arsenic is a non-biotic pollutant of underground water. The
introduction of Arsenic into drinking water can occur as a result of its natural geological
presence in the local bedrock. Presence of Arsenic in groundwater is relatively high in areas
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adjoining banks of Ganga. Pesticides and insecticides also add to its presence in the
ecosystem. According to WHO the amount of arsenic should be 0.01 mg/liter. The problem
of water pollution with Arsenic is maximum in West Bengal (UPPCS Pre 2005, 2012,
2015)
• Effects
o Aquatic ecosystem: Polluted water-> less dissolved oxygen (DO) content-> eliminates
plankton, molluscs etc.; biocides and PCBs affect sensitive aquatic organisms.
o Human health: Water borne diseases like jaundice, typhoid etc; mercury compounds in
waste water cause numbness of limbs, blurring of vision; Cadmium causes itai itai
disease also called ouch-ouch disease; lead in water cause anaemia, headache, bluish line
around the gum.
o Ground water pollution: Excess fluoride cause neuro muscular disorders and, hardening
of bones and stiff, skeletal fluorosis.
• Key terms
o Dissolved oxygen: Higher organic and inorganic wastes -> Increased rates of
decomposition and O2 consumption-> less dissolved oxygen.
o DO < 8.0 mg L-1 is contaminated.
o DO < 4.0 mg L-1 is highly polluted.
o Factors: Surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms
and decomposition of organic matter determine amount of DO in water
o Biological oxygen demand: Water pollution by organic wastes measured in BOD + It is
amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic wastes
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
present in water + It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water + Higher
value of BOD -> low DO content of water. (UPPCS Pre 2007,2011, 2023, UPRO 2021)
o Chemical oxygen demand: Measure of oxygen equivalent of requirement of oxidation
of total organic matter (both biodegradable and non-biodegradable) present in water.
o Putrescibility: It is the process of decomposition of organic matter present in water by
microorganisms using oxygen.
o Biological Magnification: Increase in the concentration of non-biodegradable toxic
materials at each trophic level of a food chain. Examples include DDT, BHC,
Heptachlor, Aldrin, Endrin etc. (UPPCS Pre 2022)
o Water purification: It is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological
contaminants, suspended solids and gases from water. Water filtration can be done in many
ways like- through temperature, ultraviolet rays and radioactive ions, oxidation of
chemicals using a compound of ozone, Iodine and Chlorine. Cloramine (NH2Cl) and
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) are also used for water purification. (UPPCS Pre 2013, 2016)
o Eutrophication: When a water body becomes overly enriched with minerals and
om
nutrients which induce excessive growth of algae or algal bloom + It leads to oxygen
depletion of the water body. (UPPCS M 2013, Pre 2019)
§ Phytoplankton thrive on the excess nutrients and their population explosion covers
l.c
almost entire surface layer. This condition is known as algal bloom.
• Water (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974: It provides for prevention and
ai

control of water pollution and for maintenance of wholesomeness of water in the country +
m

It was amended in 1988. (UPPCS RO 2021) [UPPSC Prelims 2023]

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Important Provisions:
2g

o Establishment of Central, state and joint pollution control Boards for the prevention
and control of water pollution
02

o to evolve methods of utilization of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture

o to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works, and plants for the treatment of sewage and
c2

trade effluents
o It vests regulatory authority in SPCBs to establish and enforce effluent standards for
ni

factories.
to

o The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take the sample for
the purpose of analysis.
nn

• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977(enforced in 1978): To provide
for levy and collection of cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on
gi

certain types of industrial activities + Augment resources of Central board and State boards
for prevention and control of water pollution under Water act, 1974 + Creates economic
incentives for pollution control and requires local authorities and certain designated
industries to pay a cess for water effluent discharge + Act gives a polluter a 70% rebate of
the applicable cess upon installing effluent treatment equipment. (UPRO 2013)
• Namami Gange, Ganga Action Plant etc. deal with pollution in rivers. (UPPCS Pre 2022)
3. Soil Pollution: Addition of substances which adversely affect physical, chemical and biological
properties of entire soil and leads to reduced productivity.
• Causes: Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides + Dumping of large quantities of solid
waste, deforestation and soil erosion + pollution due to urbanization etc.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
Ø 1study conducted by the Peregrine Fund and the
In January, 2004, the results of a joint
Ornithological Society of Pakistan confirmed that Diclofenac Sodium was indeed the
primary reason for vulture deaths. That was an important study that resulted in a ban on
the manufacturing of veterinary Diclofenac by the Drug Controller General of India. The
devastating effect of this medicine can be understood from the fact that it caused the death
of 8.5 crore vultures in India, Nepal and Pakistan in 10 years. (UPPCS Pre 2015, 2018,
2019, 2022, M 2008)
• Sources: Industrial wastes (mercury, lead, cynides, chromates etc.), pesticides (insecticides,
fungicides, rodenticides), discarded materials (concrete, asphalt, rungs, leather, carcasses),
radioactive wastes (mining and nuclear power plants).
o The highest chemical pollution caused by the industrial effluents is from the leather
industry. The leather industry is mainly responsible for water and soil pollution. (UPPCS
Pre 2005)
o Effects: Agriculture (reduced nitrogen fixation, increased salinity), Health (bio
magnification, radioactive rays), Environment (reduced vegetation, ecological
imbalance).
§ The use of chemical fertilizer is a cause of nitrogen loss contributing to soil and land
degradation. Surface water and groundwater sources are polluted from chemical
fertilizer used in irrigation farming, thus contaminating water quality. The most
common chemical fertilizer, nitrogen is produced using large amounts of oil and
natural gas. As these are fossil fuels, their use generates air pollution. (UPPCS Pre
2016) Fertilizer and pesticide enter https://t.me/pcsstudies1
into food cycle. (UPPSC GIC 2010).
§ According to the latest data of CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) Mumbai is the
largest producer of solid waste. (UPPCS Pre 2010)
§ Crop rotation plays an important role to manage soil fertility, reduces erosion,
improves soil’s health and increases nutrients available for crops. It is also beneficial
for improving crop yields and the work ability of the soil. (UPRO 2016)
4. Noise pollution: Presence of such levels of nose in environment that are disturbing, irritating to
living beings.
§ Causes: Transportation vehicles, jet flights, factories and industries, loudspeakers, domestic
appliances etc. (UP Lower 2003)
§ Effects: Loss of hearing, cardiac disturbance, sleeplessness, headache, stress tension and
aggressiveness, mental imbalance and also affects biodiversity.
§ Measurement: Sound is measured in decibels; an increase of about 10 Db is double the
increase in loudness; WHO recommends that indoor levels of sound should be less than 30
Db.
§ Ambient noise levels: Noise pollution control and regulations Rules, 2000 notified under
EPA, 1986.
o Industrial areas 70-75 dB
o Commercial areas 55-65 dB
o Residential areas 45-55 dB
o Silence zone 40-50 dB
(UPPCS Pre 2022)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
§ National 1
Ambient noise monitoring network (NANMN): Through CPCB and State
pollution control boards to monitor noise on 24*7 basis in India’s seven largest cities.
§ Green Muffler: It is a control measure for noise pollution by planting green plants. Normally
4-5 rows of plants are grown near the noisy places like roadsides and industrial areas so that
they can obstruct noise. (UPPCS Pre 2014)
5. Radioactive Pollution: Spontaneous emission of proton (α particles), electrons (β particles) and
gamma rays due to disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements.
Radioactive pollution causes hereditary changes in the all living organism. It hinders blood
circulation and causes carcinogenesis. It does not cause disbalance among different minerals in the
soil. (UPPCS Pre 2009)
§ Types of radiation particles
o Alpha particles: Can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin.
o Beta particles: Penetrate through skin + Blocked by pieces of glass and metal.
o Gamma rays: Penetrate to human skin and damage cells + Blocked by a thick massive
piece of concrete.
§ Non-ionising radiation: short wave radiations such as ultraviolet rays + It has low
penetrating power + It damages eyes and injures cells of skin and blood capillaries.
§ Ionising radiations: Include X-rays, cosmic rays; high penetration power and cause
breakage of macro molecules.
6. E-Waste: Electronic and electrical equipment such as desktops, air conditioners etc. discarded
after their end of life.
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• Three types: White goods (household appliances), Brown goods (TVs, cameras) and grey
goods (computers, printers, scanners etc.)
• India is the fifth largest generators (around 2 mt annually) of E-waste after China, USA,
Japan and Germany.
• Impacts: They are repositories of hazardous and toxic substances such as lead, halogenated
substances, polychlorinated biphenyls etc + Refrigerators contain CFCs, HFCs-> Ozone
depletion and climate change + Damage central nervous systems, effect brain development of
children, kidney and reproductive system.
• E-Waste Management Rules, 2016
o MoEF&CC notified the rules in supersession of e-waste (Management and Handling)
rules, 2011.
o Definition of E-waste: Now includes CFL and other mercury containing lamps.
o Extended producer responsibility: Recovery of 10% of waste generated by 2017-18,
which increases by 10% every year to reach 70% 2023 onwards.
o Separate producer responsibility organization (PRO) can be established by producers.
o Cost for sampling and testing of hazardous substances shall be borne by the government
for RoHS test. If product does not comply-> cost should be borne by producers.
o Role of state governments: Ensure safety, health and skill development of workers
involves in recycling operations.
o Provision for penalties + One system authorization (CPCB) for process of dismantling
and recycling.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o 1 an additional amount as a deposit at the
Deposit Refund Scheme: Producer charges
time of sale of the electrical and electronic equipment and returns it to the consumer
along with interest when the end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment is returned.
o Urban Local Bodies: Duty to collect and channelize the orphan products to authorized
dismantlers or recyclers.
• First E-waste clinic: The Bhopal Municipal corporation and CPCB joined hands to set up
country’s first e-waste clinic in Bhopal + E-waste will be collected door to door in exchange
for a fee.
7. Solid Waste: These are discarded materials which include any garbage, refuse, sludge from a
wastewater treatment plant and other discarded materials.
• Treatment and disposal of solid waste
o Open dumps: Uncovered areas used to dump solid waste of all kinds + It act as breeding
ground for flies, rats + Rainwater run-off from these dumps contaminates nearby land
and water spreading disease.
o Landfills: Garbage is dumped and pit is covered with soil, preventing breeding of flies
and rats. om
o Sanitary landfills: More hygienic, lined with materials that are impermeable such as
plastics and clay and built over impermeable clay.
l.c
o Incineration plants: Process of burning waste in large furnaces at high temperature is
known as incineration + Recyclable material is segregated and rest of material is burnt
ai

and ash is produced.

m

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o Pyrolysis: Process of combustion in absence of oxygen or material burnt under controlled
atmosphere of oxygen + It is alternative to incineration. The gas and liquid obtained can
2g

be used as fuels.
o Composting: Biological process in which microorganisms decompose degradable
02

organic waste into humus in presence of oxygen + It increases the soil’s ability to hold
water and makes the soil easier to cultivate.
c2

o Vermiculture: Also known as earthworm farming + Earth worms added to compost

which break the waste and add excreta, making the compost very rich in nutrients.
ni

o Bioremediation: Use of bio-culture to degrade organic waste + Environment altered to

to

stimulate growth of micro-organisms and degrade pollutants

§ Bio-stimulation: Widely used approach to bioremediation; stimulate natural microbial
nn

communities with nutrients to break down contaminant.

§ Bio-augmentation: Organisms selected for high degradation abilities used to
gi

inoculate a contaminated site.

o Bio-mining: Use of separator machines to separate waste material of different sizes,
obtaining plastic, wood and metal in isolation for appropriate processing.
8. Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016
• Beyond Municipal Areas: now applicable beyond municipal areas and extend to urban
agglomerations, census towns, notified industrial townships, SEZs, state and Central
Government organizations etc.
• Source Segregation of waste has been mandated; Responsibility of Generators have been
introduced to segregate waste in three streams: Wet (Biodegradable), Dry (Plastic, metal,

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1 napkins, empty containers of cleansing agents,
wood etc), Domestic hazard wastes (diapers,
mosquito repellants, etc).
• Integration of waste pickers and dealers in the formal system by State governments, and
SHGs, or any other group to be formed
• User Fee and Spot Fine: Generator will have to pay ‘User Fee’ to waste collector and for
‘Spot Fine’ for Littering and Non-segregation.
• Provisions for Bulk and institutional generators:
o All Resident Welfare and market Associations, Gated communities and institutions
with an area > 5000 sq.m should segregate waste at source in to valuable dry waste
like plastic, tin etc and handover recyclable material to either the authorized waste
pickers or authorized recyclers, or to urban local body.
• The Biodegradable waste treated through composting or bio-methanation within the
premise as far as possible.
Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Substances
• Biodegradable: Those pollutants which can be broken down into simpler, harmless
substances in nature in the due course of time (by the action of micro-organisms like
certain bacteria) are called bio-degradable pollutants. Domestic waste (garbage),
urine, faecal matter, sewage, cattle dung, animal bones, etc. are biodegradable
pollutants. (UPPCS Pre 2014, M 2016)
• Non-Biodegradable: Non-biodegradable substances do not break down or dissolve
for many years. Because of that, theyhttps://t.me/pcsstudies1
can be recycled and reused. So, instead of
throwing wastes in the garbage, it can be dumped in a proper recycling place making
it useful for other purposes. [UPPSC Prelims 2023]

• New township to develop in-house waste handling, and processing arrangements for
biodegradable wastes.
• Industrial Estate to earmark 5% of the total area of the plot or minimum 5 plots/sheds for
recovery and recycling facility.
• All manufactures of disposable products shall provide necessary financial assistance to
local authorities for the establishment of waste management system.
• All industrial units using fuel and located within 100km from a solid waste-based RDF
plant shall make arrangements within 6 months of notification of these rules to use at least 5%
of their fuel requirement by RDF so produced.
• Non-recyclable waste having calorific value of 1500K/cal/kg or more shall not be disposed
of on landfills and shall only by utilized for generating energy either or through refuse-
derived fuel.

AIR POLLUTION
• Introduction: Air pollution is presence of any solid, liquid, gaseous and other substances in the
atmosphere in such concentration that may interfere with the normal environmental processes.
Coal, petrol and diesel burn to produce oxides of carbon and nitrogen which are the main factor
behind air pollution. (UPPCS M 2011)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1 mainly Nitrogen and Oxygen, but
The air around us is a mixture of gases,
containing much smaller amounts of water vapour, Argon, and Carbon
Dioxide and very small amounts of other gases.
Gas Percentage
Nitrogen (N2) 78.08%
Oxygen (O2) 20.95%
Argon (Ar) 0.93%
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.036%
Neon (Ne) 0.002%
Helium (He) 0.0005%
Krypton 0.001%
Xenon 0.00009%
Hydrogen 0.00005%

(UPPCS Pre 2005, 2017)

• Causes: It is aggravated because of increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic
development and industrialization.
• Primary and Secondary air pollutants
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Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants
Directly emitted from the sources to Result of chemical and photochemical reactions of
the atmosphere primary pollutants

Affect Living things directly and indirectly Affect living things directly. Although, they can
(by forming secondary pollutants) also affect indirectly via some intermediate

Usually Unstable pollutants Usually stable or inert

They can be control by reducing Complicated to stop because of the interlinked
anthropogenic emissions chemical reactions.
Examples: Particulate Matter, Examples: Tropospheric Ozone (O3), acid rain,
Carbon Monoxide, Sulfur dioxide, VOCs etc.
Secondary particulate matter(SPM),
(UPPCS Pre 2014) PAN(Peroxyacetyl Nitrate), Smog etc. (UPPCS Pre
2014, 2018)

• Major Air pollutants

• Carbon Monoxide: Colourless, odourless gas produced by incomplete burning of carbon-
based fuels, cigarettes etc.+ Cigarette smoke contains complex compounds like carbon
monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, arsenic, formaldehyde and benzene etc. It also contains nicotine
in minute quantity. (UPPCS Pre 2015)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o It lowers amount of oxygen entering1blood + Major role in the formation of ground-
level ozone and can elevate concentrations of methane. (UP LDA 2006, UPPCS Pre
2013, 2016, RO 2014)
• Carbon dioxide: It is a colorless and non-flammable gas at normal temperature and pressure,
emitted as a result of burning of coal, oil and natural gas + Concentrations of 7% may cause
suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen.
• Chloroflorocarbons (CFCs): Gases emitted from air conditioning systems and refrigeration
+ Rise to stratosphere-> reduction of ozone layer.
• Lead: Present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints etc + It cause nervous system damage
and digestive problems. Automobiles use lead as an anti-knocking agent. Lead when released
in the air with exhaust is most toxic. Lead affects the nervous system, brain and digestive
system of the human body. (UPPCS Pre 2006, M 2006, 2009)
• Ozone: Occurs naturally in upper layers of atmosphere + It shields earth from harmful
ultraviolet rays. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere from
approximately 15 to 30 kilometers above the Earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and
om
geographically. The ozone layer protects the Earth from the sun UV rays. 10% of the ozone
layer is found in the troposphere and 90% in the stratosphere. (UPPCS Pre 2008, 2018, M
2012) Stratospheric ozone is formed naturally by chemical reactions involving solar ultraviolet
l.c
radiation and oxygen molecules.
o Ground level ozone: Pollutant with high toxicity, vehicles and industries are major
ai

sources + It lowers our resistance to cold and pneumonia + It is formed when nitrogen
m

oxides and VOCs interact in the presence of sunlight.

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• Benzene: Natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals + It
2g

increase the risk of cancer, bone marrow failure and other illnesses.
• Nitrogen Oxide: Causes smog and acid rain; produced from burning fuels like petrol,
02

diesel; make children susceptible to respiratory diseases; Agricultural fertilisation and the
use of nitrogen-fixing plants also contribute to atmospheric NOx.
c2

• Suspended Particulate matter: Solids in air in form of smoke, dust, vapour suspended for
extended periods + The main source of haze-> reduces visibility.
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• Sulphur dioxide (SO2): India is largest emitter of anthropogenic SO2 + It is a colourless

to

gas, nasty and sharp smell + It reacts with other to form sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid etc.;
largest source is burning of fossil fuels by power plants and other industrial facilities + Other
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sources include extracting metal from ore, volcanoes, locomotives, ships etc + It react with
other compounds to form Particulate matter (PM) + It harm trees by damaging foliage and
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decreasing growth. (UPPCS M 2011)

§ Major SO2 hotspots in India: Singrauli (MP), Nevyeli (Tamilnadu), Talcher and
Jharsuguda in Odisha, Ramagundam in Telangana and Chandrapur in Maharastra.
§ Norilsk smelter complex in Russia is the largest SO2 emission hotspot in the world
followed by Kriel in Mpumalanga province in South Africa.
• Smog: Term used by HA Des Voeux; smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large
amounts of coal, vehicular emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants) + Smog contains
soot particulates like smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide. (UPPCS Pre 2019)
• Photochemical Smog: Also known as Los Angeles smog + It occurs most prominently in
urban areas that have large numbers of automobiles (Nitrogen oxides) + It is formed when
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1 pollutant) and organic compounds (primary
pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (primary
pollutants) , unsaturated hydrocarbons, react together in the presence of sunlight-> Ozone is
formed + It causes a light brownish coloration of the atmosphere, reduced visibility, plant
damage, irritation of the eyes, and respiratory distress. (UPPCS Pre 2022, UPBEO 2019)

Fig: Photochemical Smog

• Sulfurous smog: Also called London smog + It results from a high concentration of Sulfur
dioxide in the air and is caused by the usehttps://t.me/pcsstudies1
of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal +
It is aggravated by dampness and a high concentration of suspended particulate matter in
the air.
• Indoor air pollution: Rural areas at greatest risk-> rely on traditional fuels such as firewood,
charcoal etc. + release of particulates, carbon monoxide, organic matter and formaldehyde +
Urban areas-> construction of sealed buildings, use of synthetic materials etc.
• Pollutants
o Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, air
fresheners etc; cause irritation of eye, nose and throat, suspected to damage liver and other
parts of the body.
o Tobacco: Smoke generates chemicals which are carcinogenic + Health effects include
burning eyes, nose and throat irritation.
o Biological pollutants: Includes pollen from plants, mite and hair from pets, fungi, parasites
and some bacteria.
o Formaldehyde: Mainly from carpets, particle boards, and insulation foam; causes irritation
to eyes and nose.
o Radon: Gas emitted naturally by the soil. Poor ventilation-> confined inside the houses and
cause lung cancers.
o Particulate pollutants: These are matter suspended in air such as dust and soot. Major
source are industries, vehicles, power plants, construction activities, oil refinery, etc + Size
ranges from 0.001 to 500 micrometers (µm) in diameter. As per CPCB, particulate size 2.5
µm or less in diameter (PM 2.5) are greatest harm + It can be inhaled deep into the lungs and
can cause respiratory symptoms, irritation, pneumoconiosis, coughing, and fibrosis – excess
deposition of fibrous tissue.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1
Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal Gas Tragedy was a gas leak incident in India,
considered the world’s worst industrial disaster. It occurred on the night of 3 December, 1984
at the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Over 500,000
people were exposed to Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas. According to state government record,
3787 people died in this tragedy. Later, due to disease caused by the gas around 25000 people
were killed. (UPPCS Pre 2001,2008, RO 2014)

• Fly Ash: It is a coal combustion byproduct produced in coal based thermal power plants.
(UPPCS M 2004, UPPCS Pre 2021) It is mainly composed of Aluminum silicate, Silicon
dioxide and Calcium oxide + It is oxide rich and consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium
and magnesium and toxic metals like arsenic, cobalt and copper + It is captured by electrostatic
precipitators.
o Environment effects: Pollute air and water; causes respiratory problems, settles on leaves
and crops near -> lowers the plant yield.
o Advantages: It is a Pozzolan, a substance containing aluminous and siliceous material that
forms cement in the presence of water. Cement can be replaced by fly ash upto 35% + fly
ash bricks (light weight, high strength and durability) + reclamation of wastelands + filling
abandoned mines + enhances water holding capacity of the land + utilized in agriculture as
soil conditioners + tiles manufacturing and road embankments construction etc.
o Reducing Fly ash pollution: Washing the coal at its place of origin, capturing fly ash before
it is released in air by Chimney. https://t.me/pcsstudies1

o Steps taken to Promote Fly ash: Various notification for fly ash utilization since 1999
§ 2016 notification: Every agency engaged in construction within a radius of 300km of
coal based thermal power plant should use ash-based products for construction.
§ Maharastra: First state to have Fly Ash Utilization policy.
§ GST rates on fly ash and its products reduced to 5%.
§ ASHTrack Mobile app for better management of fly ash -> act as an interface between
flyash producers and potential users such as road contractors, cement plants etc.
• Control measures: Destroying pollutants by thermal combustion; collection of the pollutant;
arresters (separate particulate matters from contaminated air); Scrubbers (clean air for both
dust and gases); control of automobile exhaust; catalytic converter filters in vehicles; lead free
petrol etc.
o Stubble burning: It is the practice of intentionally setting fire to straw stubble that remains
after grains, such as rice and wheat, have been harvested + Every year, when winter sets in,
Delhi’s air pollution peaks with the air quality index (AQI) often plunging to the ‘severe’ and
‘hazardous’ categories.
o Torrefaction: It is a thermal process to convert biomass into a coal-like material, which has
better fuel characteristics than original biomass + Torrefied biomass is more brittle, making
grinding easier and less energy-intensive.
o Pusa bio-decomposer: It is developed by scientists at the Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, which turns crop residue to manure in 15-20 days by accelerating the decomposition
process.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o 1 stubble and also sow seeds in the area cleared;
Turbo Happy Seeder (THS): It can uproot
can then be used as mulch for the field.
• Acid Rain: Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6. When pH falls below this; it is called acid rain (pH
4.2 to 4.4) + Caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen emitted from the burning of fossil fuels. (UPPCS Pre 2001,2003,2013, M 2007,
UPLDA 2002, UPBEO 2019)

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• Taj Trapezium zone: SC ruling, 1996-> Banned the use of coal/ coke in industries located in the
TTZ; ordered switching over from coal to natural gas + Central Government in exercise of the
ai

powers conferred under EPA, 1986 constituted the Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution (Prevention and
Control) authority in 1998.
m

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• Bharat Stage Emission Standards: Instituted to regulate output of certain air pollutants by
2g

vehicles and other equipment using internal combustion engine; standards set up by the CPCB
under MoEFCC; based on European regulations first introduced in 2000.
02

a. BS-3: Since 2010, BS 3 norms have been enforced across the country.
b. BS-4: Applicable throughout country from 1st April 2017.
c2

c. BS-5: GOI decided to skip the standards and directly move to BS-6 standards by 2020.
d. BS-6: It will be applicable throughout the country from April 2020 for all vehicles.
ni

Ø Euro emission standards define the acceptable limits for exhaust emission of new vehicles
sold in the European Union. Emission of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbon, nonmethane
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hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter are regulated for the most vehicle
nn

type. It is notable that European countries introduced 'Euro I' standard in 1992.
Significantly, Mashelkar Committee for National Auto fuel Policy suggested
gi

implementation of Euro standard to control pollution. Importantly, BS IV standard was

implemented in India starting April 1, 2017. (UPPCS Pre 2013)
Ø To meet Euro-II emission standards, the sulphur content should be 0.05 per cent or less
than this in the ultralow sulphur diesel. (UPPCS Pre 2013)
Ø Differences in BS4 and BS6 Standards
§ Sulphur amount: The main difference is the reduction in amount of Sulphur in
fuel -> equip vehicles with better catalytic converters.
§ NOX emission: NOX emission from diesel is expected to come down by 70% and
by 25% in petrol vehicles.
§ Lower limit for HC and NOx in diesel engine.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• Others: 1
o Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) are being
introduced with the roll-out of Bharat Stage VI norms.
o Real Driving Emission (RDE) will be introduced in India for the first time with the
implementation of Bharat Stage VI emission norms.
o Onboard Diagnostics (OD) has been made mandatory for all vehicles.
o Fuel Injection technology: Mandatory for two wheelers; first such norm in India, filter out
PMs and Nox etc.
o Sulphur content: Sulphur traces in BS6 fuel is five times lower (10 ppm) as compared to
sulphur traces in BS4 fuel (50 ppm).
o Nitrogen oxide level for BS6-grade diesel engines and petrol engines will be brought down
by 70% and 25%, respectively.
o Particulate matter: BS VI can bring PM in diesel cars down by 80 percent. The new norms
will bring down nitrogen oxides from diesel cars by 70 per cent and in petroleum cars by
25 per cent.
• International Efforts
o Alliance for Clean Air: Part of WEF’s shaping the future of cities to create a shared set
of tools for analyzing the current situation and prioritizing actions.
o Clean Air Fund: It aims to harness $20 million in initial funding to provide targeted grants
to a range of organizations that are combating air pollution.
§ The new Clean Air Fund aims to https://t.me/pcsstudies1
support projects that “democratize” air quality
data, making knowledge about air quality more widely accessible to large numbers of
people in cities.
o Climate and Clean air coalition: It aims to unite governments, civil society and private
sector, committed to improving air quality and protecting the climate by reducing short-
lived climate pollutants across sectors.
§ Objective: To address short-lived climate pollutants.
§ Initial focus: Methane, black carbon, and HFCs
§ Initiated by the governments of Bangladesh, Canada, Ghana, Mexico, Sweden and the
United States, along with UNEP.
• Government Initiatives
o Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) : EPCA was
constituted with the objective of ‘protecting and improving’ the quality of the environment
and ‘controlling environmental pollution’ in the National Capital Region + The EPCA also
assists the apex court in various environment-related matters in the region + EPCA is Supreme
Court mandated body tasked with taking various measures to tackle air pollution in the
National Capital Region + It was notified in 1998 by Environment Ministry under
Environment Protection Act, 1986.
o Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM): It replaced Environment Pollution
(Prevention and Control) Authority + formed by an ordinance in 2020 + It will be a statutory
authority + It will supersede bodies such as the central and state pollution control boards of
Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, UP and Rajasthan

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Air (Prevention and control of pollution)1act, 1981: It was enacted to implement decisions
taken at Stockholm conference in 1972 + Aimed to improve quality of air and to prevent,
control, and abate air pollution + Expanded authority of the central and state boards
established under the Water act to include air pollution control. (UPRO 2021)
Important Provisions
o Definitions of the terms: Section 2(a) defines an ‘air pollutants’ as any solid liquid or
gaseous substance which may cause harm or damage the environment, humans, plants,
animals, or even damage property + It defines air pollution as presence of any dangerous
pollutant that makes the air unbreathable + 1987 amendment also added ‘noise’ to the list
of harmful substances.
o Demarcation of high pollution areas: Declaration of certain heavily polluted areas as Air
pollution control area and no industrial plant shall be operated in these areas without
prior consent of the State Pollution Control Board.
o Emission control: The State Government and the respective Boards may give instructions
to under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 to ensure emission standards for automobiles.
o Consent from state board: All industries operating within designated air pollution control
areas must obtain a “consent” (permit) from the State Boards.
o States not having water pollution boards were required to set up air pollution boards.
o Amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting industrial plant.
o The 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act and
extended the Act to include noise pollution.
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o Penalties: failure to comply with CPCB directives would result in imprisonment of 1
year + It is extendable to 6 years with a fine with the additional fine of Rs 5000 per day
• National Clean air program (NCAP)
o Launched by the MoEFCC in January 2019; first-ever effort in the country to frame a
national framework for air quality management with a time-bound reduction target.
(UPPCS Pre 2020)
o It seeks to cut the concentration of coarse PM10 and PM2.5 by at least 20% in the next
five years i.e, by 2024, with 2017 as the base year for comparison.
o The plan includes 102 non-attainment cities, across 23 states and Union territories, which
were identified by CPCB on the basis of their ambient air quality data between 2011
and 2015.
o City specific plan: Separate emergency action plan will be created for each of the 102
cities.
o Maharashtra tops the list with 17 cities including Pune and Nagpur, while UP is second
with 15 cities, including Lucknow and Varanasi.
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): Formulated in 2016 and notified in 2017 for Delhi
NCR to take institutionalized measures when air quality deteriorates, hence works only as
an emergency measure.
• National Air Quality Monitoring Programme: CPCB is executing body + Objectives are
to determine the status and trends of ambient air quality; To ascertain whether the
prescribed ambient air quality standards are violated; to obtain the knowledge and
understanding necessary for developing preventive and corrective measures.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• 1 NOx, Suspended Particulate Material (SPM)
Under the NAMP, four air pollutants SOx,
and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) have been identified for regular
monitoring at all the locations.
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards:12 pollutants are covered under it which are
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), PM 10, PM2.5, Ozone (O3), Carbon
Monoxide (CO), Ammonia (NH3), Lead, Benzene (C6H6), Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP), Arsenic
(As), Nickel (Ni). The mandate provided to the CPCB under Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act empowers it to set standards for the quality of air.
• National Air Quality Index: It is a number used by government agencies to communicate
the public how polluted the air quality is or how polluted it is forecasted to become.
• Launched in Sep 2014 as part of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan by MoEFCC.
• Nodal Agency: CPCB is the nodal agency; developed color coded air-quality index to
mark hazardous levels for the public benefit.
• Six AQI categories: Good, Satisfactory, moderately polluted, poor, very poor and severe.
• 8 pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, 03, NH3 and Pb.
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ai
m

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2g
02
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• Clean Air better life Initiative: It is a joint initiative by NITI Aayog and CII aimed at coming
gi

up with a roadmap to solve Delhi’s air quality crisis.

• Sameer App: It provides hourly updates on the National Air Quality Index + Developed
by the CPCB provides information on air quality for more than 100 cities + Represents the
listed cities in a colour-coded format based on their AQI levels + Also be used to file or track
complaints related to garbage dumping, vehicular emissions in a particular area.
• SAFAR App: National initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) to
measure the air quality of a metropolitan city, by measuring the overall pollution level and the
location-specific air quality of the city.
o Indigenously developed by IITM, Pune and is operationalized by IMD.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o 1 on a 24x7 basis with color-coding and also
It gives out real-time air quality index
provides 72 hours advanced forecast.
o SAFAR is an integral part of India’s first Air Quality Early Warning System
operational in Delhi.
o Parameters: Temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction, UV
radiation, and solar radiation.
o Pollutants monitored: PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, and Mercury.
o The WMO has recognized SAFAR as a prototype activity on the basis of the high-quality
control and standards maintained in its implementation.
• Comprehensive Environment Pollution Index: It is an Environment assessment index
developed by CPCB and IIT Delhi; assess environment quality of identified industrial
clusters; help to plan individual pollution mitigation measures for air, water and soil in
respective industrial area.
• WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing Unit)
o Developed to address air pollution at traffic intersections and dense traffic zones.
o Indigenously developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research - National
Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI).
o It has capacity to purify the air in an area of the 500-meter square.
§ Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) authority: Supreme court
mandated body to tackle air pollution in National Capital region; notified under EPA,
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1986; mandated to improve quality of environment and implement Graded response

action plan in NCR; can take complaints suo motu or on the basis of a filed complaint.
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) is a research
institute created and funded by the Government of India. It was established in Nagpur in
1958 as Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute (CPHERI) with focus on
water supply, sewage disposal and related diseases and to some extent on control of
industrial pollution. NEERI is a pioneering laboratory in the field of environmental
science and engineering and part of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR). [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2014, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012, U.P.P.C.S (Mains) 2011,
U.P.P.C.S (Mains) 2005,2017, U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2004]

• Eco-mark is a certification mark issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (The National
Standards Organization of India) to products conforming to a set of standards aimed at
ensuring the least impact on the ecosystem. The marking scheme was started in 1991.
Drugs and antibiotics are not in this list. (UPPCS M 2004, UPPCS Pre 2012,2013,
2021,2022)
• The Environmental Information System (ENVIS)'s 'Centre on Population and
Environment' is located in International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai.
(UPPCS Mains 2017)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
PLASTIC POLLUTION
Plastic pollution: India produces around 10 million tonnes of plastic per year of which around 5
million tonnes is rendered waste every year.
• Effects of Plastic pollution
• Environment: Ingestion, choking and entanglement hazards to wildlife; eventually enter the
food chain for humans as well.
• Health: Toxic chemicals such as styrene and Benzene-> Carcinogenic; nervous, respiratory
and reproductive system; vector borne diseases like Malaria, dengue due to inadequate SWM.
• Economic: Visual pollution-> affects tourism sector.
• Exacerbate disasters like floods by blocking the drains etc.
• Plastic waste management rules, 2016:
o Increased minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 40-50 microns; minimum thickness
of plastic sheets increased to 50 microns.
o Phasing out of non-reusable Multi-layered plastic
o Expanded the coverage even to rural areas
o Extended producer responsibility (EPR) for producers and generators
o Shopkeepers and vendors-> register with local authority and money collected should be used
for sustainable management of waste.
o Gainful usage of plastic waste promoted in rail construction and waste to oil conversion.
• Plastic waste management (Amendment) rules, 2022
o Single-use plastic: The manufacture,https://t.me/pcsstudies1
import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of
it will be prohibited with effect from the 1st July, 2022.
o The ban will not apply to commodities made of compostable plastic.
o The permitted thickness of the plastic bags, currently 50 microns, will be increased
to 75 microns from 30th September, 2021, and to 120 microns from the 31st December,
2022.
o EPR certificates: allow for sale and purchase of surplus extended producer responsibility
certificates.
o Centralized online portal: centralised online portal by Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) for the registration as well as filing of annual returns by producers, importers and
brand-owners, plastic waste processors of plastic packaging waste by 31st March, 2022.
o For banning other plastic commodities-> government has given industry 10 years
from the date of notification for compliance.
o Environmental compensation: levied based upon polluter pays principle, with respect
to non-fulfilment of EPR targets by producers, importers and brand owners.
Types of Plastics
• Thermoplastics: Which can be melted when heated and hardened when cooled-> reheated,
reshaped and frozen repeatedly.
§ Examples: Polyethylene Teraphtalate (PET), Low density polyethylene (LDPE) etc.
• Thermosets: After they are heated, these plastics cannot be re-melted and reformed.
§ Examples: Polyurethane (PUR), Phenolic resins, Urea formaldehyde (UF) resins etc.
• Microplastics: Most plastics do not degrade; instead, slowly breakdown into smaller fragments
known as microplastics.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• 1carbon and hydrogen. It is a polymer of ethylene
Polythene: It is made up of molecules of
(C2H4). It is non-biodegradable. This is the reason why polythene bags cannot be destroyed.
(UPPCS Pre 2007, 2008)
Initiatives to fight plastic pollution
• Clean seas campaign: It is an initiative by UNEP launched in 2017 to reduce and eliminate use
of single use plastic, cosmetics and micro-plastic sources; engages governments, the general public
and the private sector in the fight against marine plastic pollution.
• India and Norway on sidelines of CMS COP-13 issued joint statement towards mitigating marine
plastic litter.
• World Environment Day, 2018 the world leaders vowed to “Beat Plastic Pollution” & eliminate
its use completely.
• Honolulu strategy: Framework for comprehensive and global collaborative effort to reduce
ecological, human health and economic impacts of marine debris worldwide.

MERCURY POLLUTION
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1. Mercury pollution: Mercury is global and ubiquitous metal that occurs naturally and has broad
uses + Human activities like mining and fossil fuel combustion have led to widespread global
mercury pollution.
l.c
• Sources of pollution: Element in earth’s crust, natural sources like volcanic eruptions and
emissions from ocean; anthropogenic sources include coal burning power plants, burning
ai

hazardous waste, producing chlorine, breaking mercury products and spilling mercury.
m

• Harmful effects: It is considered as one of top ten hazardous chemicals of major public
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health concern (WHO) + Bio-accumulates and bio-magnify in food chain + Methy mercury
2g

is neurotoxin which impacts function and development of central nervous system + The
reproductive problems (fish have difficult schooling and decrease spawning success) + It
02

impairs mammals motor skills which affect their ability to hunt.

2. Minamata Convention: It is an international treaty signed in 2013 aimed to protect human health
c2

and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and its compounds
+ It also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste +
ni

It is agreed at 5th session of Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee in Geneva,

Switzerland and entered into force in 2017 + More than 140 countries including India have
to

ratified the convention.

• Major highlights of the convention:
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o Ban on new mercury mines

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o Phase-out of existing mercury mines

o Control mercury air emissions from coal-fired power plants, certain non-ferrous metals
production, cement production etc.
o Regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
o Phase out to reduce mercury use in certain products such as batteries, switches,
pesticides etc.
o Provision for technical assistance, information exchange, public awareness and
research and monitoring.
• Others: Convention gives five-year time to India to control and reduce emissions from new
power plants and 10 years-time for already existing power plants.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
NITROGEN POLLUTION
1. Nitrogen Pollution: Nitrous oxide (N2O) is three hundred times more potent green-house gas
than carbon dioxide + Nitrogen pollution is caused by emission of excess of Nitrogen from the
use of chemical fertilizers, livestock manure and burning fossil fuels etc.

2. International Nitrogen Initiative: It is an international program set up in 2003 under sponsorship

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of Scientific committee on problems of environment (SCOPE) and from International Geosphere-

Biosphere program (IGBP) + It aims at optimizing nitrogen’s beneficial role in sustainable food
production and minimize negative effects on health and environment resulting from food and
energy production.
3. UNEP Colombo Declaration: It has been developed with technical support of International
Nitrogen Management System (INMS), a joint activity of the UNEP and the International Nitrogen
Initiative supported by Global Environmental Facility + It aims to halve nitrogen waste by 2030 +
It calls upon UN agencies, other international organizations, academic and civil society
organizations to support its implementation.
4. Miscellaneous
Disease Potential Sources/Cause and their effects
Pneumoconiosis Coal dust, asbestos
Byssinosis Byssinosis
Minamata Neurological disease caused by severe mercury
poisoning
Blue Baby Syndrome It is a bluish discoloration of infants skin because
of poorly oxygenated blood due to Nitrate
contamination in water.
Itai-Itai Cadmium pollution causing softening of bones;
lungs and liver cancer.
Skeletal Fluorosis, Knock-Knee Syndrome Fluoride contamination causing teeth deformity,
(UPPCS M 2016) hardening of bones and joint pains.
Trachoma Infectious eye disease caused by unclean water.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
Black Foot disease 1Arsenic
Lung cancer Asbestos (UPPCS Pre 2012)
Affects the nervous system and brain of the Lead (UPPCS Pre 2008)
human body
Affects the human stomach Mercury
It displaces the oxygen in the human Carbon Monoxide (UPPCS Pre 2008, 2012)
bloodstream and lead to poisoning, Damage
to liver and kidney

Ailments related to breathing Soil Particles (UPPCS Pre 2008)

Cancer Oxides of Nitrogen (UPPCS Pre 2008)

*******

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-6
BASICS OF BIODIVERSITY
Definition: It refers to “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems. The diversity of organisms (Plants and animals)
present in an ecosystem is defined as bio-diversity. This includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems; term popularized by socio-biologist Edward Wilson.
(UPPCS Pre 2014, UPRO 2014)
The word biodiversity is a contraction of the phrase “biological diversity” and was first coined in
1985 by Walter G. Rosen of the National Research Council as a title word in a seminar, organized
to discuss biological diversity. (UPPCS M 2013)
The most significant aspect of biodiversity is the maintenance of the ecosystem. Biodiversity
functions on different levels of species, communities and ecosystems. (UPPCS Pre 2015)
1. Levels of Biodiversity
§ Genetic diversity: Variations in genes within a particular species.
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o Features: Greater genetic diversity -> Better chances of survival + allows species adapt
to changing environment + survival of species ensures survival of population.
l.c
o Example: India has more than 70,000 genetically different strains of rice.
§ Species diversity: Diversity at species level. It is ratio of one species population over total
ai

no. of organisms across all species in the given biome. (Zero= infinite biodiversity; one
m

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o Features: Species differ from one another, in their genetic makeup, do not interbreed in
2g

nature + Species diversity high in tropical rainforests and coastal zones + low in
isolated islands and polar regions.
02

§ Ecosystem/Community diversity: Different types of habitats.

o Features: The variety of species in ecosystem influenced by nature of ecosystem.
c2

o Example: India with its deserts, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries has a greater ecosystem
than a Scandinavian country like Norway.
ni

2. Measurement of Biodiversity
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§ Species richness
o Alpha diversity: Diversity within particular ecosystem; expressed by number of species
nn

i.e, species richness in that system.

o Beta diversity: Differences in species composition among ecosystems; metric of
gi

dissimilarities between the sites.

o Gamma diversity: Measure of diversity of the entire landscape.
§ Species Evenness: Measures proportion of species at a given site.
o Example: Low evenness indicate that only few species dominate the site.
§ Species diversity: It decreases as we move away from the equator towards the pole + Tropics
harbor more species than temperate or polar areas-> Because of no glacial cycles, uniform
temperature and precipitation and consistent solar radiation. It is well established that
temperature is a key factor for increasing daily activities (flight, foraging, and movements) of
butterflies. Butterflies cannot tolerate low temperatures. So maximum number of the species
of butterflies is found in tropical countries. (UPPCS Pre 2019)
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
3. Factors determining degree of Diversity 1
§Habitat stress: Low diversity in habitats under stress like harsh climate and pollution.
§Geographical Isolation: Diversity is less in isolated regions like islands and deserts.
§Availability of Ecological niches: Complex community-> Greater variety of niches-> greater
diversity.
§ Edge effect: Greater diversity at ecotones or transition areas between the ecosystems.
§ Geological history: Old and stable ecosystems – High diversity + Changing ecosystems – low
diversity as it does not allow species to establish themselves.
4. Key terms
o Endemic species: Found only in a specific geographical location and not found anywhere
else. For instance, Nilgiri Langur is endemic to Western Ghats which is a biodiversity
saturated or hotspot area in India. (UPPCS Pre 2014, 2015, 2019)
o Keystone species: Species which have disproportionately large effect on the communities
that it occurs. Disappearance of keystone species could result in series of extinction of other
species. For instance, Wolves and Wild durian. According to the definition provided by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature, a species not seen during the last 50 years is
considered to be extinct. (UPPCS Pre 2005)
o Indicator species/Sentinel species: These are species whose presence, absence reflects a
specific environmental condition+ Sensitive indicators of environmental problem. For
example, Lichens are very sensitive to SO2 pollution and bio-indicator of air pollution.
(UPLDA 2010, UPPCS Pre 2012,2013,2019, 2021)
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o Flagship species: They act as an ambassador, icon for a defined habitat or environmental
cause. Achieving conservation of these species also help in improving the status of many other
species. For example, Bengal Tiger and Jerdon’s Courser.
o Specialist or Generalist Species: In general, species that have narrow or limited niches are
considered to be specialist species. Koalas which feed only on leaves from eucalyptus trees in
Australia are an example of a specialist species. Species with broader niches, like coyotes or
raccoons are considered generalists. (UPPCS Pre 2014)
o Priority species: It is a term used by WWF solely for purpose of planning and
communication. It is chosen to represent a region. Examples of priority species in India
include One Horned Rhino, Snow Leopard, Asian Elephant etc.
o Invasive species: A species is termed invasive if it is previously absent in that ecosystem and
has been introduced in that area from outside mostly by human intervention. For example,
African Catfish in Keoladeo National park.
o Biopiracy: Practice in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating with indigenous
people is used by others for profit, without authorization to indigenous people themselves.
o Bioprospecting: Systematic and organized search for useful products from bio resources in
plants, microorganisms etc that can be developed further for commercialization and overall
benefits of the society.
o Biomining: Process of using microorganisms (microbes) to extract metals of economic interest
from rock ores or mine waste.
o Bioassay: A test in which organisms are used to detect presence or effects of any other physical
factor, chemical factor or any other type of ecological disturbance.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o 1 Earle; these are special places that are critical
Hopespots: Concept introduced by Dr.Sylvia
to the health of the Ocean + They allow us to plan for future and look beyond current Marine
protected areas + Anyone can nominate a spot that is special to him or her ,a site that gives a
HOPE + Important examples are Coral Triangle Hope Spots in Indo Pacific, Sargasso
Sea Hope Spots in Atlantic Ocean + Hope spot sites from India include Lakshadeep and
Andaman Nicobar Islands.
5. Mega Diverse Countries: These are world’s top biodiversity rich countries identified by
Conservation International to promote awareness of biodiversity conservation.
• Criteria: The major criterion is Endemism at species level and at higher levels such as genus
and family. To qualify the countries must:
• Endemic plants: The country must have at least 5,000 of the world’s plants as endemics.
• Marine ecosystem: It should have marine ecosystem within its borders.
• Note: It complements the concept of Biodiversity hotspots and High-Biodiversity wilderness
areas to achieve coverage of world’s biological resources.

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Fig: Megadiverse Countries (UPPCS Pre 2015)

6. Biodiversity Hotspots: These are regions having exceptional concentrations of plant endemism
and experiencing high rates of biodiversity loss. Norman Myers discussed about the concept in
his work “The Environmentalist” (1988).
• Total sites: Globally 35 sites have been identified as biodiversity hotspots for increased
attention towards the conservation.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• Criteria for Biodiversity hotspots 1
o Plant Endemism: It must contain at least 0.5% of the world’s total or 1500 species of
vascular plants as endemics.
o Habitat loss: It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.
• Sites in India: There are total 4 sites in India:
o Eastern Himalayas, Nepal and India
o Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar, Andaman Islands (UPPCS M 2009)
o Western Ghats, India
o Sundalands: It includes Nicobar group of islands and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei and Philippines.
(UPPCS Pre 2012, M 2012, 2016, UPLDA 2010, UPRO 2021)
7. High Biodiversity Wilderness Areas: These are large intact ecosystems of the world which have
significant levels of global biodiversity declared by Conservation International.
• 5 HBWAs sites: These include Amazonia, the Congo Forest of Central Africa, New Guinea,
Miombo-Mopane woodlands of Southern Africa and the North American desert complex.
om
8. Need of Conservation [UPPSC Prelims 2023]
• A growing population means increased demand for food and a corresponding need to
l.c
convert forests to agriculture land. Demographic factors including population growth,
density, distribution, migration and urbanization are important drivers of deforestation and
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loss of diversity. Industrialization is also responsible for the same. (UPPCS M 2011, RO
2016)
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• The main cause of the loss of biodiversity is the influence of human beings on the world’s
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ecosystem. The threats to biodiversity can be summarized in the following main points:
Alteration and loss of the habitats
02

• Introduction of exotic species and genetically modified organisms- Pollution, Climate

change & Overexploitation of resources. (UPPCS M 2002)
c2

• Natural habitat destruction is the main reason for the decrease in biodiversity as the
transformation of the natural areas determines not only the loss of the plant species but also
ni

a decrease in the animal species associated with them. (UPPCS Pre 2010,
2015,2016,2017)
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9. Modes of Conservation
nn

• Ex-Situ conservation: It means the conservation of species outside their natural habitats.
Examples of Ex-situ conservation - Seed banks, Zoological parks, Botanical gardens, the
gi

storage of seeds, pollen, tissue, or embryos in liquid nitrogen in Cryo-Bank etc. This method
can be used for virtually indefinite storage of materials without deterioration over a much
greater period about all other methods of ex-situ conservation. (UPPCS M 2009)
o Purpose: Rescuing threatened germplasm, produce material for reintroduction,
translocation, reinforcement, habitat, and management.
• In-Situ conservation: It is a method of conserving the animals and plants in their natural
habitats. Examples of in-situ conservation - National Parks, Sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves,
Reserved Forest, Protected Forest and Nature Reserves. (UPPCS Pre 2018) The biosphere is
an example of an open system. The input and output of substances take place in their system.
There can be reinvestment of new substances in the biosphere. (UPRO 2017)
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1

[UPPSC Prelims 2023]

*******

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-7
INDIAN BIODIVERSITY DIVERSE LANDSCAPE
1. Introduction: India is a Mega diverse country + It is ranked seventh in terms of species
richness, ninth in birds and fifth in reptiles and accounts for 7% of recorded species.
2. Biogeographic Realms: Large spatial regions in which ecosystems share a similar biota.
• Realms in India: The Himalayan region represented by Palearctic realm and rest of sub-
continent by Malayan realm.
3. Biomes: It is a large community of vegetation and wildlife adapted to a specific climate. There
are a total of five biomes in India:
• Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen forests
The maximum biodiversity is found in the tropical rain forest. They extend from 23°5'N to
23°5'S. This area has a suitable condition for the growth and development of flora and
fauna as it receives heavy rains and high temperature throughout the year. That is why it is
also called as optimum Biome. (UPPCS Pre 2012, 2016, 2017,2018, M 2014, RO2017)
o Location: Found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm
and mean annual temperature above 22 degree Celsius. Majorly found in western slope
of the Western Ghats, hills of the north eastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
o Characteristics: Well stratified, layers closer to the ground and covered with shrubs and
creepers + Height of trees is up to 60 m or above + No definite time for trees to shed
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their leaves.
o Species: Rosewood, Mahogony, Aini, Ebony, etc.
• Tropical Deciduous forests: Most widespread in India; also called monsoon forests. These
are found in regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm.
o Most deciduous: Rainfall between100 to 200 cms + It is found in the north eastern states
along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats and Odisha.
§ Species: Teak, sal, shisham, mahua, and sandalwood etc.
o Dry deciduous: Rainfall ranges between 70 -100 cm; found in rainier areas of the
Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
§ Species: Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, etc.
• Tropical Thorn forests
o Location: Rainfall less than 50 cm. It includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
o Characteristics: Plants are leafless for most part of the year and give an expression of
scrub vegetation.
o Species: Babool, ber, and wild date palm, khejri, palas, etc.
• Montane Forests: These are classified into two types, the northern mountain forests and the
southern mountain forests.
o Montane temperate: Located in Northern middle Himalayas ranges and Southern
Niligiri higher Mountain ranges. Some significant trees of montane temperate forest are
Rhododendrons, ferns, oak, maple, juniper, deodar.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Montane 1 state of Assam, Nagaland,
Subtropical: Located in the Mizoram, etc.
mountain ranges of western Ghats are also the abode of these types' forests. Major plant
species are poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, sal, sandan, laburnum, pomegranate,
olive, oleander, etc.
• Littoral and Swamp Forests: Consist of a number of salt-tolerant species of plants.
Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries.
Highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sundarbans of West
Bengal.

******

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-8
ACTS AND POLICIES RELATED TO BIODIVERSITY
1. Wildlife (Protection) act, 1972
• Definition of wildlife: It include any animals, bees, butterflies, fish and moths; and aquatic
or land vegetation which form part of any habitat.
• Jurisdiction: The act extends to whole of India. After enactment of Jammu & Kashmir
Reorganization Act, 2019, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 also became applicable to the Union
territory of Jammu & Kashmir.
• Five types of protected areas: National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries, community reserves,
conservation reserves and tiger reserves.
• Key provisions: Prohibition of hunting, protection and management of wildlife habitats,
establishment of protected areas, management of zoos etc.
• Prohibition of Hunting
o Prohibition of hunting: It prohibits the hunting of any wild animal specified in
Schedules I, II, III and IV of the Act.
§ Exception: A wild animal listed under these schedules can be hunted only after getting
permission from the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state if it becomes dangerous to
human life or to property or is disabled or suffering from a disease that is beyond
recovery.
• Six schedules
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o Schedule I and Part II of Schedule II: It provides for absolute protection-> highest
penalties.
o Schedule 3 and 4: The penalties for offences under these schedules are less and these
animals are protected.
o Schedule 5: Vermins includes animals which can be hunted. For instance, common crow,
mice and rats.
o Schedule 6: Plants which are prohibited from cultivation and planting. These mainly
include medicinal plants such as Beddomes cyad, Blue vanda, Kutch, Ladies slippers
orchids, pitcher plant, red vanda.
§ The schedule 6 has been added to include specified plants species to be protected by
Wildlife (Protection) amendment act of 1991.
• Authorities appointed under act
o Director of wildlife preservation: The Central Government appoints the Director of
Wildlife Preservation and assistant directors and other officers subordinate to the
Director.
o Chief wildlife warden: The State Governments appoint a Chief Wildlife Warden
(CWLW) who heads the Wildlife Wing of the department and exercises complete
administrative control over Protected Areas within a state.
• Amendment act of 1991: The state governments are not empowered to declare any wild
animal as vermin. Further, immunization of livestock within a radius of 5km from a national
park or sanctuary has been made compulsory.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• 1 Reduces the number of schedules from Six
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Bill 2022:
(currently) to Four now: Currently, there are six schedules: protected plants (one), specially
protected animals (four), and vermin species (one). The new bill removes the schedule for
vermin species (Vermin refers to small animals that carry diseases and destroy food e.g.
Monkeys, Nilgai)
New Schedules
Schedule I Animal species that will enjoy the highest level of protection
Schedule II Animal species that will be subject to a lesser degree of protection
Schedule III Protected Plant species
Schedule IV Specimens listed in the Appendices under CITES (scheduled specimens)

2. Environment Protection act, 1986

• Objective: It was enacted with objective of providing for protection and improvement of
the environment.
• Enabling act: It empowers Central Government to establish authorities with the mandate
of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms.
• Evidence for offences: The central government or any other person authorized empowered
to collect air, water etc. samples as evidences for offences under EPA,1986.
• Relaxation of Locus standi: Even a common citizen can approach court provided he has
given notice of sixty days of the alleged offence.
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• Debars civil courts: The act debars civil courts to entertain any suit in respect of an action,
order issued by central government or other statutory authority.
3. Indian Forest act, 1927
• Objective: To consolidate the then existing laws of forests and duties that can be levied on
forest products.
o Reserved Forest: Notified by states on any forest land to which government has
ownership rights.
o Protected Forest: The state government can declare any portion of protected forest as
closed for a term not exceeding 30 years during which rights of private persons can be
suspended.
o Village Forest: The State government may assign to any village community the rights
of Government to any land which has been constituted as reserve forest.
• Powers to Central Government: It gives power to central government to regulate timber
production and its transportation.
4. Forest Conservation act, 1980
• Objective: The act was enacted to help conserve the country’s forests.
• Provisions of the act
o It prohibits the felling of forests for any “non-forestry” use without prior clearance by
the central government.
o The clearance process includes seeking consent from local forest rights holders and
from wildlife authorities.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• The act also covers 1
o Requirement for declaring an area as a protected forest, wildlife sanctuary or a national
park.
o Maintenance of water supply in springs, rivers and tanks.
• Forest Conservation Division: Mandated to regulate diversion of forest land for non-
forestry purposes through effective implementation.
• Forest (Conservation) Rules, 2022:
o Formation of Committees: It constituted an Advisory Committee, a regional
empowered committee at each of the integrated regional offices and a screening
committee at State/Union Territory (UT) government-level.
o Advisory Committee: The role of the Advisory Committee is restricted to advise
or recommend with regards to grant of approval under relevant sections in respect
of proposals referred to it and any matter connected with the conservation of forests
referred to it by the Central government.
om
o Project Screening Committee: In each state/UT for an initial review of proposals
involving diversion of forest land + The five-member committee will meet at least
twice every month and will advise the state governments on projects in a time
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bound manner.
5. National Forest Policy, 1988
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o Aim: To ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance including

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atmospheric equilibrium which are vital for sustenance of all life forms, human, animal and
plant.
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o Objectives
02

§ Environment stability: Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation

and, where necessary, restoration of the ecological balance that has been adversely
disturbed.
c2

§ Natural heritage: Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the
ni

remaining natural forests with the vast variety of flora and fauna, which represent the
remarkable biological diversity and genetic resources of the country.
to

§ Soil erosion: Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchments areas of rivers,
nn

lakes, reservoirs in the “interest of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods and
droughts.
gi

§ Forest cover: Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through
massive afforestation and social forestry programmes.
§ Creating a massive people’s movement with the involvement of women, for achieving
these objectives and to minimize pressure on existing forests.
§ According to the National Forest Policy (1952), forests have been classified in India as
follows - (i) Protected forests (i) National forests (iii) Village forests (iv) Tree-lands.
(UPRO 2016)
6. Biological Diversity act, 2002 (UPLDA 2010)
• Objectives: Conservation, sustainable utilization and fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising out of use of biological resources and associated knowledge.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• Three tier structure 1
o National Biodiversity Authority (at central level)
o State Biodiversity Boards (at state level)
o Biodiversity management committees (at local level)
• National Biodiversity authority: It is an autonomous body that performs facilitative,
regulatory and advisory function for Government of India on issue of Conservation of
biological resources. It was established in 2003 in Chennai. (UPRO 2014)
o Functions of NBA
§ Procedure and Guidelines: It lays down procedure and guidelines to govern activities
for obtaining biological resource, for transferring the results of any research,
certain collaborative research projects exempted.
§ Advising the government: To advise the Central government on specific areas such
as:
- Notification of threatened species
- Designated institutions as repositories for different biological resources.
- Exempt certain biological resources, normally traded as commodity.
• Recognition to contribution of indigenous local communities: Companies using the
indigenous local resources is required to share 0.5% of the sales post tax to the Indigenous
local communities whose turnover is more than 3 crores.
7. Forest Rights act, 2006
• Objective: It provides for restitution of deprived forest rights across India, including both
individual rights to cultivated land in forestland and community resources over common
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property resources.
• Nodal Agency: Ministry of Tribal affairs
• National parks and sanctuaries included along with reserve forest, protected forests for
recognition of rights.
• Definition of Minor Forest produce: It includes all non-timber forest produce of plant origin,
including bamboo, brush, wood, stumps, tendu leaves etc.
• Four types of rights
o Title rights
§ It gives Forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers the right to
ownership to land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers subject to a maximum of 4
hectares.
§ Ownership is restricted for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family
and no new lands will be granted.
o Use rights
§ The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, to
pastoralist routes, etc.
o Relief and development rights
§ To rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement, subject to restrictions
for forest protection.
o Forest management rights
§ Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource which
they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• Nature of 1 act shall be heritable
rights: The rights under the but not alienable or
transferrable.
• Competent authority: The Gram Sabha has been designated as competent authority for
initiating process of determining the nature and extent of individual or community forest rights
that may be given to forest dwelling scheduled tribes.
• Important fact: Baigas, the vulnerable tribe in Madhya Pradesh is the first to get habitat rights
in India.
8. Compensatory Afforestation Fund act, 2016
• Objective: It seeks to provide an appropriate institutional mechanism to ensure expeditious
utilization in the efficient and transparent manner of amounts released in lieu of forest land
diverted for the non-forest purpose.
• Important Provisions
o It seeks to establish the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public
Account of India, and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public
Account of each state.
o The act provides legal backing to centre and state funds and regulate how this money
will be utilized.
o Major sources of the Fund
• Payment for compensatory afforestation
• Payment for loss of forest ecosystem at net present value
• Payment for violation and diversion of forest land guidelines
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• Additional payment for specific projects.

• As per the rules, 90% of the CAF money is to be given to the states while 10% is to be
retained by the Centre.
• Usage of Fund: The funds can be used for the treatment of catchment areas, assisted
natural generation, forest management, wildlife protection and management,
relocation of villages from protected areas, managing human-wildlife conflicts,
training and awareness generation, the supply of wood saving devices, and allied activities.
• Auditing: The act provides for annual audit of the account by Comptroller and Auditor
General (CAG).
9. Protection of Plant varieties and Farmer’s right act, 2001
• Introduction: It was enacted by India in 2001 to grant IPRs to plant breeders, researchers and
farmers who developed any new or extant plant species. It is in conformity with International
Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), 1978.
• Rights under the Act
o Breeders Rights: They will have exclusive rights to produce, sell, market, distribute,
import or export the protected variety. Breeder can appoint licensee and may exercise for civil
remedy in case of infringement of rights.
o Researchers Rights: Researcher can use any of the registered variety under the Act for
conducting experiment or research. It includes the use as an initial source of variety for
the purpose of developing another variety but repeated use needs prior permission of the
registered breeder.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Farmers Rights 1
§ A farmer who has evolved or developed a new variety is entitled for registration and
protection in like manner as a breeder of a variety. Farmers variety can also be registered
as an extant variety.
§ Right to save, use, sow, re-sow, exchange, share or sell his farm produce including seed
of a variety protected under the act in the same manner as he was entitled before the coming
into force of this Act provided farmer shall not be entitled to sell branded seed of a
variety protected under the PPV&FR Act, 2001.
§ Farmers are eligible for recognition and rewards for the conservation of Plant Genetic
Resources of land races and wild relatives of economic plants.
§ Compensation: There is also a provision for compensation to the farmers for non-
performance of variety under Section 39 (2) of the Act, 2001.
§ Farmer shall not be liable to pay any fee in any proceeding before the Authority or
Registrar or the Tribunal or the High Court under the Act.
7. Central pollution control board (CPCB): It is a statutory body constituted under the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; entrusted with the powers and functions under
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Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; serves as field formation and provide
technical services to MoEF&CC of provisions of EPA,1986; coordinates activities of SPCBs;
promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different States; improve the quality of air
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and to prevent or abate air pollution in the country.

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8. National Board of wildlife: It is a statutory body constituted under WPA, 1972; advises central
government on measures for conservationhttps://t.me/pcsstudies1
of wildlife; its role is advisory in nature;
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has power to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around
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national parks and sanctuaries; no alternation of boundaries in national parks and

wildlife sanctuaries can be done without approval of the NBWL.
• Composition
02

o Chairman: NBWL is chaired by Prime Minister and responsible for promotion of

conservation and development of wildlife and forests.
c2

o Members: It has 47 members including the Prime Minister. Among these, 19

members are ex-officio members. Other members include three Members of
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Parliament, five NGOs and 10 eminent ecologists, conservationists and

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environmentalists.
o Standing committee: approves all the projects falling within protected wildlife areas or
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within 10 km; chaired by Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate change.

9. Government of India in collaboration with the Norwegian Government has established a "Centre
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for Biodiversity Policy and Law (CEBPOL)" in the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA),
Chennai, to develop professional expertise in biodiversity policies and laws and develop the
capacity building. (UPRO 2017)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-9
PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA
1. Classification of the Plants
• Herb: Plant whose stem is green + Tender with height not more than 1 meter.
• Shrub: Woody perennial plant, woody stem, low stature and branching from the base.
• Tree: Large woody perennial plant, single well-defined stem, definite crown.
• Parasites: Organism that draws its nourishment from other living organism + It grow on
some living plant called host and penetrate their sucking roots called haustoria into host
plants.
• Epiphyte: Plant grow on host plant but not nourished by host plant + It take help of host
plant only in getting access to light.
• Climbers: Herbaceous or woody plant that climbs up trees by twining round them by
trendrills, hocks, aerial roots etc.
2. Effect of Abiotic components on Plants
1. Intensity of light: Extremely high intensity favours root growth-> increased transpiration,
short stem, smaller thicker leaves + Low intensity-> retards growth, flowering and fruiting
+Only red and blue are effective in photosynthesis.
2. Frost action: Killing of young plants + It leads to death of plants due to damage to cells,
formation of canker. https://t.me/pcsstudies1

3. Snow: Act as blanket, prevents further drop in temperature->protect seedlings from excessive
cold + It also shortens period from excessive cold and frost.
4. Temperature: High temperature leads to death of plant due to coagulation of protoplasmic
proteins + It causes desiccation of plant tissues and depletion of moisture.
5. Die back: Progressive dying usually backwards from tip of any portion of the plant
(adaptive mechanism to avoid adverse conditions) + The roots remain alive for years but
shoots die. Example include Sal, Red sanders, tomentosa etc.
o Causes: Dense over-head canopy, dense week canopy, frost, drought, grazing.
3. Insectivorous/Carnivorous plants: Derive most of their nutrients from consuming animals,
insects and others + They are adopted to grow in areas which lack nutrients like swamps + These
plants extract water and minerals from soil + They have chlorophyll and also do photosynthesis.
• Active Insectivorous: Use movements to trap the insect. Example: Venus fly trap.
• Passive Insectivorous: Use pitfall mechanism to trap the insects.
• Conservation Status: The Endangered species of carnivorous plants in India are Drosera
Peltata, Aldrovendavesiculosa and Nepenthese Khasiana. [UPPSC Prelims 2023]
• Threats: Gardening trading for medicinal properties, Habitat destruction, pollution caused by
the effluents.
4. Invasive plant species: These are species that occur outside the natural range and threaten native
plants and animals or other aspects of biodiversity.
o Prosopis Julifora/Angreji Babool: It is awater-greedy plant that depletes ground water + It is
one of the world’s top 100 least wanted plants + It is also affecting wild ass population in
Kutch, Gujarat + It is also used to erect fences.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Black Mimosa : It forms dense, thorny, 1
impenetrable thickets in wet areas + It isdistributed
throughout India + It is abundant especially in still or slow floating waters.
o Parthenium hysterophorus (Carrot Grass): Annual herb native to American Tropics + It is also
known as Congress grass or Gajar Ghans + It produces allelopathic chemicals that suppress
crop and pasture lands that affects humans and livestock.
o Lantana Camara: Also known as red sage and tickberry + It is native to American tropics +
It outcompetes more desirable species + It spread from native Central and South America to
50 different countries.
o Siam weed: Common invasive species of Kerala, locally known as Communist pacha as it
spread all over the state within a short span of time just like Communism + Siam weed is native
to South America.
o Senna Spectabilis: Plant species of legume family + It is an invasive species in India caused
threat to wildlife habitat in the Nilgiri Biosphere reserve.
o Needle Bush: Native to tropical south America + It is distributed throughout India + It is found
occasional in thorny scrub and dry degraded forests.
o Black Wattle: It is native to South East Australia + It is primarily present in Western Ghats +
It is introduced for afforestation in Western Ghats + It regenerates rapidly after fire and forms
dense thickets.
o Goat Weed: Native to tropical America + It is distributed throughout India
o Prickly Poppy: Native to tropical central and South America + It is distributed in throughout
India + It is aggressive colonizer and fringes of forests.
o Water Hyacinth: Native to Tropical America + an aggressive colonizer + abundant in still or
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slow floating waters.
o Impatiens, Balasam: It is native to Tropical America, distributed throughout India + common
along streams of moist forests and occasionally along railway tracks
o Touch Me Not, Sleeping Grass: It is native to Brazil + It is distributed throughout India + It
is a common weed of cultivated fields, scrub lands and degraded forests.
5. Naturalized exotic plant species: Common Guava (native to Mexico and Central Asia) + Lantana
camara (invasive, replaces undergrowth and prevents native plant from surviving) + Siam weed (native
to South America) etc.
• Tamilnadu (331) has highest number of naturalized plants followed by Kerala; Lakshadweep
(17) has least number of exotic naturalized plant species.
o Important Tree Species in news
o Living root bridge: Aerial bridges built by weaving roots of Indian rubber tree (FicusElastica) +
They act as connectors for generations in Meghalaya for Khasi and Jaintia people + Some root
bridges also found in Nagaland + They spans between 15 and 250feet + They are primarily a means
to cross streams & rivers.
o Dracaena Cambodiana: India’s first true dragon tree species + It is discovered in West Karbi
angling region of Assam + It yield’s dragon blood used as medicine, body oil, dye + It has anti-
fungal and anti-bacterial compounds, anti-oxidants etc.
o Red sanders: Categorized as Endangered under IUCN red list + It is an endemic tree species
restricted to Eastern Ghats + It usually grow in rocky, degraded and fallow lands with Red
Soil and hot and dry climate + The threats include illicit felling for smuggling + It is known for
their rich hue and therapeutic properties + It is high in demand across Asia, particularly in China
and Japan, for use in cosmetics and medicinal products as well as for making furniture,

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
woodcraft and musical instruments + It is1
listed in Appendix 2 under CITES & Schedule 2
under Wildlife protection act, 1972.
o Neelakurinji: Found in shola forests of Western Ghats + It got their name from purplish blue
flowers of Neelkurinji that blossoms every 12 years (monocarpic plant).
o Balsams: Commonly known as Balsams/jewel seeds + They are succulent plants with high
endemism + They are found in North Eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim), eastern
Ghats, western ghats, Sri Lanka., South East Asia etc. + They are sensitive to the climate change
and act as indicators.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-10
MARINE ORGANISMS
1. Plankton: Includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and animals like
crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton).
• Holoplankton: Organism planktonic for their entire life cycle; Examples include
radiolarians, amphipods, krills, copepods etc.
• Meroplankton: Organisms planktonic for only a part of their life cycle; Examples include
larvae of echinoderms, crustaceans etc. + After some time graduates into nekton or adopt a
benthic lifestyle on seafloor.
2. Phytoplankton: These are tiny microscopic floating plants found in water bodies like rivers,
lakes and oceans; chlorophyll to capture sunlight and use photosynthesis to turn it into chemical
energy.
• Importance: Half of oxygen in environment; reduce global warming; base of ocean food
chain + They act as bio-indicators regulating life in oceans.
• Factors affecting Phytoplanktons: Light (Mostly limited to upper layers of ocean where
light sufficient for photosynthesis), nutrients, temperature, salinity (dinoflagellates reproduce
actively at lower salinities), grazing by zooplankton.
3. Zooplankton: Vital role in food web, nutrient recycling + They are abundant within mangrove
water-ways + They determine quantum of fish stock + They are found in deeper ocean beds
where sunlight does not reach; mostly translucent + Examples include Meroplankton,
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holoplankton, crustaceans such as krill, protozoans.

4. Sea-Grass: Flowering plants; grow submerged in shallow marine waters like bays and lagoons
+ They require sunlight for photosynthesis + They are only group of higher plants adapted to
life in salt water + They occur along South east coast of Tamil Nadu and in lagoons of
Lakshadweep islands-> due to high salinity, clarity of water and sandy substratum.
• Importance: Reduce wave and current energy + Stabilize bottom sediments to control
erosion + They act as nutrient sinks and provide chemical inputs to marine environment +
Ecosystem Engineers known for many ecosystem services; also called ‘the lungs of the sea’
+ They help maintain water quality by trapping fine sediment + They provide ideal nursery
sites for commercial marine life like squids and cuttlefish.
• Threats: Eutrophication, siltation, trawling, coastal engineering constructions etc.
• Others: Chilika lake has 22% of India’s sea grass area
5. Sea weeds: Primitive, marine non-flowering marine algae without root, stem and leaves +
Large seaweeds form dense underwater forests known as kelp forests-> act as underwater
nurseries for fish, snails; grow in shallow coastal waters.
a. Location: Mostly in the intertidal region, in shallow and deep waters of the sea and also in
estuaries and backwaters + Southern Gulf of Mannar’s rocky intertidal have rich
populations.
b. Ecological importance: Bioindicators (absorb the excess nutrients and balance out i.e
ecosystem); iron sequestrator; oxygen and nutrient supplier; enhances ocean productivity.
c. Climate mitigation: By afforesting 9% of the ocean with seaweed-> sequester 53 billion tons
of carbon dioxide annually.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
d. 1
Others: Used as fertilizers to increase aquaculture production; methane emission from
cattle may be reduced; combat beach erosion; ingredient in preparing toothpaste,
cosmetics and pain.
6. Seaweeds Mission: Launched for commercial farming of seaweeds and its processing for value
addition towards boosting the national economy.
• Establishing model demonstration farms over one hectare for cultivation of seaweeds in
nearshore and onshore along the Indian coast.
• Establishment of seaweed nurseries for supplying seed material for large scale farming
• Demonstration of processing technologies for edible seaweeds in line with consumer
acceptability.
• An activity on seaweed cluster development including value chain development.
7. Seaweed production: Out of the global seaweed production of ~ 32 million tons. China
produces ~57 %, Indonesia ~28% followed by South Korea. India have a mere share of ~0.01-
0.02%. + Budget 2021 had proposed India's first multi-purpose seaweed park to be set up in Tamil
Nadu as part of promoting seaweed cultivation
8. Sea cucumbers : They are marine invertebrates that live on the seafloor found generally in tropical
regions + They're named for their unusual oblong shape that resembles a fat cucumber + There are
about 1,250 species of sea cucumber, all of which belong to the taxonomic class Holothuroidea +
They act like garbage collectors of the ocean world, and they recycle nutrients playing an important
role in keeping coral reefs in good condition + IUCN Red List: Brown Sea Cucumber
(Endangered), Blackspotted Sea Cucumber (Least Concern), Blue Sea Cucumber (Data Deficient),
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etc + Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I + In 2020, the Lakshadweep Islands administration
created the world’s first conservation area - 239 sq. km - for sea cucumbers.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-11
PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS
1. Conservation reserves and Community reserves: They are protected areas, act as buffer zones
and migration corridors to established NPs, WLS and protected forests + These are the outcome
of amendment to WPA in 2003 + They provide recognition and legal backing to community-
initiated efforts in wildlife protection + They roughly correspond to IUCN Category V
(conservation reserves) and VI (community reserves) protected areas.
• Conservation reserves
o Area is owned by state government and managed by Conservation reserve
management committee.
o State government may, after having consultations with local communities declare any
area owned by government as conservation reserve.
o Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve is the first conservation reserve in India.
• Community reserve
om
o State government notifies any community land/private land as community reserve
provided that members of community are agreeable to offer such areas for protecting fauna
and flora, as well as their traditions, cultures and practices.
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o Managed by Community reserve management committee.
2. Marine Protected Areas: It involves protective management of natural areas so as to keep
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them in their natural state; conserved for economic resources, biodiversity conservation and
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species protection; created by delineating zones with permitted and non-permitted uses within
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that zone; every MPA also designated as sanctuary, national park or community reserves.
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• Category 1: It covers NPs and sanctuaries having entire areas in intertidal or mangroves,
coral reefs, seagrass, estuaries, lagoons. Example: Gulf of Kacchh region.
02

• Category 2: Include Islands, which have major parts in marine ecosystem.

• Category 3A: Include sandy beaches beyond inter-tidal line.
c2

• Category 3B: Include evergreen or semi evergreen forests of islands.

Important MPAs in India
ni

Name of MPA State Category Year of Establishment

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Marine (Gulf of Kutch) Gujarat National park 1995

nn

(UPRO 2016)
Bhitarkanika Odisha National park 1998
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Gulf of Mannar marine TN National park 1980

Sundarbans WB National park 1984
3. Reserved Forests: These forests are under the direct supervision of the government and no
public entry is allowed for collection of timber or grazing of cattle. About 53% of the total forest
area falls in this category.
• Important reserve forests: Kurkail reserve forests (UP), Bhavnagar Amreli forests (Gujarat;
Asiatic lion), vandalur reserve forests, Tikarpada reserve forests.
4. Protected Forests: looked after by the government, but the local people are allowed to collect
fuel-wood/timber and graze their cattle without causing serious damage to the forests; occupy
about 29% of the total forest area of the country.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
5. Sacred Groves of India: These are patches 1
of forests or natural vegetation that are usually
dedicated to local folk deities; protected by local communities because of their religious beliefs
and traditional rituals.
State Local term for sacred groves
Andhra Pradesh Pavithravana
Arunachal Pradesh Gumpa forests
Jharkhand Sarana
Kerala Kavu, sara kavu
Maharashtra Devrai, Devrahati
Puducherry Kovilkadu
Tamil Nadu Swami Shola, Koilkadu
6. Eco-sensitive zones: These are buffer zones around protected areas (NP, WLS etc) where only
regulated activities for specialized eco-system are allowed; shock absorbers.
• Activities prohibited
o Commercial mining, setting up of saw mills and industries causing pollution and major
hydropower projects are prohibited.
• Activities restricted with safeguards
o Felling of trees, drastic change in agriculture system and commercial use of natural water
resources, including ground water harvesting and setting up of hotels and resorts.
• Activities permitted: Ongoing agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities,
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rainwater harvesting, use of renewable energy sources etc.
7. Biodiversity Heritage Sites: Unique, ecologically fragile ecosystem (terrestrial, coastal and
inland waters and marine) having rich biodiversity comprising (declared under Biodiversity Act,
2002):
• Richness of wild as well as domesticated species or intra-specific categories
• High endemism
• Presence of rare and threatened species, keystone species, species of evolutionary significance,
wild ancestors of domestic species or their varieties.
• Past preeminence of biological components represented by fossil beds having significant
cultural, ethical or aesthetic values; important for the maintenance of cultural diversity.
8. Amboli: The Maharashtra government declared an area at Amboli in Western ghats, where a rare
freshwater fish species Schistura Hiranyakeshi was discovered, as a biodiversity heritage site.
9. Recently four areas declared as biodiversity heritage sites which are Antaragange Betta in Kolar,
Aadi Narayana Swamy Betta in Chickballapur, Mahima Ranga Betta in Nelamangala, Bengaluru
and Urumbi area on the Kumaradhara river.
Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS) District/State
Nallur Tamarind Grove Bangalore, Karnataka
Hogrekan Chikmagalur, Karnataka
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru Karnataka
Ambaraguda Karnataka
Glory of Allapalli Maharashtra
Tonglu BHS & Dhotrey BHS under Darjeeling Forest Division Darjeeling, West Bengal
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
Mandasaru 1 Odisha
Dialong Village Manipur
Ameenpur lake Telangana
Majuli Assam
Gharial Rehabilitation Centre Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Chilkigarh Kanak Durga West Bengal
Purvatali Rai Goa
Naro Hills Madhya Pradesh
Asramam Kerala

10. Coastal Regulation Zone: These are declared by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
change under the Environment Protection Act 1986 + Implemented by state governments through
their Coastal Zone Management Authorities.
b. CRZ-I: Ecologically sensitive areas like Mangroves, coral reefs, salt marshes, turtle
nesting grounds etc., no construction is allowed except activities for atomic power plants,
defense.
c. CRZ-II: It includes areas which are developed up to or close to the shoreline and falling
within municipal limits. Construction activities are allowed on the landward side only.
d. CRZ-III: It includes areas that fall neither in CRZ 1 nor CRZ 2 and also include rural and
urban areas that are substantially developed + No new construction of buildings allowed in
this zone except repairing of the existing ones + However, constructions of dwelling units
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in the plot area lying between 200-500m of the high tide line is allowed.
e. CRZ-IV: It includes the water area covered between Low Tide Line and 12 nautical miles
seaward. Except for fishing and related activities, all actions impugning on the sea and tidal
water will be regulated in this zone.
• The Shailesh Nayak Committee was constituted in 2014 with the mandate of examining
the issues of the coastal states and union territories of the country with respect to the
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2011
• CRZ Notification, 2018
o CRZ-III A - These are densely populated rural areas with a population density of
2161 per square kilometer as per 2011 Census + Such areas will have a No
Development Zone (NDZ) of 50 meters from the High Tide Line as against 200 meters
from the High Tide Line stipulated in the CRZ Notification, 2011.
o CRZ-III B - Rural areas with a population density of below 2161 per square
kilometer as per 2011 Census. Such areas shall continue to have an NDZ of 200
meters from the HTL.
o Tourism infrastructure in coastal areas: Temporary tourism facilities such as toilet
blocks, drinking water facilities etc. permitted in Beaches. (A minimum distance of 10
meters from HTL should be maintained.
o CRZ Clearances: Clearances for projects located in CRZ 1 and CRZ 4- MOEFCC +
Clearances for projects located in CRZ 2 and CRZ 3- State level authority.
o No Development Zone (NDZ) of 20 meters for Islands.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-12
NATIONAL PARKS, WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES, RAMSAR
CONVENTION, BIOSPHERE RESERVES

1. Introduction: India has a network of 987 Protected Areas including 106 National Parks, 564
Wildlife Sanctuaries, 99 Conservation Reserves and 218 Community Reserves covering a total
of 5.26% of geographical area of the country.
2. National Park: WPA, 1972 provides for declaration of NP by state governments of areas which
are of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological importance;
In some cases, Central government can also declare an area as NP; boundaries are fixed and
defined; main objective is to protect natural environment and biodiversity conservation.
• Important Facts: First National Park Jim Corbett National Park (UPPCS M 2014, Pre 2017)
+ Largest National Park Hemis National Park + Smallest National Park South Button
National Park. om
• States with highest number of NP (UPPCS Pre 2008)
o Madhya Pradesh (9)
l.c
o Andaman and Nicobar Island (9)
• Human activities
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o Settlement and private ownership of land not permitted.

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o Grazing and fuel wood collection also prohibited
2g

o Only those human activities which are allowed by Chief Wildlife warden of state
permitted inside NP.
02

o Species mentioned in the Schedules of WPA not allowed to be hunted or captured.

o cannot be downgraded to the status of a ‘sanctuary’.
• No alteration of the boundaries of a national park shall be made except on a resolution
c2

passed by State Legislature.

ni

Wildlife sanctuary: WPA act of 1972 provided for declaration of certain areas by state
to

government as wildlife sanctuaries if area was thought to be of adequate ecological,

nn

geomorphological and natural significance; more than 500 WLS in India.

• Human activities: Some restricted human activities are allowed in WLS as specified in the
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Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.

• Highest number of wildlife sanctuaries located in Andaman& Nicobar Islands (96).
National Park Wildlife sanctuaries
Commercial exploitation of forest produces notCommercial exploitation of forest produced not
allowed. allowed.
Comparatively Greater protection Hunting is prohibited without permission.
Activities like hunting, grazing and humanGrazing and movement of cattle are permitted.
settlement are prohibited.
They are broad in nature. WLS can be created for a particular species.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
Ramsar Convention 1
Wetlands prevent flooding by holding water much like a sponge. By doing so, wetlands help keep
river levels normal and filter and purify the surface water. Wetlands accept water during a flood
and whenever water levels are high. When water levels are low, wetlands slowly release water.
Wetlands also release vegetative matters into rivers, which help feed fish in the rivers. Wetlands
help to counterbalance the human effect on rivers by rejuvenating them and surrounding
ecosystems. (UPPCS Pre 2012)
1. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance is an international treaty for
the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. It is also known as the Convention on
Wetlands. (UPPCS M 2008, UPRO 2016)
2. It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the convention was signed in 1971.
3. Under the “three pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting Parties commit to:
• Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;
• Designate suitable wetlands for the list of wetlands of international importance (the
“ramsar list”) and ensure their effective management;
• Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems, and shared
species.

International organization partners

• Birdlife International
• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
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• International Water Management Institute (IWMI)

• Wetlands International
• WWF International
• Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)

Biosphere: It is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water, air interact with each other to support
life. It is in this zone that life exists + They are also called as Living laboratories.

Biosphere Reserves
• Definition: Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting
solutions to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. (UPPCS Pre
2013)
• Origin: In 1971 UNESCO launched its Man and Biosphere Programme.
• Recognition and control: They are internationally recognized, nominated by national
governments and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located.
• Regulated under: As per the law, these regions of environmental protection related to the IUCN
Category V Protected areas.
o The term ‘biosphere reserve’ was first used by Edward Suess whereas the term Ecosystem
was first used by A.G. Tansley. Reiter and Ernst Haeckel first used the term ' Ecology' and
the word ‘Biodiversity’ was first used by Ramond F. Dasmann. (UPPCS Pre 2013)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
Criteria for Designation of Biosphere Reserve 1
• A site must contain a protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of nature
conservation.
• Core area must be a bio-geographical unit and should be large enough to sustain a viable
population representing all trophic levels.
• The involvement of local communities and use of their knowledge in biodiversity preservation.
• Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious
use of the environment.

Biosphere Reserve Zonation

Core Areas: It comprises strictly protected zone that

contributes to conservation of landscapes, ecosystems,
species and genetic variation
Buffer Zones: It surrounds or adjoins core area(s), and
used for activities compatible with sound ecological
practices that reinforces scientific research, monitoring,
training or education.
Transition Area: Where community’s foster socio-
culturally ecologically sustainable activities.
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Man, and Biosphere Programme

• Launched in 1971, it is an intergovernmental scientific program that aims to establish a
scientific basis for the improvement of relationships between people and their environments.
• It develops the basis within the natural and social sciences for the rational and sustainable use
and conservation of the resources of the biosphere and for the improvement of the overall
relationship between people and their environment
• Secretariat: It implements the Programme's Strategy and Roadmap, which were adopted by
Member States.
• Governing Body: The programme’s main governing body is the International Co-ordinating
Council of the of the Man and the Biosphere programme (MAB-ICC), which meets annually.
In between meetings, the authority of the MAB-ICC is delegated to its MAB Bureau.
• Advisory Bodies: Two advisory bodies provide guidance in the implementation of the MAB
programme: Advisory Committee and International Support Group.

World Network of Biosphere Reserves

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) of the MAB Programme consists of a dynamic
and interactive network of sites of excellence. It fosters the harmonious integration of people and
nature for sustainable development through participatory dialogue; knowledge sharing; poverty
reduction and human well-being improvements; respect for cultural values and society’s ability to
cope with change - thus contributing to the 2030 Agenda and SDGs.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
Facts 1
• Covers: The WNBR covers all major representative natural and semi-natural ecosystems
• Geographical spread: There are 714 biosphere reserves in 129 countries, including 21
transboundary sites.
• Area: It spans over a surface of 6,812,000 km2 in 129 countries. It's almost the size of
Australia.
• Population covered: There are about 257 million people living in Biosphere Reserves
worldwide

MAB and India

• 1979: Government of India constituted a MAB Committee and identified a network of 13
representative ecosystems to be protected as Biosphere Reserves.
• 1983: Biosphere Reserve Congress organized in Belarus recognized around 200 Biosphere
Reserves
• 1986: Nilgiris was recognized as the first Biosphere Reserve of India. It was recognized by
om
MAB
• Indian Biospheres under MAB Programme: 12 of the 18 biosphere reserves are a part of the
l.c
WNBR, based on the UNESCO’s MAB Programme list
• Most recent Biosphere Reserve in India: Panna Biosphere Reserve (Madhya Pradesh). It was
ai

recognized by government of Indian in 2011 and became a part of MAB Program in November
m

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Relation between the biosphere reserves and other protected areas

• Biosphere reserves don't replace other PAs but it further strengthens the protected area
02

network. Existing PAs can become part of BR without any change in their legal status.
• Key differences:
c2

o Conservation: Conservation of overall biodiversity rather than some specific flagship

species.
ni

o Stakeholders: Increases broad-basing of stakeholders, especially local people's

to

participation and their training, compared to the features of scheme on Wildlife Sanctuaries
and National Parks.
nn

o Recognition: BRs are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO's

MAB programme, after receiving consent from the participating countries.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-13
CONSERVATION EFFORTS

Initiatives for Tiger Conservation

1. Project Tiger: It is a conservation programme first launched in 1973 in Jim Corbett national
park, Uttarakhand + It is a centrally sponsored scheme of the MoEFCC + It is administered
by NTCA.
(UPPCS Pre 2018, 2019, 2020)
• Major Objectives
o Ensuring a viable population of Bengal tigers in their natural habitats and also to
protect them from extinction.
o Preserving areas of biological importance as national heritage for the benefit
education and employment of people.
o Harmonizing the rights of tribal people living in and around tiger reserves.
• Tiger reserves: Areas notified for protection of tiger and its prey + It is governed by
project tiger and administered by NTCA + It is constituted on a core/buffer strategy.
o Core zone: Legal status of a national park or sanctuary with an exclusive tiger
agenda + It is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations, where
collection of minor forest produce etc. are not allowed + Tiger conservation without
affecting rights of STs or such other forest dwellers + It is notified by the State
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Government in consultation with an expert committee.

o Buffer zone: Area peripheral to the critical tiger habitat providing supplementary
habitat for dispersing tigers, besides offering scope for co-existence of human
activity (tribals) + Limits of such areas determined on basis of scientific and objective
criteria in consultation with concerned Gram Sabha and an expert committee
constituted for the purpose.
o Corridor habitat: NTCA in collaboration with WII delineated minimal tiger habitat
corridors connecting tiger reserves for implementing landscape scale tiger
conservation.
2. National tiger conservation authority (NTCA): It is a statutory body constituted under
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 + It was established in 2005 on recommendation of Tiger
Task force to aid in implementation of measures for conservation of tiger + It comes under
MoEF&CC + It cooperates with bodies such as CBI, WCCB by issuing alerts for any illegal
poaching activities; administers Project Tiger and tiger reserves.
• Composition:
o Set up under the chairmanship of the minister for environment and forests.
o Eight experts having qualifications and experience in wildlife conservation and
welfare of people including tribals, apart from 3 MPs (two will be elected by Los
Sabha and one by Rajya Sabha).
• Objectives
- Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives
become legal.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
- Fostering 1
accountability of Center-State in management of tiger reserves, by
providing a basis for MoU with States within our federal structure.
- Providing for an oversight by Parliament.
- Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding tiger reserves.
• Powers and Functions of NTCA
o Provide central assistance to states under ongoing Project Tiger and for activities
based on tiger conservation plan.
o Conducts every four years, the countrywide assessment of status of tiger, co-
predators, prey and habitat using refined methodology approved by Tiger task force.
o Approve the tiger conservation plan prepared by the State Government.
o To approve, co-ordinate research and monitoring on tiger, co-predators, prey
habitat and their evaluation.
o Evaluate and assess various aspects of sustainable ecology and disallow any
ecologically unsustainable land use such as, mining, industry etc.
o To ensure critical support including scientific, information technology and legal
support for better implementation of the tiger conservation plan.
o No alteration in boundaries of a tiger reserve shall be made except on a
recommendation of the NTCA and the approval of NBWL.
o No State Government shall de-notify a tiger reserve, except in public interest with
approval of NTCA and the approval of the NBWL.
3. Tiger task force: On basis of the recommendations of NBWL, a task force was set up to look
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into the problems of tiger conservation in the country; set up in 2005 following open
exposure on sudden disappearance of the tigers from Sariska wildlife reserve.
4. International tiger day: celebrated on July 29 every year to raise awareness about the
dwindling population of tigers; anniversary of the agreement of St Petersburg tiger
summit in Russia in 2010; (UPPCS M 2014)
5. Tiger Estimates: NTCA conducts survey of tiger population every four years since 2006;
includes habitat assessment and prey estimation.
• All India tiger estimation, 2018:
o The total count of tigers risen to 2,967 in 2018 from 2,226 in 2014 — an increase of
33% in four years.
o With reference to the detailed report of Tiger Census 2018, released by the Government
of India in July 2020, India has 70% of world’s tiger population and nearly 30% of
India’s tigers live outside tiger reserves. (UPPCS Pre 2020)

o Madhya Pradesh has maximum tigers at 526 followed by Karnataka at 524 and 442 in
Uttarakhand.
o Pench tiger reserve in MP has recorded the highest number of tigers. The Pench Tiger
Reserve is spread over two States namely Madhya Pradesh (90%) and Maharashtra
(10%). (UPPCS M 2008)
o Sathya Mangalam tiger reserve in TN registered “maximum improvement” since 2014.
o Chhattisgarh and Mizoram saw a decline in the tiger population and all other States
saw a positive increase.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Dampa Tiger Reserve(Mizoram), 1
Buxa Tiger Reserve (West Bengal) [UPPCS Pre
2003, M 2010] and Palamau Reserve(Jharkhand) have no tigers left.
6. Landscape wise distribution: India’s five tiger landscapes are Shivalik hills and Gangetic
plains, central Indian landscape and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, North-East hills,
Brahmaputra plains and the Sundarbans.
7. MSTRIPES: The app was developed by NTCA and WII in 2010 for proper location data
feeding and filling record more accurately; app was also used in the All India-tiger estimation;
help strengthen patrolling and surveillance of the endangered Bengal tiger.
8. e-Eye system: software-based system where high resolution thermal and infrared cameras to
keep track of tigers in wildlife sanctuaries and to prevent poaching and animal-human
conflict.
9. Tiger Net: National database of individual tiger photo captures to establish linkage with body
parts seized or dead tigers.
10. TX2 goal: It is a global commitment to double world's wild tigers by 2022; set by
WWF through Global Tiger Initiative, Global tiger forum and other platforms at Petersburg
Tiger summit in 2010. om
11. Tiger Range Countries include India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao
PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Vietnam.
l.c
12. Global Tiger Initiative (GTI): It is a program of World Bank, using its presence and
convening ability, brought global partners together to strengthen the tiger agenda.
ai

13. Important facts:

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• Current tiger population stands at 2967 which is 70% of global tiger population.
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• Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers at 526, closely followed by
2g

Karnataka (524) and Uttarakhand (442).

• Kanha Tiger Reserve, MP is the first tiger reserve in India to officially introduce
02

a mascot, Bhoor Singh the Barasingha.

• Pugmark is the term used to refer to the footprint of most animals (especially mega fauna).
c2

“Pug” means foot in Hindi. Every individual animal species has a distinct pugmark and as
such, this is used for identification. (UPPCS M 2008)
ni

• Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve of Andhra Pradesh is the largest tiger habitat in
to

India. It is notable that after the reorganization of the State, 3296.31 sq. km area of this
Reserve falls under Andhra Pradesh while 2611.39 sq. km area falls under Telangana.
nn

(UPPCS M 2011)
Initiatives for Elephant conservation
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1. Elephant census, 2017 report: The total Asian Elephant population in India is estimated at
27,312 across 23 states (a decrease over 2012); birth rate indicates elephant population is
increasing; geographical range has also increased-
2. Project Elephant: It was launched by GOI in 1992 as a centrally sponsored scheme;
implemented in 16 states such as Assam, Arunachal, Jharkhand etc. (UPPCS Pre 2019,
2020,M 2007, RO 2017)
• Objectives
o Assist states having free ranging population of wild elephants
o Protect elephants, their habitats and corridors

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Addressing human-elephant conflict1issues
o Improving welfare of captive animals
• Steps taken
o Establishment of 30 elephant reserves throughout elephant’s traditional range.
o Establishment of MIKE program of CITES
o Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and migratory routes of animals.
3. Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme: Launched in 2003, it is
an international collaboration that tracks trends in information related to illegal killing of
elephants from across Africa and Asia; currently 28 sites participating in the programme in
Asia distributed across 13 countries.
• Objectives:
o To measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants.
o To determine changes in these trends overtime.
o To determine the factors causing or associated with these changes and to try and assess
in particular to what extent observed trends are a result of any decisions taken by the
Conference of the Parties to CITES.
4. Haathi Mere Saathi: It is a campaign launched by MoEFCC and WII to improve conservation
of the elephant population; launched at E-8 ministerial meeting held in Delhi in 2011; envisions
setting up of Gajah centres in elephant landscapes across the country to spread awareness
and encourage people’s participation.
Mike States State
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Chirang Ripu Assam

Dihing Patkai Assam
Eastern Dooars West Bengal
Deomali Arunachal Pradesh
Garo Hills Meghalaya
Mayurbhanj Orissa
Mysore Karnataka
Nilgiri Tamil Nadu
Shivalik Uttarakhand
Wayanad Kerala
5. Project Snow Leopard: It was launched in 2009 to promote an inclusive and participatory
approach to conserve snow leopards and their habitat + It is operational in five Himalayan
States viz. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal
Pradesh with support from WII and the Mysore based Nature Conservation Foundation +
It adopts landscape approach to conservation + Species such as Snow Leopard, Asiatic Ibex,
Tibetan Argali, Ladakh Urial, Chiru, Takin, Serow and Musk Deer will benefit from this
project.
6. SECURE Himalaya: It is a six-year project to ensure conservation of locally and globally
significant biodiversity, in high Himalayan ecosystem spread over four states viz. Himachal
Pradesh, J&K, Uttarakhand and Sikkim + It was launched by MoEFCC in association with
UNDP.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
7. Sea Turtle project: Started with the joint1efforts of UNDP and MoEFCC in 1999 at the
Indian Institute of Wildlife, Dehradun + It issues guidelines for developmental activities
in the area, keeping in mind the need for securing the breeding areas of turtles.
8. Project Hangul: In 1970s, J&K government along with support of IUCN and WWF prepared
a project for protection of habitat of Hangul or the Kashmir stag + Included artificial breeding
of the highly endangered Stag along with other measures for its protection and conservation.
[UPPSC Prelims 2023]
9. SAWEN (South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network): It is an inter-governmental body that
acts as a wildlife law enforcement support body + Its focus areas include harmonisation of
policies, strengthening of institutional capacities through intelligence and knowledge sharing;
member states are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka + It operates from its secretariat in Kathmandu in Nepal; India became a formal
member in 2016.
10. Cheetah Reintroduction Project: Government is preparing to translocate the 1st batch of
eight from South Africa and Namibia to Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh soon + In
this regard, the Ministry of Environment has launched the ‘Action Plan for Introduction of
Cheetah in India’ under which 50 of these big cats will be introduced in the next five years.
The action plan was launched at the 19th meeting of the National Tiger Conservation Authority
(NTCA) + Last year (2021), the Supreme Court lifted its seven-year-long stay on a proposal
to introduce African Cheetahs from Namibia into the Indian habitat + The other sites
recommended for holding and conservation breeding of cheetah in India, in controlled wild
conditions are: [UPPSC Prelims 2023] https://t.me/pcsstudies1
o Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary: Madhya Pradesh
o Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary and Bhainsrorgarh Wildlife Sanctuary
complex: Madhya Pradesh
o Shahgarh bulge: Jaisalmer, Rajasthan
o Mukundara Tiger Reserve: Rajasthan
11. Asian Elephant Alliance: It is an umbrella initiative by five NGOs to secure 96 out of the
101 existing corridors used by elephants across 12 states in India + Five NGOs include
Elephant Family, International Fund for Animal Welfare, IUCN Netherlands, World
Land Trust and Wildlife Trust of India.
12. Indian Rhino Vision, 2020: It is an initiative led by Forest Department, Government of
Assam, in partnership with WWF India, International Rhino Foundation, and several other
organizations + It aims to increase the rhino population in Assam to 3,000 by establishing
populations in new areas + Seven protected areas are Kaziranga, Pobitora, Orang National
Park, Manas National Park, Laokhowa wildlife sanctuary, Burachapori wildlife sanctuary and
Dibru Saikhowa wildlife sanctuary + Wild-to-wild translocations were an essential part of
IRV2020.
13. Indian crocodile conservation project: The Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in
1975 in different States + The broad objectives of the project are to protect the remaining
population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries; to promote captive
breeding; to involve the local people in the project intimately.
14. National action plan for conservation of migratory birds (2018-23): It is to be implemented
by the MoEF&CC + Short-term goal of the plan is to stop the decline in population by 2027 +

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
Major 1
components are species conservation, Habitat conservation and sustainable
management, Communication and outreach, capacity development, research and knowledge
base development, international cooperation.
15. Green Good Deeds Initiative + It is about simple steps that students/teachers/citizens can
perform in their day-to-day life towards the protection of the environment + One lakh fifty
thousand Ecoclubs have been established in schools and colleges across the nation.
16. SIMBA (Software with Intelligent Marking Based identification of Asiatic lions): It is a photo-
identification software, specifically designed to distinguish patterns or marks + Through this
software, forest department will assign different names to the lions by identifying marks on
their body parts + The veterinary record will also be maintained using this database + Asiatic
lions are known for their unique whisker spots on either side of their muzzle.
17. As a part of wildlife conservation efforts in Nepal and India, a new association by the name
‘SAVE’ was launched. The objective of SAVE is to conserve tigers. Tibetan Buddhists use
tiger skin for decoration and as a seat while offering prayers which results in an increase in
tiger hunting cases. India and Nepal jointly formed an organization named ‘SAVE’ in July,
2010, for the conservation of tigers. It also has the objective to work for increasing the number
om
of tigers. (UPPCS M 2011)
l.c

******
ai
m

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2g
02
c2
ni
to
nn
gi

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-14
INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
• Climate change: The increasing temperature of earth due to greenhouse effect is known as
climate change, which leads to extreme weather events, rising of sea levels etc. Ice core is the
cryogenic indicator of climate change. (UPPCS Pre 2015)
o According to the astronomical theory of climate change, Earth's movement produces an
effect on climate change. In 1920, Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milankovic
theorized that variation in eccentricity, axial tilt and precession of the earth's orbit results in
cyclical variation in the solar radiation reaching the earth. This orbital forcing influences
climatic pattern on earth. (UPPCS Pre 2015, M 2015)
• Global warming: It is an average increase in temperature of atmosphere near the earth’s
surface and in the troposphere, which contribute to changes in global climate patterns. (UPPCS
Pre 2013)
o Impacts: Rise in sea level, change in rainfall patterns, melting of ice caps, spread of diseases,
loss of plankton due to warming of seas etc. The average increase in earth's temperature during
the last century was 0.80C. (UPPCS Pre 2012)
o Global warming causes climate change which poses a serious threat to life on the earth. Rise
in sea level, melting of glaciers, spread of diseases and bleaching of coral reefs are the impacts
of global warming. (UPPCS Pre 2017, 2020)
• Green House Effect: Blankets earth lower atmosphere and warms it, maintaining temperature
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suitable for living things to survive.

o Significance: In its absence, average temperature would be -19 degree Celsius and earth would
be a frozen lifeless planet. Without greenhouse effect, the average temperature of earth surface
would be -18°C. The main greenhouse gasses are Methane, Carbon dioxide, Nitrous Oxide,
Water vapor and Ozone. (UPPCS Pre 2020)

Fig: Mechanism of Greenhouse effect

(UPPCS Pre 2015, 2017, 2018)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• 1 of Saturn and Pluto show Anti-Green House
Anti-greenhouse effect: Titan, the largest moon
Effect. The atmosphere is opaque to solar radiation but lets out infrared. The effect is that the
body is cooler than the actual temperature would have been.
• Green House Gases: The gases in earth’s atmosphere that trap heat is known as Greenhouse
gases. These are crucial for survival of life on earth. (UPPCS Pre 2013, 2022, 2016, RO 2017,
M 2012, 2016, 2017) The concept of Greenhouse Gases was postulated by Joseph Fourier in 1824.
(UPPCS M 2011)
o Water Vapor: Biggest overall natural contributor to greenhouse effect -> accounts for
about 60% of the warming effect + It is controlled by temperature in atmosphere + It is a
noncondensable gas + Cycles through atmosphere quickly evaporating from oceans before
coming down as rain or snow. (UPPCS M 2011)
o Carbon dioxide: Primary GHG emitted through human activities. For the first time, CO2 in
atmosphere crossed 415 ppm (Mauna Lao observatory data). Carbon dioxide is both useful
as well as harmful to life on earth. (UP Lower 2013, Pre 2006)
§ Main sources: Combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity and gasoline, diesel used
for transportation.
§ The Keeling Curve: Named after its creator Dr. Charles David Keeling, is a global
benchmark for carbon levels in the atmosphere + It is a graph that represents the
concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in Earth’s atmosphere since 1958 at the Mauna
Loa Observatory in Hawaii.
o Methane: Emitted by sources such as wetlands (largest source), growing rice and paddy,
using natural gas, mining coal, termites, volcanoes, raising livestock, landfills etc. (UPPCS
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Pre 2018, 2019, M 2017)

o Nitrous oxide: Natural part of nitrogen cycle. Human activities such as agriculture, fossil
fuel combustion, use of synthetic fertilizers, wastewater management, industrial processes
(byproduct of production of nitric acid) increasing the amounts of nitrogen oxide. Nitrogen
Oxide is a Green House Gas not found naturally in the atmosphere. (UPPCS Pre 2020)
Bacteria in soil and ocean also produce the gas.
o Ozone (O3): Gas that occurs in both earth’s atmosphere and at ground level + It is a highly
reactive gas that merits short duration standard of only 1-8hrs average + It is good or bad
for health and environment depending on its location:
• Stratospheric Ozone: It is good because as it protects the living organisms from high
ultraviolet radiation of the sun.
• Ground level Ozone: It is not desirable because it can trigger a variety of health
problems for children, elderly etc.
§ Ozone pollution is a secondary pollution created by reactions between oxides of
Nitrogen (NOX) and Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from vehicles,
power plants in the presence of sunlight and heat.
§ Health impacts: Asthma and respiratory diseases, chest pain, coughing, lung diseases,
People with lower intake of Vitamin C and E are at greater risk,
§ Environment: Impact sensitive vegetation during growing season and ecosystems
like forests, parks wildlife and wilderness areas.
§ Monitoring of Ozone: National ambient air quality standards by CPCB measures the
concentration of ozone. It is also listed as one of the major pollutants in AQI and
SAFAR.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1

om
l.c

o Flourinated Gases: These include HFCs, PFCS, SF6, Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) emitted
ai

from industrial processes such as aluminum and semi-conductor manufacturing and

m

substitution for ozone depleting substances https://t.me/pcsstudies1

+ They have very high global warming potential,
though released in small quantities + They are removed from atmosphere only when they
2g

are destroyed by sunlight in the far upper atmosphere + They are the most potent and longest
lasting type of GHGs emitted by humans.
02

- Hydrofluorocarbons: Used as refrigerants, solvents, fire retardants + Developed as a

replacement for CFCs and HCFCs as they do not deplete stratospheric ozone; but they are
c2

potent GHGs with long atmospheric lifetimes and high Global warming potential.
- Perfluorocarbons: Byproduct of industrial processes associated with aluminum
ni

production and semi-conductors.

to

o Black carbon: It is a kind of an aerosol and sooty black material emitted from gas and
diesel engines, coal-fired power plants due to incomplete combustion + It comprises high
nn

levels of particulate matter + Short lived climate pollutant (few days to weeks) + They are
the second most anthropogenic agent for climate change.
gi

§ Main Sources: Incomplete burning of coal, biomass burning, cooking with solid fuels,
diesel exhausts etc.
§ Impact: When deposited on ice, reduces the reflective capacity, good absorber of
sunlight-> absorb million time more energy than CO2; affect cloud formation and
rainfall + It may also lead to depletion of ozone layer + Key component of PM 2.5 ->
negative health impacts.
§ Government measures: Project Surya by introducing efficient stove technologies, solar
cookers, solar lamps and biogas plants; PM Ujjwala yojana etc.
§ Facts: India contributes around 25% of the world’s black carbon emissions; second
largest contributor to black carbon in the world.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Brown carbon: 1 biomass combustion +
It is emitted majorly by It is ubiquitous and
unidentified component of organic aerosol + It is light absorbing organic matter.
o Major sources: Biomass burning (including domestic wood burning), agricultural fires
including stubble burning etc.
o Brown Vs Black carbon: Black carbon is produced by high temperature combustion and
brown carbon is emitted by biomass combustion.
o Blue carbon: It is stored in the coastal ecosystem such as Mangroves, seagrass meadows and
intertidal salt marshes.
o Blue Carbon Initiative : It is a global program aimed at mitigating climate change through
the conservation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems + The Blue Carbon
Initiative focuses on mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses, which are found on every
continent except Antarctica + It is coordinated by Conservation International (CI), the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (IOC-UNESCO)
• Climate Forcings (Aerosol Radiative Forcing): Factors in the climate system that either increase
or decrease the effects to the climate system. Positive forcings such as excess GHGs warm earth,
while negative forcings such as effects of aerosols and volcanic eruptions cool the earth.
• Estimation of the effect of a gas:
- Quantity: It is how much of the gas is present in the atmosphere + It is measured in parts
per million/billion.
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- Life: For what duration can the gas survive in atmosphere. Each of these gases remain in the
atmosphere for different amounts of time.
- Strength: How strong the gas traps the heat. Some gases are more effective than others at
making planet warmer and thickening the Earth’s blanket.
• Global warming potential: For each gas a Global warming potential (GWP) is calculated by
considering its duration of existence i.e life and strength of its impact. Gases with higher GWP
absorb more energy per compound, thus contributing more to warming the Earth.
• Social cost of carbon: It is the marginal cost of the impacts caused by emitting one extra ton
of CO2 equivalent at any point in time, inclusive of 'non-market' impacts on the environment and
human health; India's country-level social cost of carbon emission was estimated to be the
highest at $86 per ton of CO2-> Indian economy will lose $86 by emitting each additional ton
of CO2.
• Greenhouse gas protocol: It is the most widely used international accounting tool for
government and business leaders to understand, quantify, and manage greenhouse gas emissions
+ It is a partnership between World Resources Institute (WRI) and the World Business
Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) + It provides accounting framework for nearly
every GHG standard and program in the world - from the International Standards Organization to
The Climate Registry - as well as hundreds of GHG inventories prepared by individual companies.
• Greenhouse Gas Bulletin Report: Released by WMO + It shows the average surface mole
fractions for carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) and compares them
with the mole fractions during the previous year and with the preindustrial levels + Greenhouse
Gas Bulletin 2022 also provides change in radiative forcing by long-lived GHGs (LLGHGs) and
the contribution of individual gases to this increase.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• GHG Emissions: China > USA > EU > India. 1
(UPPCS Pre 2010, 2018, Lower 2015)
• Bhutan is known as the world's top 'carbon negative country'. (UP Lower 2015)
• Oxide of Sulphur do not contribute to global warming directly. (UPPCS Pre 2013)
• Short-lived climate Pollutants
• Climate and Clean Air Coalition: The governments of Bangladesh, Mexico, Sweden, Ghana,
Canada and USA along with UNEP came together in 2012 to treat short-lived climate pollutants
as a collective and urgent challenge + It is a voluntary partnership of governments,
intergovernmental organizations, businesses, scientific institutions and civil society organizations
committed to improving air quality and protecting the climate through actions to reduce short-
lived climate pollutants + It focuses on Black carbon, Methane, Hydrofluorocarbons and
tropospheric ozone.
• Global Climate Change alliance: It is an initiative of the European Union + It provides technical
and financial support to targeted developing countries to integrate climate change into their
development policies and budgets.

*******

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-15
CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION STRATEGIES
• Carbon Sequestration: It describes long-term storage of CO2 and other forms of carbon to
mitigate global warming. Also known as Carbon capture and storage (CCS).
§ Mechanism: CCS catches and sequesters (hide) CO2 from power stations, industrial sites
and permanently stores it in underground.
§ Potential sites: Natural sinks such as Ocean, forests, soil etc. and Artificial sinks like
depleted oil reserves, un-mineable mines etc.
§ Types of Sequestration
o Geologic sequestration: Natural pore spaces in geologic formations serve as reservoirs
for long term CO2 storage.
§ Trapping mechanisms: Hydrodynamic trapping (CO2 trapped under low permeability
hard rock), Solubility trapping (dissolved into a liquid) and Mineral carbonation.
om
o Ocean sequestration: Carbon is stored in oceans through direct injection or fertilization.
§ Enhancing productivity of ocean biological systems through Iron fertilization
(stimulates phytoplankton production), and injecting CO2 into deep ocean.
l.c
o Terrestrial sequestration: Increasing carbon fixation through photosynthesis,
changing land use pattern enhance carbon uptake in soils, vegetation etc.
ai

§ Carbon sink: green and blue carbon sequestrate atmosphere GHGs.

m

• Green carbon: It is carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in plants and soil of
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natural ecosystems. Forests accumulate large amounts of CO2 in relatively short periods.
2g

• Blue carbon: Coastal, aquatic and maritime carbon sinks held by indicative vegetation,
marine organism and sediments. Tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses remove carbon
02

from atmosphere and store it in plants and sediment below them.

o More efficient: Removes carbon at rates higher than each square mile of mature tropical
c2

forests.
§ Blue carbon initiative: Global program working to mitigate climate change through the
ni

restoration and sustainable use of coastal and marine ecosystems. Coordinated by Conservation
to

International, IUCN, and IOC-UNESCO.

§ Carbon credit: It is a tradeable certificate representing right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide
nn

and carbon dioxide equivalent gases. India’s Multi commodity exchange (MCX) has become
first exchange in Asia to trade carbon credits.
gi

§ Carbon offsetting: These are credits for reductions in GHGs emissions made at another
location, such as wind farms which create renewable energy; quantified and sold in metric tonnes
of CO2 equivalent.
§ Carbon tax: It is tax based on the amount of carbon contained in a fuel such as coal to cause less
fossil use and an incentive to use another sources of energy.
§ Carbon Leakage : It is another issue with the Clean Development Mechanism. It is defined as
increase in emissions outside a region as a direct result of the policy measures to cap emission in
this region. This means that the domestic climate mitigation policy is less effective and more costly
in containing emission.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
§ The Global 1 It is a program of the
Atmosphere Watch (GAW): World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) promotes systematic and reliable observations of the global atmospheric
environment. Currently GAW coordinates activities and data from 32 global stations, but at
present in India, there is no GAW station.
§ Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CABM) : Proposed carbon tariff on carbon intensive
products, such as cement and some electricity, imported by the European Union + Currently being
legislated as part of the European Green Deal it is likely to take effect in 2026 with reporting
starting in 2023.
§ Geo-Engineering: Technique designed to tackle the effects of climate change by removing CO2
from the air or limiting the amount of sunlight reaching the planet's surface.
I. Methods: Hoisting parasols, placing mirrors in space (reflect light and reduce heating of
Earth), whitening stratosphere with sulfate aerosols, whitewashing building roofs to reflect
sunlight into ocean to promote carbon-gulping algae, whiten the clouds with wind-powered
ships, building fake trees.
II. Seed the sea with Iron (phytoplankton prefer iron and flourish in its presence, thus
absorbing a lot of CO2. E.g: LOHAFEX -> Indo-German Ocean iron fertilization project).
III. Utility: For dry ice production, developing new kinds of plastic and concrete,
horticulturists need CO2 in GHGs for plants to use during photosynthesis.
§ Clean coal technologies
• Coal washing: Removes unwanted minerals by mixing crushed coal with a liquid and
allowing impurities to separate and settle.
• Electrostatic precipitators: Remove particulates by charging particles with an electric
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field and then capturing them on collection plates.

• Flue gas desulfurization: Wet scrubbers or flue gas desulfurization remove Sulphur dioxide
by spraying flue gas with limestone and water.
§ Miscellaneous
Ø High latitude forests store more carbon than tropical rainforests.
Ø One third of the world’s soil-bound carbon is in taiga and tundra areas.
Ø When the permafrost melts due to global warming, it releases carbon in the form of carbon
dioxide and methane.

******

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-16
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
1. Ocean Acidification: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth’s
oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
2. Process: As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean increases, the concentration
of hydrogen ions in the ocean increases, concentration of carbonate ions decreases, the PH of the
ocean decreases and oceans become less alkaline.
3. CO2 Effect on ocean acidification: Increase in CO2-> Ocean acidification-> Coral reefs can’t
grow-> less plankton production-> less productive fisheries.
4. Checking CO and CO2 emissions and controlling pollution are the only means to reduce ocean
acidification.
5. Influence of other factors:
§ Acid Rain: Acid rain can have a PH between 1 and 6 and has major effect on ocean
acidification locally and regionally.
§ Eutrophication: It leads to large plankton blooms, and when these blooms collapse and sink
to the sea bed the subsequent respiration of bacteria decomposing the algae leads to a decrease
in seawater oxygen and an increase in CO2 (a decline in pH).
6. Consequences of Ocean Acidification
o Affects corals population: Ocean acidification will negatively affect corals. Coral reefs will
erode faster than they can rebuild. When shelled organisms are at risk, the entire food web
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may also be at risk.

o Some algae and seagrass may benefit from higher CO2 concentrations, as they may
increase their photosynthetic and growth rates.
o Cloud formation: The majority of sulphur in the atmosphere is emitted from the ocean, in
the form of dimethylsulfide (DMS) produced by phytoplankton. In acidified ocean water,
phytoplankton produces fewer DMS, which may lead to decreased cloud formation, raising
global temperatures.
o Ocean acidification in the Indian Ocean
o The Arabian Sea is witnessing acidification of its surface waters, a consequence of
excessive CO2 in the atmosphere
o The ocean acidification in the northern Bay of Bengal is mainly due to pollutants mixing
with seawater from the Indo-Gangetic plains.
o Decreasing presence of marine phytoplankton in the western Indian Ocean.
o Saturation horizons: Ocean acidification causes the saturation horizons to rise vertically
in the water column-> more calcifying organisms exposed to under saturated water and
thus vulnerable to dissolution of their shells and skeletons.
o Mitigation: Reducing CO2, promoting government policies to cap CO2 emissions, eliminate
offshore drilling, alternative energy sources such as wind power and solar etc.
Carbon Compensation Depth (CCD): It refers to the level of depth of the ocean till where carbon doesn’t dissolve and is
present in an adequate amount. It is essential for the survival of marine organisms, whose bodies are made up of carbonate
shells like corals, mollusks, planktons, etc. Carbon dioxide above the CCD is locked in, however, the carbon below CCD is
free and dissolved. Global warming has led to ocean acidification and subsequent increase of carbon in the oceans. It has
led to rise in the level of CCD in the oceans.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-17
CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCES
• ‘Silent Spring’ is an environmental science book published in 1962. It was written by an American
biologist and ecologist ‘Rachel Carson’. This book set the tone for an environmental movement in
the world. (UPPCS Pre 2020)
• In April of 1968, 30 people including scientists, educators, economists, humanists, industrialists
and government officials met at the Academia dei Lincei in Rome. "The Club of Rome" was born
from this meeting as an informal organization. The concept of 'Limits to Growth' was propounded
by the Club of Rome. (UPPCS Pre 2019)
• United Nations Conference on Human Environment (Stockholm conference), 1972: The
Stockholm conference was the first UN Conference on environment + It resulted in establishment
of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)+ Publication of ‘The Limit to Growth’
Report - 1972. (UPPCS Pre 2020)
• 1987: Brundtland report “Our Common Future” -(UPPCS Pre 2020) > First mention of
om
sustainable development. Sustainable development is important for well-being of human society.
Sustainable development has been defined in many ways. The most frequently quoted definition
l.c
is from our common future, also known as the Brundtland Report: "Sustainable development is
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
ai

generation to meet their own needs". (UPPCS Pre 2019). Sustainable development is a matter of
intergenerational sensibility in respect of the https://t.me/pcsstudies1
use of natural resources. The main objective of
m

sustainable development is the just and prudent use of natural resources, its conservation and
2g

proper management. (UPPCS Pre 2012,2018, 2023)

• UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summit), 1992: UNFCCC, UNCBD,
02

UNCCD, Agenda 21, Global Environment facility.

§ Agenda 21: It is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally
c2

by organizations of UN system, governments and major groups in every area + It is a non-

binding voluntarily implemented action plan of United Nations with regard to sustainable
ni

development + There are 4 agreement in Agenda-2021. (UPPCS Pre 2014)

• New York, 1997: Rio + 5; review of progress under 1992 summit. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2016]
to

• Rio + 10, Johannesburg (World Summit on sustainable development), 2002: Millennium

nn

development goals (MDGs) and review of Agenda 21.

• Rio + 20, 2012: Talk about Sustainable development goals, Green economy, Partnership for action
gi

on Green Economy (UNEP, UNDP, ILO are part of it).

• UNFCCC: Negotiated at Rio Earth summit (UNCED) in 1992 + It is the first multilateral legal
instrument on climate change + It came into force in March 1994 + It is a legally non-binding
agreement. (UPPCS Pre 2012)
§ Objective and role: Stabilize GHGs concentrations in atmosphere + It sets non-binding
limits on GHGs for individual countries + It has no enforcement mechanism.
§ Parties to convention: All UN member states, Palestine (Observer state), European
Union and Niue and Cook Island (non-member states).
§ UNFCCC secretariat: Supports Conference of parties (COP), subsidiary bodies, COP
Bureau.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• 1
Kyoto Protocol (COP-3): Negotiated under UNFCCC in Kyoto, Japan, 1997 + It is the only
global treaty with binding limits on GHG emissions + It came into force in 2005 + India ratified
in 2002 + USA never ratified.
o Goal: Fight global warming by reducing GHGs -> prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with climate system. (UPPCS M 2017, Pre 2019)
o Objectives: Enforce commitments under protocol + Sustainable development through tech
transfer and investment + encourage private sector to contribute emission reduction efforts.
o CBDR: Obligation on developed countries to reduce current emissions+ Carbon Credits +
Every country must take part but historically biggest polluters like US, UK, Russia etc.
should do more compared to recent polluters and must accept to certain binding limits on
GHG emissions. (UPPCS Pre 2021)
o Main Parties
§ Annex 1 parties: Industrialized countries which are members of OECD in 1992,
European Union + Economies in transition (EIT), including Russian federation, and
several central and east European states.
§ Annex 2 parties: OECD members of Annex 1 (But doesn’t include EIT parties); also
include EU; provide financial aid and technical support to developing countries to
assist in mitigation and adaptation.
§ Annex B: includes 38 countries+ European Community; compulsory binding targets to
reduce GHG emissions.
§ Non-Annex 1 parties: mostly developing countries; no binding targets to reduce
emission.
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§ Least developed countries: given special consideration to adapt to climate change.

o Architecture of Kyoto Protocol regime

§ Countries to meet targets largely through domestic action; also offers Marked based
mechanisms

Fig: Market based mechanisms under Kyoto Protocol (UPPCS pre-2015, 2017)

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• 1 investments in developing countries + Inclusion
Benefits of Flexible Market Mechanisms: Green
of private sector to steady GHGs at safe level + Ensure transparency of accounting by parties.
• Penalties: If country does not meet requirements for reporting-> losses right of gaining credit
through Joint implementation; Goes above emission-> make up difference + 30% in the next
period.
• Status of Kyoto Protocol: Most countries failed to meet targets for first period of commitment
(2008-12).
• Kyoto Beyond 2012: Amendments to KP for second commitment period (2012-20) adopted at
Doha in 2012 + It has not entered into force yet + It enter force on 90th day after 3/4th of parties
to KP have deposited their instrument of accession + India ratified second commitment period
in 2017 + Developed countries started implementation under ‘opt-in provisions’.
• COP-11: Held in Montreal, Canada in 2005-> ratified Kyoto protocol.
• Bali conference 2007 (COP 13): Bali roadmap as a two-year process to finalize binding agreement
in 2009 Copenhagen; review of the financial mechanism (beyond existing Global
Environmental Facility.)
• Poznan Conference 2008 (COP 14): Launched adaptation fund under Kyoto protocol; financed
in part by government and private donors.
• Copenhagen summit (COP 15): limits max global avg temperature increase to not more 2 degrees
C above pre-industrial levels; developed countries to provide US$30 billion for the period 2010-
2012; mobilize long-term finance of a further US$100 billion a year by 2020 from a variety of
sources.
•
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Cancun conference (COP 16): Agreed to establish a Green Climate Fund and include Carbon
capture and storage (CCS) under CDM. (UPPCS M 2013)
• Durban conference (COP 17): Second phase of Kyoto protocol secured; approved governing
instrument for Green climate Fund.
§ The Sustainable Energy for all initiative acts in support of the 2014-2024 decade of
Sustainable Energy for All as declared by the UN General Assembly. (UPPCS Pre 2017)
• Doha conference (COP18): agreed to extend life of Kyoto-> second commitment period (2013-
20); extension of KP until 2020 limited scope to 15% of global CO2 emissions.
• Warsaw conference (COP 19): Term INDCs coined; Warsaw mechanism proposed-> Support
to developing nations to cope damages caused by natural extremities.
• LIMA Outcomes (COP-20): Capitalization of the new green climate fund past an initial $10
billion target; multilateral assessments; climate awareness into national development plans;
launch of Nazca Climate action portal.
• Paris Agreement, 2015 (COP-21): Entered into force in November, 2016 (ratification by 55
countries that account for 55% of global emissions); Focus on mitigate and adapt to climate
change beyond 2020; India signed and ratified in 2016. (UPPCS Pre 2018)
§ Goal: Limit global temperature increase well below 2 degree celsius, also urging efforts to
limit increase to 1.5 degrees; zero net anthropogenic GHG emission during 2nd half of 21st
century.
§ Key features of the agreement
§ Provides common framework for all countries-> all parties report regularly on emission
targets and international review (ends strict differentiation between developed and
developing countries).

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
§ Binding procedural commitments: 1
prepare, communicate NDCs; new NDC every five
years; each successive NDC progression beyond previous one; no binding obligation to
implement NDCs.
§ Carbon markets: Recognize parties to use “internationally transferred mitigation
outcomes” to implement its NDCs.
§ Successive NDCs: Global stocktake to assess collective progress; first stocktake in
2023; new NDCs every five years to represent progression.
§ Support to poor developing countries; extend $100 billion-a-year goal through 2025;
beyond that by 2023, COP set new quantified goal from floor of $100 billion a year.
§ India’s INDCs
Ø To reduce Emission intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 % by 2030 from 2005 level.
Ø Increase share of non-fossil-based energy resource to 40% of installed electric power
capacity by 2030.
Ø Additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 through additional forest and
tree cover by 2030.
• Marrakech conference (COP-22), 2016: Adaptation of African Agriculture launched + It aimed
om
at dealing with orphan issues not assigned to APA + It also included mid-century strategies;
2050 Pathway platform was launched; roadmap outlining methods to meet goal of mobilizing
$100 billion a year; $23 million for climate technology centre and network (CTCN).
l.c
• Bonn climate change conference (COP 23), 2017: Powering past coal alliance (coal phase-
out in OECD and EU28 by 2030); and by 2050 in rest of world + It has no particular phase-out
ai

date commitments; Gender action plan; ocean pathway partnership; Insu resilience global
partnership (climate and disaster risk finance and insurance solutions).
m

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§ Talanoa dialogue: It reflect process of inclusive, participatory and transparent dialogue + It

help countries enhance their NDCs + It involves sharing of ideas, skills and experience
2g

through storytelling.
§ Katowice conference (COP-24), 2018: Finalized a “rulebook” to operationalize paris agreement-
02

> details on how countries will provide info about their NDCs, opaqueness of climate financing,
describes how loans, grants should be accounted for + Modalities for Monitoring and progress
c2

report to INDCs.
§ Madrid conference (COP-25), 2019: Framing rules for setting up new carbon market under
ni

Paris agreement deferred to next year + It has no schedule finalized for updating NDCs + The
liabilities for damages caused by rising temperatures deferred; concrete plans regarding climate
to

emergency.
§ Glasgow climate conference (COP-26), 2021: Secure Global net-zero by mid-century i.e.,
nn

2050 and keep 1.5 degrees within reach + The countries asked for ambitious 2030 emission
reduction targets + ‘protect and restore ecosystems and build defences; Developed countries
gi

must mobilize USD100bn per year. (UPPCS Pre 2021)

o Five commitments made by Indian Prime Minister
• Raise the non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity of the country to 500 GW by 2030.
• By 2030, 50% of the country’s energy requirements would be met using renewable
energy sources.
• Reduce the total projected carbon emission by one billion tonnes between now and the
year 2030.
• The carbon intensity would be reduced to less than 45% by 2030.
• India would become carbon neutral and achieve net zero emissions by the year 2070.
o Others: Developed economies should make $1 trillion available for climate financing.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
- UNFCC COP 27 [Sharm El-Sheikh Climate1Change Conference] : Held in Egypt + The Sharm-
El-Sheikh Adaptation Agenda outlines 30 Adaptation Outcomes to build resilience for four billion
people that are most vulnerable to climate, by 2030 + COP27 signed an agreement to provide "loss
and damage" funding to vulnerable countries.
o Initiatives:
§ Action on Water Adaptation and Resilience Initiative (AWARe): It has been launched
to reflect the importance of water as both a key climate change problem and a potential
solution.
§ African Carbon Market Initiative (ACMI): It was launched to support the growth of
carbon credit production and create jobs in Africa.
§ The Global Renewables Alliance: It brings together, for the first time, all the technologies
required for the energy transition in order to ensure an accelerated energy transition.
§ Parties Agree to Introduce Loss & Damage Funding: During the COP27, Parties agreed
to include Loss and Damage Funding as an agenda item at the climate conference for the
first time since the adoption of the UN climate convention.
§ International Conference on "Citizen-centric energy transition: Empowering citizens
with Mission LIFE (Lifestyles for Environment)”: It was held at the India Pavilion at
the COP-27 at Sharm-El-Sheikh in Egypt. The conference was hosted by the Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) and the Ministry of Power (MOP), Government of
India, in partnership with Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA), Solar
Energy Corporation of India (SECI) and the Council on Energy, Environment and Water
(CEEW).
§ ISA Releases USD 1 Trillion Roadmap for Scaling Solar Investment, Deployment:
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The goal of this roadmap is to secure the funding needed to scale up the deployment of
solar power projects.
§ Methane Alert and Response System (UNFCCC COP 27) : A new satellite-based
system to detect methane emissions and tackle them to slow climate change + The data-to-
action platform was set up as part of the UN Environment Programme’s (UNEP)
International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO) strategy to get policy-relevant data
into the right hands for emissions mitigation + The system will be the first publicly
available global system to connect methane detection to notification processes
transparently
- Climate Finance: It refers to local, national or transnational financing-drawn from public, private
and alternative sources of financing + It seeks to support mitigation and adaptations actions that
will address climate change.
- Principles of Climate Finance: Polluters pay principle, CBDR and Respective capability (CBDR-
RC), Additionality (climate finance should be additional to existing commitments to avoid
diversion of funding for development needs to climate change actions), predictability (climate
finance must be predictable to ensure sustained flow of climate finance), adequacy and precaution.
- UNFCCC established the financial mechanism to provide financial resources to developing
country parties.
Global Environment Facility (GEF): Setup as a fund under World Bank in 1991+ Moved out of
WB system during Rio Earth summit in 1992 to become permanent and separate institution +
Multilateral grants to developing countries+ Based in Washington DC+ It serves as a financial
mechanism for CBD, UNFCCC, UNCCD, Stockholm convention on PoPs, Minamata convention
on mercury + India is both donor and recipient of GEF + It also supports implementation of

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
Montreal protocol in countries with economies 1
in transition+ financial contribution is replenished
every four years by GEF 39 donor countries + The funds available to developing countries and
economies in transition+ Six designated focal areas are Biodiversity, climate change, international
waters, ozone depletion, land degradation and persistent organic pollutants.
• Green Climate Fund (GCF): Established at COP-16 at Cancun in 2010; chief instrument
of fulfilling developed countries collective promise to put $100bn annually by 2020;
mechanism to redistribute money from developed to developing world.
§ COP 16 ==> Decision Made to establish GCF.
COP 17 ==> Parties approved the Governing Instrument for the GCF ==> Legal approval
COP 18 ==> Songdo, Incheon, Republic of Korea hosted GCF.
§ Structure: Fund governed by GCF board consisting of 24 members equally divided
between developed and developing countries; accountable to and functions under COP
to support projects; independent secretariat in Songdo, Republic of Korea; World
Bank serves as interim trustee of GCF.
• Special climate change fund: Established under convention in 2001 to finance adaptation,
technology transfer etc; GEF entrusted to operate the SCCF.
• Strategic climate fund: Administered by World Bank + The area of focus is adaptation,
mitigation + One of the two multi-donor trust funds within climate investment funds (CIFs).
• Biocarbon fund: Administered by World Bank + It is an initiative for sustainable forest
landscapes; sustainable forest management with climate smart agricultural practices.
• Clean technology fund: Administered by WB + It promotes scaled up finance for transfer of
low carbon technologies + It is channeledhttps://t.me/pcsstudies1
through African Development bank, ADB, EBRD,
WB group.
• Forest carbon partnership facility: Administered by the World Bank + Mitigation under
REDD + It consists of readiness fund and carbon fund.
• Least developed countries fund: Administered by the GEF + It funds adaptation needs of
LDCs + Financed preparation and implementation of National adaptation programs of action
(NAPAs).
• Adaptation Fund: Administered by Adaptation fund board + It is operational from 2009 + It
is a financial instrument under UNFCCC and its Kyoto protocol + The fund is financed
with proceeds from Clean development mechanism (CDM) and donor governments.
• Loss and Damage Fund : Launched in United Nations Climate Conference (COP 27) and the
culmination of decades of pressure from climate-vulnerable developing countries. The fund
aims to provide financial assistance to nations most vulnerable and impacted by the effects of
climate change.
• Global Shield Against Climate Risks : It is a joint initiative of G7 and V20 + Vulnerable
Twenty(V20) is a dedicated cooperation initiative of countries systemically vulnerable to
climate change. It was established in 2015 in Lima, Peru + The initiative will provide pre-
arranged financial support designed to be quickly deployed during climate disasters + The
initiative is envisioned as a social protection and insurance-based finance mechanism for loss
and damage outside the UNFCCC process + Funding: World Bank Group has announced a
Global Shield Financing Facility to support the Global Shield Against Climate Risks.
- Climate Financing in India
o National Adaptation fund for climate change (NAFCC): Established in 2015 to meet
cost of adaptation to climate change for the States & UTs + 100% central grant provided

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
to the State Governments/UTs for adaptation + NABARD is the National Implementing
Entity responsible for implementation of adaptation projects under NAFCC.
o National Clean energy fund: Promote clean energy + It is funded through initial carbon
tax on use of coal by industries + It is governed by an Inter-Ministerial Group with the
Finance Secretary as the Chairman + It fund research and development of innovative
clean energy technology in the fossil and non-fossil fuel based sectors.
o Green Ag project: It is funded by GEF, while the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation,
and Farmers’ Welfare (DAC&FW) is the national executing agency + It is designed to
achieve multiple global environmental benefits in at least 1.8 million hectares (ha) of land
in five landscapes, with mixed land-use systems + It aims to bring at least 104,070 ha of
farms under sustainable land and water management + It has been launched in high
conservation value landscapes of five states – Madhya Pradesh (Chambal landscape),
Mizoram (Dampa landscape), Odisha (Similipal landscape), Rajasthan (Desert national
park landscape) and Uttarakhand (Corbett- Rajaji landscape).
• Green Bonds: It is a debt instrument with which capital is being raised to fund ‘green’ projects,
which typically include those relating to renewable energy, clean transportation, sustainable
om
water management etc + In India, SEBI puts disclosure norms for issuance and listing of green
bonds.
• Blue bonds: Blue bonds are pioneering financial instruments that are designed to support
l.c
sustainable marine and fisheries projects + They are a subset of the green bonds + The World
Bank defines blue bonds “as a debt instrument issued by governments, development banks or
ai

others to raise capital from impact investors to finance marine and ocean-based projects that
m

have positive environmental, economic and climate benefits.”

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• In 2018, the Republic of Seychelles launched the world’s first sovereign blue bond.
2g

• Climate Bonds Initiative: It is an international, investor- focused not-for-profit

organization It's the only organization working to mobilize $100 trillion bond market for
02

climate change solutions.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-18
OZONE DEPLETION
1. Introduction: Ozone is a natural gas, allotrope of oxygen consisting of three atoms of oxygen
bound together in a non-linear fashion + It is a pale blue gas with distinctive pungent smell + It
is highly reactive gas + Its concentration is good in stratosphere as it protects Earth by absorbing
UV rays + It is a pollutant at ground level.
2. Ozone layer: Region of Earth’s stratosphere absorbs UV radiation + It contains high concentration
of O3 + It has less than 10 ppm of ozone + It is mainly found in lower portion of stratosphere 20-
30 kms above earth.
• Dobson Unit : It is the most common unit for measuring ozone concentration. One Dobson
Unit is the number of molecules of ozone that would be required to create a layer of pure ozone
0.01 millimeters thick at a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius and a pressure of 1 atmosphere.
• Usefulness: Prevent damaging UV light from reaching earth-> reduce risks of mutation to
plant and animal + It protects oxygen of lower altitude from breaking due to action of UV
light + It prevents diseases like skin cancer; Life on earth possible. (UPPCS Pre 2006, 2013,
2014, 2018, M 2010)
• Depletion of Ozone layer: Major sources (UPPCS Pre 2002, 2008, 2012, 2016, RO 2014)
a. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Molecules made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon + It has
properties of non-corrosiveness, non-inflammability, low toxicity and chemical stability +
It is used as refrigerants and aerosol https://t.me/pcsstudies1
propellants for making plastic foam, cleaning of
electronic equipment, fire extinguishing agents etc.
§ Lifetime and removal of CFCs: Estimated to be between 40-150 years + It cannot be
eliminated from atmosphere by usual scavenging process like photo-dissociation, rain-
out and oxidation + It escape into atmosphere from a discarded refrigerator + They are
thermally stable and can survive in troposphere.
b. Bromine containing compounds: Called as halons and HBFCs (used in fire extinguishers)
and methyl bromide.
c. Carbon Tetrachloride: Cheap, highly toxic solvent + It is used in manufacture of synthetic
rubber, production of pesticides and pharmaceuticals.
d. Methyl chloroform: Used as cleaning solvent for clothes and metals, propellant of consumer
products such as correction fluid, dry cleaning sprays.
e. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Developed as an interim replacement for CFCs + It is
much less harmful than CFCs + It has high global warming potential.
f. Nitrogen Oxides: Major source is explosions of thermonuclear weapons, industrial
emissions and agricultural fertilizers + N2O released from solid through denitrification of
nitrates under anaerobic conditions and nitrification of ammonia under aerobic conditions.
The ozone layer in the stratosphere is naturally regulated by Nitrogen dioxide. (UPPCS M
2016) [UPPSC Prelims 2023]
g. Sulphuric acid particles: Free chlorine from molecular reservoirs; convert reactive
nitrogen into inert forms-> preventing formation of chlorine reservoirs.
• Role of Polar stratospheric clouds in Ozone depletion
a. Polar Stratospheric clouds: Nacreous clouds in the winter polar stratosphere at altitude
of 15-25 kms.
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
b. 1
Activating chlorine and absorbing nitrogen
§ Ice particles of PSC provides substrates for chemical reaction which frees chlorine
from its reservoirs; the reaction between HCL and Chlorine nitrate occurs at faster rate
in presence of suitable substrate provided by stratospheric clouds at poles.
§ HCL + Chlorine Nitrate à Cl2 (Molecular chlorine) + HNO3 (Nitric acid)
§ PSCs not only activate chlorine, but also absorb reactive nitrogen.
• Why Ozone depletion predominant at Antarctic
o Antarctic is more cold than arctic: Antarctic stratosphere is much colder; low
temperature enable formation of PSCs below 20km.
o Longer stability of vortex: Enhances favorable conditions for depletion; vortex remains
throughout polar winter, well into midspring.
o British team first discovered the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1985 using 'total ozone
mapping spectrometer'. (UPPCS M 2013)
o In the leadership of G.W. Kent Moore, University of Toronto, in 2005, the researchers
discovered ozone hole over Tibetan Plateau also. (UPPCS M 2013)
• Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion: Decrease in quantity of total-column ozone->
increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation to earth’s surface.
o Human and animal health: Eye disease, skin cancer and infectious morbidity; UV-B
radiations-> development of non-melanoma skin cancer.
o Terrestrial plants: Change composition of species-> increase in number of tolerant
species; changes in biomass allocation to parts of plant etc.
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o Aquatic Ecosystems: Affect orientation mechanisms and motility of phytoplankton ->

reduced survival rates; damage to early development stage of fish, shrimp etc; decreased
reproductive capacity; impaired larval development.
o Biogeochemical cycles: Alternates both source and sinks of greenhouse and chemically
important trace gases. In Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a
chemical substances or nutrients move through both biotic and abiotic components of
Earth. Biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon, etc. are found in nature.
(UPPCS Pre 2012, 2020)
o Air quality: Higher photo dissociation rates of trace gases; increase both production and
destruction of Ozone; increased production of particulates such as cloud condensation
nuclei.
o Effects on materials: Limits photo-degradation of synthetic polymers and bio-polymers +
It limit their life outdoors.
• Vienna convention: Multilateral environment agreement signed in 1985 and came into force
in 1988 + It is a legally binding convention + Ratified by 197 states (all UN members and
Niue, Holy see and Cook island) and European Union + Objective is to promote cooperation
by means of systematic observations, research and information exchange + It does not
include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs->laid out in Montreal protocol
+ In 2009, it became first convention to achieve universal ratification.
• Montreal Protocol: Protocol to Vienna convention + It was signed in 1987 and came into
force in 1989 + It is the international treaty to protect ozone layer + It aims to reduce
production and consumption of Ozone depleting substances. (UPPCS Pre 2019)

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(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o Key Elements 1
§ Requires all parties to eliminate production and import of Ozone depleting
substances.
§ Special provisions for developing countries-> grace period of 10-15 years
§ Multilateral funds: Help qualifying developing countries to phase out their
consumption of ODS.
§ Report annually on production, import and export of ODSs.
§ Regular assessments to enable parties to make informed decisions.
§ Chemicals covered: Covers nearly 100 chemicals grouped in: CFCs, Halons, Carbon
tetrachloride, HCFCs, Methyl chloroform, Methyl Bromide.
§ CBDR: phases down the consumption and production of the different ODS in a step-
wise manner, with different timetables for developed and developing countries.
§ Protocol assisted by Ozone secretariat based at UNEP HQ in Nairobi, Kenya.
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010, U.P.P.S.C. (GIC) 2010]
§ Impact: Highly successful international arrangement; phased out more than 95% of
om
ODS; world will achieve final phase out of ODS in 2016 with phase out of CFCs used
in Metered dose inhalers.
§ Progress made by India: India has already phased out CFCs and CTC; India’s current
l.c

plan result in 60% phase out of HCFCs by Jan 1, 2023.

ai

• Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol: It is an international agreement to reduce

consumption and production of HFCs https://t.me/pcsstudies1
+ It is a legally binding agreement designed to
m

create rights and obligations + It was finalized in 2016 at 28th meeting of parties to Montreal
2g

protocol + India recently approved ratification to phase out HFCs

o Legally binding commitments:
02

§ Industrialized countries cut HFC production and consumption by at least 85% by

2036 compared to annual average values in period 2011-13 starting from 2019;
c2

§ Developing countries including China, Brazil and South Africa to reduce their
HFC use by 80% of their average value in 2020-22 by 2045 starting from 2024.
ni

§ India and some developing countries- Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait
cut down their HFCs by 85% of their values in 2024-26 by 2047 starting from 2028.
to

o Others: 121 states and the European Union have ratified the Kigali Amendment as of
nn

July 2021. India is the new entrant to the list; US not ratified the amendment.
o Quito Adjustment: In 2018, the Quito Adjustment is the adjustment made to the Montreal
Protocol. It aims high to avoid 1°C of future warming. In this, the decision to strengthen
gi

enforcement mechanisms of this accord in response to an unexpected rise in global

emissions trichlorofluoromethane or CFC-11 was adopted.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-19
INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE
• Introduction: As per Global climate risk index 2021, India is the 7th most vulnerable country +
Overall, 11.8 million people affected by the intense monsoon + The energy sector was prime
contributor + Fifth largest GHG emitter, accounting for about 5% of global emissions + released by
international environmental think tank ‘Germanwatch'.
• India’s efforts to counter Climate change
- NAPCC: Launched in 2008 by PM Council on Climate Change + 8 national missions form core
which represent multi-pronged, long term and integrated strategies. (UPPCS Pre 2016, 2018)
1. National Solar Mission: Governed by MoNRE + Target of JNNSM enhanced to 100 GW
by 2022->includes 60GW (large and medium grid solar projects) and 40GW (rooftop solar).
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE): Improve energy efficiency +
Governed by Ministry of Power; commenced in 2010 to achieve GHG reduction of 98.55
million tonnes/year + Annual fuel savings of 23 million tonnes.

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3. National Mission for Sustainable Habitat: Governed by Ministry of Housing and urban
affairs + It commenced in 2010 with aim to reduce emission in cities + It focuses on GHG
reduction opportunities by increasing energy efficiency of building, improving SWM.
4. National Water Mission: Governed by Ministry of Jal Shakti + Commenced in 2011 with
aim to ensure water security and improve access to water resources + It covers entire sweep
of water management to fight climate change impacts.
5. National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem: Governed by DoS&T +
Commenced in 2011 + It is aimed at developing capacity to assess health status of Himalayan
ecosystem.
6. National Mission on Strategic knowledge for Climate change: Governed by DoS&T + It
aimed at establishment of knowledge network among existing knowledge institutions.
7. National Mission for Green India: Governed by MoEF&CC, commenced in 2014 + Aimed
to increase forest and tree cover + It focus on reviving degraded forests with a focus on
increasing forest cover and conserving biodiversity.

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
8. 1
National Mission for Sustainable agriculture: Commenced in 2012 aimed to climate-proof
agriculture and reduce emissions from sector. Four components are:
o Soil Health Management->aimed at nutrient management through judicious use of
chemical fertilizers.
o Rain-fed area development to develop agri-land under integrated farming system.
o Sub-Mission on agro-forestry to promote plantation along with crops.
o Climate change and sustainable agriculture: Monitoring, Modeling and Networking
(CCSAMMN) for creating models on adaptation and dissemination of information about
climate change.
- National Bio-Energy Mission: It is aimed at improving energy efficiency in traditional biomass
consuming industries + Develop bio-energy city project + Provide logistics support to biomass
processing units + Propose a GIS-based National Biomass Resource Atlas to map potential
biomass regions. (UPPCS M 2016, LDA 2010)
- International Solar Alliance: Intergovernmental treaty-based organisation with a global
mandate to catalyze solar growth by reduced cost of financing and technology + It is launched
by PM of India and President of France on sidelines of COP-21 + 101 members, after being joined
by the US + Headquartered at Gurugram.
- PM Ujjwala yojana: Launched in May 2016 + It is aimed to provide LPG connections to poor
households + Deposit-free LPG connection given to the eligible household with financial
assistance of Rs 1,600 per connection by the Centre.
- National Adaptation funds: Set up in 2010 for which 100 crore rupees set aside for taking
agriculture adaptation measures.
- GRIHA: It is a green rating system developed by The Energy resource agency (TERI) + It
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promoted by MNRE as national rating system.

• Objective: To help design green buildings and, in turn, help evaluate the 'greenness' of the
buildings.
• Parameters used:
o Site selection and planning
o Conservation and efficient utilization of resources
o Building operation and maintenance
o Innovation points
• MNRE made mandatory for building to obtain a GRIHA rating to avail subsidies allocated
for green development.
- Greenco rating system: Developed by CII + It evaluates companies on environmental
friendliness using life cycle approach + It considers parameters like Energy efficiency, water
conservation, renewable energy, GHG mitigation, waste management, material conservation,
product stewardship, life cycle assessment and Green building features, biodiversity and
innovation.
- Energy Conservation Building Code : The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), was
devised by the Indian government for brand-new commercial buildings+ For commercial buildings
with a connected load of 100kW or contract demand of 120 KVA and above, ECBC establishes
minimal energy criteria + The EC Act of 2001 gives the Central Government Government
authority, but the state governments are free to adapt the code to meet unique local or regional
requirements and to notify the Central Government

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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-20
ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
• Animal Welfare Board of India: It is a statutory advisory body established under Section 4 of
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals act,1960 + Advise GOI on animal welfare laws + Provides grants
to animal welfare organizations + Publications to raise awareness of various animal welfare issues
+ Rukmini Devi Arundale pioneered the setting of board with HQs at Chennai + The board consists
of 28 members; term of office is 3 years.
• Central Zoo authority: It is a statutory body constituted in 1992 under the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 + Chaired by the Environment Minister and has 10 members and a member-secretary +
Main objective is to complement and strengthen the national effort in conservation of rich
biodiversity + Provides recognition to zoos and also regulate the zoos + Prescribes rules under
which animals may be transferred among zoos nationally and internationally + Grant of licenses,
recognition, certification of ownership etc.
• National Biodiversity authority: Established in 2003 to implement India’s Biological Diversity
om
Act (2002) + Statutory and autonomous body performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory
functions for the GOI on the issue of conservation and sustainable use of biological resources +
l.c
Impose benefit sharing conditions + Advise state governments in selection of areas of biodiversity
importance + Protection of knowledge of local people + Headquarters in Chennai + Members
ai

appointed by central government consists of a chairperson, 3 ex officio members: one from

Ministry of Tribal affairs and two from MoEF&CC + Five non-official members to be appointed
m

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from amongst specialists and scientists having special knowledge and experience.
2g

• Wildlife crime control bureau: Statutory body created under Wildlife (Protection) act, 1972 +
Deals with organized wildlife crime + Collection, collation of intelligence and its dissemination +
02

Establishment of centralized wildlife crime databank + Implementation of international

conventions + Primary enforcers of WPA, 1972. Initiatives: Save Kurma, Operation Clean Art
•
c2

National Lake Conservation Plan: MoEF&CC implements NCLP + Emphasis on conservation

and management of polluted and degraded lakes in urban and semi-urban areas + In situ measures
of lake cleaning such as de-silting, de- weeding, bioremediation, aeration, bio-manipulation,
ni

nutrient reduction, withdrawal of anoxic hypolimn ion; afforestation, storm waterdrainage, silt
to

traps etc + Solid waste management and provision of dhobi Ghats is generally not covered under
NCLP.
nn

The Sukhna Lake in Chandigarh, Bhoj in Madhya Pradesh and Pichola Lake in Udaipur, Rajasthan
have been declared a Wetland covered under National Lake Conservation Plan. (UPPCS Pre 2002)
gi

This plan included 58 lakes of 14 states by December, 2009. The list included Bhimtal and Ooty.
(UPPCS Pre 2010)
• National Ganga River Basin Authority: Established in Feb., 2009 under Environment Protection
Act, 1986). (UPPCS M 2010) It is a financing, planning implementing, monitoring, coordinating
authorities for Ganga under Jal Shakti Ministry + It is transferred from MoEF to Ministry of Jal
Shakti in 2014 + PM is the Chairperson. In 2016, it was changed to National Ganga Council
(NGC).
o The 'Central Ganga Authority' was constituted in February, 1985 under the aegis of former
Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. In September, 1995 its name was changed to "National River
Conservation Authority." (UPPCS M 2014)
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Environment - Common GS
(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• National Mission on Clean Ganga, 2016: It is1the implementation wing of NGC set up in 2016
under River Ganga Authority Order 2016; 2 tier management structure (Governing Council &
Executive Committee) + 5 tier structure at National, State & District level: NGC (PM),
Empowered Task Force (MoJS), NMCG (2016), State Ganga Committees & District Ganga
Committees.
• Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) to clean the dirtiest river in the country was formally launched in
1993. It is a bilateral project between the Government of India and Japan. The YAP has so far
completed two phases as YAP-1 and YAP-II. The YAP-I covered Delhi, eight towns in Uttar
Pradesh and six towns in Haryana. Under YAP II, the emphasis was on the 22 km stretch of the
Yamuna in Delhi. Notably, YAP III was launched on 7 May, 2016 under Namami Gange
Programme. (UPPCS M 2016)
• Wildlife Trust of India: It is an Indian NGO committed to nature conservation with motto as
Service of Nature + To conserve nature, especially endangered species and threatened habitats, in
partnership with communities and governments.
• Bombay Natural History society: One of the largest NGOs in India engaged in conservation and
biodiversity research + Conservation of nature primarily biological diversity through action based
on research, education and public awareness.
• Wildlife Institute of India: Established in 1982 as an autonomous institution under MoEF&CC
+ It carry out research on various aspects of wildlife conservation + Training programs for capacity
building of wildlife managers; repository of knowledge of wildlife + Technical and advisory
services to states and central government in the country.
• Indian council for forest research and education (ICFRE): Autonomous council under
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MoEF&CC + Through its 9 institutes and five centres is guiding, promoting and coordinating
forestry research, extension and education at the national level.
• Botanical Survey of India: It is the apex research organization under Ministry of Environment
and Forests (MoEFCC) for carrying out taxonomic and floristic studies on wild plant resources of
country + Established in 1890 with objective to explore plant resources of country and to identify
plants species with economic virtues.
• Zoological Survey of India: It is India’s apex organization on animal taxonomy + Its objective is
to promote survey, exploration, research and documentation on various aspects of animal
taxonomy in Indian subcontinent + It was established in 1916 and headquartered in Kolkata.
• Forest Survey of India: It is a national organisation responsible for the assessment and monitoring
of the forest resources of India regularly + It functions under the Ministry of Environment and
Forests; headquartered at Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
• National Board for Wildlife (NBWL): It is a Statutory organization constituted under the
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 + Its role is “advisory” in nature and advises the Central Government
on framing policies and measures for conservation of wildlife in the country + It has power to
review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around national parks and
sanctuaries + No alternation of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can be done
without approval of the NBWL + It is chaired by the Prime Minister.
• National plan for conservation of aquatic ecosystems: It is a single conservation programme
for both wetlands and lakes + It is a centrally sponsored scheme, currently being implemented by
MoEF&CC + It seeks to promote better synergy and avoid overlap of administrative functions.

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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• India's firstNational Centre for Marine1 Biodiversity (NCMB) is located in Jamnagar
(Gujarat). The centre will have the goal of safeguarding the biodiversity of coastal areas.
(UPPCS Pre 2018)
• National Green Tribunal:
o NGT Act, 2010: Provided for establishment of a NGT for effective and expeditious disposal
of cases relating to environment protection and conservation of forests and other natural
resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief
and compensation for damages to persons and property.
o NGT was established on October 18, 2010. (UPPCS,2017)
o Mandate: Speedy environment justice, help reduce burden of litigation in higher courts +
Disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same.
o Branches: Principle Bench in New Delhi + Regional benches in Pune, Bhopal, Chennai and
Kolkata.
o Structure of NGT
§ The Tribunal comprises of the Chairperson, the Judicial Members and Expert
Members; term of five years and are not eligible for reappointment.
§ The Chairperson is appointed by the Central Government in consultation with CJI.
§ A Selection Committee shall be formed by central government to appoint the Judicial
Members and Expert Members.
§ There are to be least 10 and maximum 20 full time Judicial members and Expert
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o Members: Chairperson of NGT is a retired judge of the SC + Other judicial members are
retired judge of the High courts.
o Each Bench-> At least 1 judicial member and one expert member; expert members should
have professional qualification and a minimum of 15yrs of experience in field of
environment/ forest conservation.
o The NGT deals with civil cases under the seven laws related to the environment, these
include:
§ The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
§ The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
§ The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
§ The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
§ The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
§ The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and
§ The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
o Note: NGT has not been vested with powers to hear cases relating to Wildlife protection
act, 1972, Indian Forest act, 1927 and various laws enacted by states relating to forests,
tree preservation etc.
o NGT by an order, can provide
§ Relief and compensation to the victims of pollution and other environmental damage
including accident occurring while handling any hazardous substance.
§ For restitution of property damaged, and
§ For restitution of the environment for such area or areas, as the Tribunal may think fit.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
o The NGT Act also provides a procedure for1a penalty for noncompliance:
§ Imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years,
§ Fine which may extend to ten crore rupees, and Both fine and imprisonment.
o Principles: Not guided by Code of Civil procedure, 1908 but guided by Principles of natural
justice + It is also not bound by Indian Evidence act, 1872.
o Review appeal can be made to NGT + If review appeal fails, NGT order can be challenged
before Supreme court within ninety days.
o Others: India became the third country in the world to set up a specialised environmental
tribunal, after Australia and New Zealand, and first developing country to do so.
§ The National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB) was set up by the
Government of India in the year 1992. (UPRO 2016)

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(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-21
INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS
1. CITES: It is also known as Washington convention is a multilateral treaty to protect
endangered plants and animals + It is entered into force in July 1975; 183 parties + Secretariat
is administered by UNEP and is located at Geneva, Switzerland.
• Aim: Ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten survival of species in wild-> bans hunting, capturing and selling of endangered
or threatened species.
• Functions
o Subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls.
o All import, export, re-export and introduction from the sea of species covered by the
convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
o Each party must designate one or more Management authorities in charge of
administering that licensing system and one or more scientific authorities to advise them
on the effects of trade on the status of the species.
• Conference of Parties (COP): Supreme decision-making body and comprises all its Parties.
• Legally binding: CITES is legally binding on the parties although it does not take place of
national laws.
• Appendix I: Species threatened with extinction-> trade permitted only in exceptional
circumstances.
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• Appendix II: Species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be
controlled to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.
• Appendix III: Species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES
parties for assistance in controlling trade.
2. TRAFFIC: It is a wildlife trade monitoring network and NGO working globally on the trade
of wild animals and plants + It is founded in 1976 as a strategic alliance of WWF and IUCN
headquartered at Cambridge, United Kingdom + It aims to ensure that trade in wild plants and
animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.
• Governance: Governed by the TRAFFIC Committee, composed of members of
TRAFFIC's partner organizations, WWF and IUCN.
• It also works in close co-operation with the secretariat of CITES.
3. Convention on conservation of migratory species of wild animals (Bonn convention): It is an
international treaty concluded under aegis of UNEP + It provides a global platform for
conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats + It is only legal
convention specializing in conservation of migratory species It is signed in 1979 in Bonn and
entered into force in 1983 + The headquarters are in Bonn, Germany; India is a party to CMS
since 1983.
o Appendix I: Migratory species threatened with extinction listed on it + The parties strive
towards strictly prohibiting these animals, conserving the places where they live.
o Appendix II: Migratory species that would significantly benefit from international co-
operation are listed.
o Key Highlights of 13th COP Summit, Gandhinagar Gujarat (2020)
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
• Gandhinagar Declaration: Calls for1migratory species and concept of ‘ecological
connectivity’ to be integrated and prioritized in new framework.
• First ever report on Status of Migratory species presented to CMS COP13.
• Great Indian Bustard, Asian Elephant and Bengal Florican classified as “Endangered
migratory species” (Appendix 1) by CMS.
• Animal culture linked to conservation for the first time at UN Wildlife conference in
India.
• Seven migratory species champions recognized: Germany, India, Italy, Monaco,
Norway, EU and the Environmental agency Abu Dhabi.
• Theme: Migratory species connect the planet and we welcome them home.
• Logo: Inspired by ‘Kolam’, a traditional artform from southern India.
• Mascot: The Great Indian Bustard is a critically endangered species which has been
accorded the highest protection status under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
• India is temporary home to several migratory animals and birds; important among them
include Amur Falcons, Bar headed Geese, black necked cranes, Dugongs,
Humpbacked whales etc.
4. UNCBD: It was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and
entered into effect in 1993 + Secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada + It calls upon all nations
to take appropriate measures for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilization of
its benefits + It is a legally binding convention + 195 UN states and the European Union are
parties to the convention + All UN member states, with the exception of the United States,
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have ratified the treaty + India enacted Biological Diversity act, 2002 for giving effect to the
provisions of CBD (UPPCS Pre 2019, 2020) + Three main goals: Conservation of biological
diversity; Sustainable use of its components; and Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
from genetic resources.
o Cartagena protocol, 2000: The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the
potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.
(UPPCS Pre 2019)
o Nagoya protocol, 2010: On Access to Genetic resources and Fair and Equitable sharing
of benefits arising from their utilization + Entered into force in 2014 + It provides a
transparent legal framework for effective implementation of Fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising out of utilization of genetic resources.
o The Nagoya – Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress to the
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was ratified in the October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. The
Supplementary Protocol establishes international guidelines and practices for living
modified organisms (LMOs) accountability and remedies. (UPLDA 2010)
o Conference of Parties (COP-15): It commenced in Montreal, Canada on 7 December
2022. The two-weeklong conference (7-19 December 2022) was originally scheduled to
be held in Kunming, China in October but was shifted to Montreal, Canada due to covid
situation in China + The 14th meeting was held in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt (17-19
November 2018) + Parties to the CBD normally meet every two years.
o Kunming Declaration: It was adopted by over 100 countries at the ongoing 15th
Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity in
china. The adoption of the declaration will create momentum for a new global biodiversity
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(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
pact. It is not a binding international agreement. It calls for urgent and integrated action to
reflect biodiversity considerations in all sectors of the global economy

o Kunming Biodiversity Fund: China has also pledged to inject USD 233 million into a
new fund to protect biodiversity in developing countries. The fund is being referred to by
China as Kunming Biodiversity Fund.
5. UN Forum on Forests: Established by ECOSOC to promote the management, conservation, and
sustainable development of all types of forests + Universal membership, and is composed of all
Member States of the United Nations and specialized agencies + It is headquartered at New
York, United States.
IUCN: It is a membership union uniquely composed of both government and civil society
organizations + It is created in 1948, it is the global authority on the status of the natural world +
It is headquartered in Switzerland + IUCN Red List of threatened Species, is the world's most
comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species.
Endangered species are listed in Red Data Book. (UPPCS Pre 2013, M 2002)
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6. Global Tiger Forum: Only intergovernmental platform of tiger range countries which has been
consolidating Tiger Action Plans of the range countries + It formed in 1993 on recommendations
of an international symposium on Tiger Conservation + Headquartered in New Delhi + 13
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Tiger range countries consist of Malaysia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India,
Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
ai

7. Stockholm convention: Global treaty to protect human health and the environment from
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POPs + It entered into force in 2004 + India ratified in 2006 + GEF is interim financial
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mechanism + UNIDO is also responsible for supporting developing countries and countries with
2g

economies in transition to implement the Stockholm Convention.

• Objectives
02

g. Support the transition to safer alternatives.

h. Target additional POPs for action.
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i. Cleanup old stockpiles and equipment containing POPs.

j. Work together for a POPs-free future.
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8. Basel Convention (Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their

to

Disposal): International treaty designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between
nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed
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countries (LDCs) + It entered into force in 1992 + Haiti and the United States have signed the
Convention but not ratified it + It does not address movement of radioactive waste.
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9. Rotterdam convention: On Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous

Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade + Multilateral treaty promotes open exchange
of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include
directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans + Jointly
administered by FAO and UNEP.
10. Triple COP: Triple COPs meeting took place in Geneva, Switzerland, 2019 + They include Basel
convention (COP-14), Rotterdam convention (COP-9) and Stockholm convention (COP-9) +
Triple COPs convened under the theme “Clean Planet, Healthy people: Sound management of
chemicals and waste”.

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(Notes Code 1.4)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
International 1
Whaling commission: International body set up under International
Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) + It aims to provide for the proper
conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling
industry + 89 countries the membership of in IWC and all the member countries are signatories
to this convention + India is a member state of the IWC + Japan announced its withdrawal from
the International Whaling Commission (IWC) conservation body and it will resume commercial
whale hunting in its territorial waters and exclusive economic zones.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
1
CHAPTER-22
SCHEMES RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT
• Plastic Park scheme: Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers approved setting up of 10 Plastic Parks in the
country + They will be set up in the states of: Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand,
Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh + It is implemented by a Special purpose vehicle + Central Government
provides grant funding up to 50% of the project cost, subject to a ceiling of Rs. 40 crores per project.
• India cooling action plan: It was launched in 2019 by MoEF&CC + It provides a 20-year perspective and
outlines actions needed to provide access to sustainable cooling + Recognise “cooling and related areas” as
a thrust area of research under national Science and Technology Programme + Training and certification of
100,000 servicing sector technicians by 2022-23, synergizing with Skill India Mission.
• Climate Resilience Building Among Farmers Through Crop Residue Management: It is a regional
project approved under National adaptation fund for climate change (NAFCC) by MoEF&CC + The project
aims to mitigate climate change impacts and enhance adaptive capacity and counter adverse environmental
impacts arising from stubble burning +The first phase of the project was approved for Punjab, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan at cost of approximately Rs. 100 crores.
• Green Energy Corridor Project: The Government approved the second phase of the Green Energy
Corridor with an outlay of ₹12,031 crore to facilitate grid integration and power evacuation of about 20
GW of renewable energy projects in seven states + It aims at synchronizing electricity produced from
renewable sources, such as solar and wind, with conventional power stations in the grid .
• Nagar Van Scheme: It is implemented by MoEF&CC + It aims to develop Urban Forests across the
country + It emphasizes on people’s participation and collaboration between the Forest Department,
Municipal bodies, NGOs, Corporates and local citizens + The scheme is financed through CAMPA
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(Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016) funds

• Cheetah Task Force = It was constituted by MoEF&CC for a period of two years to monitor Cheetah
introduction in Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh, and other suitable designated areas.
• Urban Waterbody Information System (UWAIS) : The UWaIS portal has been launched by the Ministry
of Housing & Urban Affairs with help from National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad + It will provide
satellite images of water bodies to various cities to plan their rejuvenation. 219 cities have been handed
over UWaIS + The Ministry has also shortlisted 76 start-ups under the ‘India Water Pitch-Pilot-Scale Start-
Up Challenge’ + They will be provided financial support of up to ₹ 20 lakh each to work in the fields of
water supply, used water management, water body rejuvenation, etc.
• Jaldoot App: Developed by: Ministry of Rural Development + The app will help in identifying the ground
water level in selected villages + For this, app will enable Gram Rojgar Sahayak (GRS) to measure the
water level of selected wells twice a year (pre-monsoon and post-monsoon) + Data collected could be
utilised as part of the Gram Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP) and Mahatma Gandhi NREGA planning
exercises.
• Trees Outside Forests In India Initiative: It was launched by Ministry of Environment, Forest, and
Climate Change and US Agency for International Development (USAID) to: Enhance carbon sequestration,
Support local communities, Strengthen climate resilience of agriculture + It will be implemented in seven
states: Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Haryana, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and UP.
• Kritagya 3.0 : It is a national level hackathon to promote speed breeding for crop improvement to ensure
overall sustainability and resilience in crop production in India .It is organised by Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) with its National Agricultural Higher Education Project (NAHEP) and Crop
Science Division.
• Indian Virtual Herbarium (IVH) : IVH is a database of dried plants that maximizes the usefulness of the
collections + Apart from digital images, label data on each species include all information about the
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -
herbarium specimen such as family, genus, species 1
etc + Developed by: Botanical Survey of India (BSI) +
BSI, under Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, is apex taxonomic research organization
of the country.
• Green Energy Open Access Rules = Ministry of Power notified the rules + Objective is to accelerate our
renewable energy programmes.

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