BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

 Also called anatomy structure, architecture diagram of computer

 Structure diagram consists of input devices, processing units and
output devices.
 Computer also has system that makes computer to run smooth
 There are three units in building a computer

1. INPUT UNIT
 Used to receive data and instruction from users
 Converts the data and instructions to machine readable code.
 Common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner,
etc.

Functions of Input Unit

Accept - the data and instructions from outside world.

Convert - it to a form that the computer can understand.
Supply- the converted data to the computer system for further
processing
2. PROCESSING UNIT
 It is the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs actual processing of according to data instructions
from programs.
 Consists of three parts: Memory Unit, Control Unit And
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Memory Unit: Place where data and instructions are stored during
processing period. Popular memory are RAM and ROM.

Control unit: It controls the entire system of computer. It makes

proper sequence to direct the input data and instructions to
memory to ALU. It also controls signals to various parts of
computer. It also transfer result from ALU to memor7y and then to
output devices

Arithmetic Logic Unit: comprises number of register on its

constructions. All data from memory gets loaded in ALU. It
performs various arithmetic and logical operations of the programs

3. OUTPUT UNIT
 Computer provides information and results of computation to the
outside world through output unit.
 The output unit consists of one or more output devices.
 Some output devices are: Monitor, Printer, Speaker

Data Vs Information
DATA: Data are the raw bits and pieces of information with no context. If I
told you, “15, 23, 14, 85,” you would not have learned anything. But I would
have given you data. Data can be quantitative or qualitative.

 Quantitative data is numeric, the result of a measurement, count, or

some other mathematical calculation.
 Qualitative data is descriptive. “Ruby Red,” the color of a 2013 Ford
Focus, is an example of qualitative data.
 A number can be qualitative too: if I tell you my favorite number is 5,
that is qualitative data because it is descriptive, not the result of a
measurement or mathematical calculation.

INFORMATION: By itself, data is not that useful. To be useful, it needs to be

given context. Returning to the example above, if I told you that “15, 23, 14,
and 85″ are the numbers of students that had registered for upcoming
classes, which would be information. By adding the context – that the
numbers represent the count of students registering for specific classes – I
have converted data into information.

Once we have put our data into context, aggregated and analyzed it, we can
use it to make decisions for our organization. We can say that this
consumption of information produces knowledge. This knowledge can be
used to make decisions, set policies, and even spark innovation.
 Difference between Data and Information

Data Information

Data is unorganised and unrefined facts Information comprises processed,

organised data presented in a meaningful
context

Data is an individual unit that contains raw Information is a group of data that
materials which do not carry any specific collectively carries a logical meaning.
meaning.

Data doesn’t depend on information. Information depends on data.

Raw data alone is insufficient for decision Information is sufficient for decision
making making

An example of data is a student’s test score The average score of a class is the
information derived from the given data.

Operating Systems
An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing files,
processes, and memory. Thus operating system acts as the manager of all
the resources, i.e. resource manager. Thus, the operating system becomes
an interface between user and machine.

Types of Operating Systems: Some widely used operating systems are as

follows-

1. Batch Operating System – This type of operating system does not

interact with the computer directly. There is an operator which takes
similar jobs having the same requirement and groups them into
batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar
needs.

Advantages of Batch Operating System:

  It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job
to complete. Processors of the batch systems know how long the
job would be when it is in queue
 Multiple users can share the batch systems
 The idle time for the batch system is very less
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

 The computer operators should be well known with batch

systems
 Batch systems are hard to debug
 It is sometimes costly
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job
fails

Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank

Statements, etc.

2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems – Each task is given some time to

execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the time of
CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also known as
Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different
users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum.
After this time interval is over OS switches over to the next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

 Each task gets an equal opportunity

 Fewer chances of duplication of software

 CPU idle time can be reduced

Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:

 Reliability problem

 One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user
programs and data

 Data communication problem

Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, UNIX, etc.

3. Distributed Operating System – These types of the operating

system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology
 and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, with a
great pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers
communicate with each other using a shared communication network.
Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These
are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
These system’s processors differ in size and function.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all
systems are independent from each other
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and
durable
 Load on host computer reduces
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily
added to the network
 Delay in data processing reduces

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:

 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication

 To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not
well defined yet
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very
expensive. Not only that the underlying software is highly complex and
not understood well yet

Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS, etc.

4. Network Operating System – These systems run on a server and

provide the capability to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions. These types of operating
systems allow shared access of files, printers, security, applications,
and other networking functions over a small private network. One
more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the
users are well aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users
within the network, their individual connections, etc. and that’s why
these computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.

Advantages of Network Operating System:

 Highly stable centralized servers

 Security concerns are handled through servers

 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into
the system

 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of

systems

Disadvantages of Network Operating System:

 Servers are costly

 User has to depend on a central location for most operations

 Maintenance and updates are required regularly

Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows

Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X,
Novell NetWare, and BSD, etc.

5. Real-Time Operating System – These types of OSs serve real-time

systems. The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is
very small. This time interval is called response time.

Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are
very strict like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.

Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:

 Hard Real-Time Systems: These OSs are meant for applications

where time constraints are very strict and even the shortest possible
delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like
automatic parachutes or airbags which are required to be readily
available in case of any accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in
these systems.

 Soft Real-Time Systems: These OSs are for applications where for
time-constraint is less strict.

Advantages of RTOS:

 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system,

thus more output from all the resources

 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems
are very less. For example, in older systems, it takes about 10
microseconds in shifting one task to another, and in the latest systems,
it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less
importance to applications which are in the queue.

 Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the

size of programs is small, RTOS can also be used in embedded systems
like in transport and others.

 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.

 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these

types of systems.

Disadvantages of RTOS:

 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their
concentration is very less on few applications to avoid errors.

 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are

not so good and they are expensive as well.

 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult

for the designer to write on.

 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers

and interrupts signals to respond earliest to interrupts.

Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are: Scientific

experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems,
weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

Types of Computers
A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information.
It processes the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by
the user and gives the desired output. Computers are of various types
and they can be categorized in two ways on the basis of size and on the
basis of data handling capabilities.

So, on the basis of size, there are five types of computers:

1. Supercomputer

2. Mainframe computer

3. Minicomputer

4. PC (Personal Computer)
And on the basis of data handling capabilities, there are three types of
computer:

1. Analogue Computer

2. Digital Computer

3. Hybrid Computer

1. Supercomputer:

When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when
thinking of computers is supercomputers. They are the biggest and
fastest computers (in terms of speed of processing data). Supercomputers
are designed such that they can process a huge amount of data, like
processing trillions of instructions or data just in a second. This is because
of the thousands of interconnected processors in supercomputers. It is
basically used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear energy research. It was
first developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics of supercomputers:

 Supercomputers are the computers which are the fastest and they are
also very expensive.

 It is used in the stock market or big organizations for managing the

online currency world such as bitcoin etc.

 It is used in scientific research areas for analyzing data obtained from

exploring the solar system, satellites, etc.

2. Mainframe computer:

Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that it can support

hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. It also supports
multiple programs simultaneously. So, they can execute different
processes simultaneously. All these features make the mainframe
computer ideal for big organizations like banking, telecom sectors, etc.,
which process a high volume of data in general.

Characteristics of mainframe computers:

 It is also an expensive or costly computer.

 It has high storage capacity and great performance.

 It can process a huge amount of data (like data involved in the banking
sector) very quickly.

 It runs smoothly for a long time and has a long life.

3. Minicomputer:

Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer. In this type of

computer, there are two or more processors, and it supports 4 to 200
users at one time. Minicomputers are used in places like institutes or
departments for different work like billing, accounting, inventory
management etc. It is smaller than a mainframe computer but larger in
comparison to the microcomputer.

Characteristics of minicomputer:

 Its weight is low.

 Because of its low weight, it is easy to carry anywhere.

 less expensive than a mainframe computer.

 It is fast.

4. PC (Personal Computer):

It is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically a general-purpose

computer and designed for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor
as a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input unit, and output unit.
This kind of computer is suitable for personal work such as making an
assignment, watching a movie, or at office for office work, etc. For
example, Laptops and desktop computers.

Characteristics of PC (Personal Computer):

 In this limited number of software can be used.

 It is smallest in size.

 It is designed for personal use.

 It is easy to use.

5. Analogue Computer:

It is particularly designed to process analogue data. Continuous data that

changes continuously and cannot have discrete values is called analogue
data. So, an analogue computer is used where we don’t need exact values
or need approximate values such as speed, temperature, pressure etc. It
can directly accept the data from the measuring device without first
converting it into numbers and codes.

6. Digital Computer:

Digital computers are designed in such a way that it can easily perform
calculations and logical operations at high speed. It takes raw data as an
input and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the
final output. It only understands the binary input 0 and 1, so the raw input
data is converted to 0 and 1 by the computer and then it is processed by
the computer to produce the result or final output. All modern computers,
like laptops, desktops including smartphones are digital computers.

7. Hybrid Computer:

As the name suggests hybrid, which means made by combining two

different things. Similarly, the hybrid computer is a combination of both
analog and digital computers. Hybrid computers are fast like an analog
computer and have memory, and accuracy like a digital computer. So, it
has the ability to process both continuous and discrete data. A processor
which is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel
flow into quantity and price is an example of a hybrid computer.

Computer Languages
1. Low-Level Languages

Low-level computer languages are either machine codes or are very close
to them. A computer cannot understand instructions given to it in high-
level languages or in English. It can only understand and execute
instructions given in the form of machine language, i.e. binary. There are
two types of low-level languages:

 Machine Language: a language that is directly interpreted into the

hardware

 Assembly Language: a slightly more user-friendly language that

directly corresponds to machine language
 Machine Language- Machine language is the lowest and most elementary
level of programming language and was the first type of programming
language to be developed. Machine language is basically the only language a
computer can understand and is usually written in hex .
Advantages Disadvantages

Machine language makes fast and efficient All operation codes have to be
use of the computer. remembered

It requires no translator to translate the All memory addresses have to be

code. It is directly understood by the remembered.
computer.

It is hard to amend or find errors in a

program written in the machine
language.

Assembly Language- Assembly language was developed to overcome

some of the many inconveniences of machine language. This is another low-
level but very important language in which operation codes and operands
are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of 0’s and l’s.

Advantages Disadvantages

Assembly language is easier to Like machine language, it is also machine

understand and use as compared to dependent/specific.
machine language.

It is easy to locate and correct errors. Since it is machine dependent, the

programmer also needs to understand the
hardware.
It is easily modified.

2. High-Level Languages

High-level computer languages use formats that are similar to English. The purpose
of developing high-level languages was to enable people to write programs easily in
their own native language environment (English).

Advantages Disadvantages

High-level languages are user- A high-level language has to be translated into

friendly the machine language by a translator, which
takes up time

They are similar to English and The object code generated by a translator might
use English vocabulary and well- be inefficient compared to an equivalent
known symbols assembly language program

They are easier to learn

They are easier to maintain

Types of High-Level Languages

Many languages have been developed for achieving a variety of different

tasks. Some are fairly specialized, and others are quite general.

These languages, categorized according to their use, are:

1) Algebraic Formula-Type Processing

These languages are oriented towards the computational procedures for

solving mathematical and statistical problems.

Examples include:
  BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

 FORTRAN (Formula Translation)

 PL/I (Programming Language, Version 1)

2. Business Data Processing

These languages are best able to maintain data processing procedures and
problems involved in handling files. Some examples include:

 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)

 RPG (Report Program Generator)

3. String and List Processing

These are used for string manipulation, including search patterns and
inserting and deleting characters. Examples are:

 LISP (List Processing)

 Prolog (Program in Logic)

4. Object-Oriented Programming Language

In OOP, the computer program is divided into objects. Examples are:

 C++

 Java

Memory/Storage devices
Memory is the electronic holding place for the instructions and data a
computer needs to reach quickly. It's where information is stored for
immediate use. Memory is one of the basic functions of a computer, because
without it, a computer would not be able to function properly. Memory is also
used by a computer's operating system, hardware and software.

There are technically two types of computer memory: primary and

secondary.
 There are various units which are used to measure computer memory

 Bit - Smallest unit of computer memory

 Byte - 8 bit = 1 byte
 Kilobyte - 1024 byte = 1 kb
 Megabyte - 1024 kb = 1 mb
 Gigabyte - 1024 mb = 1 gb
 Terabyte - 1024 gb = 1 tb

1. Primary Memory: Primary memory also known as “main memory” or

“internal memory” which is located in the mother board of system or as we
say which is directly connected to the CPU. It is the place where only little bit
of data are stored either by manufacturer or by user. This is further divided
into two parts :-
I. RAM: RAM also known as “random access memory” it stores the data
which the user currently uses or as we say it stores the data temporary
in it. RAM needs power or electricity to work when the computer power
is turned off then all the data in it will be erased automatically. This is a
circuit which have its separate space or slot in motherboard. This allows
the computer to run the software faster.
RAM is further classified into two parts
SRAM: Known as Static RAM. The word “static” refers that the memory
retains its contents as long as the power is supplied so that’s why we
can say this is volatile in nature. SRAM does not need to be refreshed
periodically . SRAM is faster but more expensive than DRAM
 DRAM: Known as Dynamic RAM. It also contains data only when
electricity is available. DRAM needs to refreshed periodically due to this,
this RAM works slower than SRAM. Mainly general PC uses this RAM
because it is much cheaper than SRAM and requires less space
II. ROM: Known as “Read Only Memory” as the word refers mainly it can
only read the data which in stored in it. This memory is mainly used by
our computer when we just turn on our computer. It contains BIOS of
system. This is non-volatile in nature. Mainly there are three types of
ROM :-
PROM: Known as “programmable Read Only memory”. In this when the
data is stored then we have no right to change or alter any data to it. In
this the data is written by Manufacturer company, even you can also
purchase blank PROM chip but it can be programmed by special tool
such as PROM programmers. In general PC’s mainly PROM is used
because we don’t have to alter any data to it
EPROM: Known as “Erasable PROM” as the word refers “erasable”
means we can change or erase the data. So in EPROM we have right to
change the data. In this we can change the data with the help of ultra
violet rays. EPROM is much expensive than PROM
EEPROM: Known as “Electrically Erasable PROM” the type of ROM which
can be erased by electrical charges. EEPROM can be erased one byte at
anytime rather than erasing the entire chip by ultra violet rays
2. Secondary Memory: The place where we store our personal data in
computer system is known as SM. In this we store data so that when the data
is needed we can easily retrieve it. This is the fundamental component of
comp. system. It is non volatile in nature so that we cannot lose the data when
power supply is off. There are two methods for accessing the data from it :-
1. Sequential – This is the method in which we search the data sequentially or
line by line until you find the desired data. E.g.. Magnetic tape, etc.
2. Direct – This is the method in which computer can go directly to the
information that the user wants. e.g. magnetic disk, optical disk, etc